History of the origin of the Ukrainian language. Version

for fun

The Ukrainian language was created in 1794 on the basis of some features of the southern Russian dialects that still exist in the Rostov and Voronezh regions and are absolutely mutually intelligible with the Russian language that exists in Central Russia. It was created by a deliberate distortion of common Slavic phonetics, in which instead of the common Slavic "o" and "ѣ" they began to use the sound "i", "hv" instead of "f" for a comic effect, as well as by clogging the language with heterodox borrowings and deliberately invented neologisms.

In the first case, this was expressed in the fact that, for example, a horse, which sounds like a horse in Serbian, Bulgarian, and even in Lusatian, became known as kin in Ukrainian. The cat began to be called kit, and so that the cat was not confused with the whale, the whale began to be pronounced as kyt.

According to the second principle the stool became a pissal, the runny nose became undead, and the umbrella became a rose. Later, Soviet Ukrainian philologists replaced the rosehip with a parasol (from the French parasol), the Russian name was returned to the stool, since the stool did not sound very decent, and the runny nose remained undead. But during the years of independence, common Slavic and international words began to be replaced with artificially created, stylized as common lexemes. As a result, the midwife became a nub-cutter, the elevator became a pedestal, the mirror became a chandelier, the percentage became a hundred, and the gearbox became a screen of a perepihuntsiv.

As for the declension and conjugation systems, the latter were simply borrowed from the Church Slavonic language, which until the middle of the 18th century served as a common literary language for all Orthodox Slavs and even among the Vlachs, who later renamed themselves Romanian.

Initially, the scope of the future language was limited to everyday satirical works that ridiculed the illiterate chatter of marginal social strata.

Inventor of the Little Russian dialect Ivan Petrovich Kotlyarevsky

The first to synthesize the so-called Little Russian language, was a Poltava nobleman Ivan Kotlyarevsky. In 1794, for the sake of humor, Kotlyarevsky created a kind of padonkaff language, in which he wrote a playful transcription of " Aeneid» the greatest ancient Roman poet Publius Virgil Maron.

Kotlyarevsky's "Aeneid" in those days was perceived as macaronic poetry - a kind of comic poems created according to the principle formulated by the then Franco-Latin proverb " Qui nescit motos, forgere debet eos"- who does not know the words, must create them. This is how the words of the Little Russian dialect were created.

The inventor of the "Siberian language" Yaroslav Anatolyevich Zolotarev

The creation of artificial languages, as practice has shown, is available not only to philologists. So, in 2005, a Tomsk entrepreneur created the so-called Siberian language, “who is an idiot from the time of Velikovo Novgorod and has come down to our days in the dialects of the Siberian people”.

In this pseudo-language, on October 1, 2006, a whole Wikipedia section was even created, numbering more than five thousand pages and deleted on November 5, 2007. In terms of content, the project was a mouthpiece for politically active anti-fans of "This Country". As a result, every second SibWiki article was a non-illusory masterpiece of Russophobic trolling. For example: “After the Bolshevik coup, the Bolsheviks made out Central Siberia, and then completely pushed Siberia to Russia”. All this was accompanied by poems by the first poet of the Siberian dialect Zolotarev with speaking names "Moskal bastard" And "Moskalski you..dki". Using the rights of the administrator, Zolotarev rolled back any edits as written “in a foreign language.

If this activity had not been nipped in the bud, then right now we would have had a movement of Siberian separatists, suggesting to Siberians that they are a separate people, that Muscovites should not be fed (non-Siberian Russians were called that in this language), but oil should be traded independently and gas, for which it is necessary to establish an independent Siberian state under the patronage of America.

"Ukrov" was invented by Tadeusz Chatsky

The idea of creating a separate national language on the basis of the language invented by Kotlyarevsky was first picked up by the Poles - the former owners of the Ukrainian lands: Already a year after the appearance of Kotlyarevsky's Aeneid Jan Potocki urged to call the lands of Volynsh and Podolia, which recently became part of Russia, the word "Ukraine", and the people inhabiting them, not to be called Russians, but Ukrainians. Another Pole, Count Tadeusz Chatsky, deprived of estates after the second partition of Poland, in his essay "O nazwiku Ukrajnj i poczatku kozakow" became the inventor of the term Ukr". It was Chatsky who produced him from some unknown horde of “ancient ukrov”, who allegedly emerged from behind the Volga in the 7th century.

At the same time, the Polish intelligentsia began to attempt to codify the language invented by Kotlyarevsky. So, in 1818 in St. Petersburg Alexey Pavlovsky"Grammar of the Little Russian dialect" was published, but in Ukraine itself this book was received with hostility. Pavlovsky was scolded for the introduction of Polish words, they were called Lyakh, and in "Additions to the Grammar of the Little Russian dialect", published in 1822, he specifically wrote: "I swear to you that I am your fellow countryman". The main innovation of Pavlovsky was that he proposed to write "i" instead of "ѣ" in order to aggravate the differences between the South Russian and Central Russian dialects that had begun to blur.

But the biggest step in the propaganda of the so-called Ukrainian language was a major hoax associated with the artificially created image of Taras Shevchenko, who, being illiterate, actually did not write anything, and all his works were the fruit of mystifying work at first Evgenia Grebenki, and then Panteleimon Kulish.

The Austrian authorities considered the Russian population of Galicia as a natural counterbalance to the Poles. However, at the same time, they were afraid that the Russians would sooner or later want to join Russia. Therefore, the idea of Ukrainianness was the most convenient for them - an artificially created people could be opposed to both the Poles and the Russians.

The first who began to introduce the newly invented dialect into the minds of the Galicians was the Greek Catholic canon Ivan Mogilnitsky. Together with Metropolitan Levitsky, in 1816, with the support of the Austrian government, Mogilnitsky set about creating elementary schools with a "local language" in Eastern Galicia. True, Mogilnitsky slyly called the “local language” promoted by him Russian.

Assistance from the Austrian government to Mogilnitsky, the main theorist of Ukrainianism Grushevsky, which also existed on Austrian grants, justified it as follows:

"The Austrian government, in view of the deep enslavement of the Ukrainian population by the Polish gentry, sought ways to raise the latter in social and cultural terms."

A distinctive feature of the Galician-Russian revival is its complete loyalty and extreme servility towards the government, and the first work in the "local language" was a poem Markian Shashkevich in honor of Emperor Franz, on the occasion of his name day.

December 8, 1868 in Lvov under the auspices of the Austrian authorities was created All-Ukrainian partnership "Prosvita" named after Taras Shevchenko.

To get an idea of what the real Little Russian dialect was like in the 19th century, you can read an excerpt from the then Ukrainian text:

“Reading the harmonious text of the Word, it is not difficult to notice its poetic size; for this I tried not only to correct the text of the same in the internal part, but also in the external form, if possible, restore the original poetic warehouse of the Word.

Jews went further ukrov

The society set out to promote the Ukrainian language among the Russian population of Chervona Rus. In 1886 a member of the society Evgeny Zhelekhovsky invented Ukrainian writing without "b", "e" and "ѣ". In 1922, this Zhelihovka script became the basis for the Ukrainian alphabet of Radyan.

Through the efforts of society in the Russian gymnasiums of Lvov and Przemysl, teaching was transferred to the Ukrainian language invented by Kotlyaresky for the sake of humor, and the ideas of Ukrainian identity began to be instilled in the students of these gymnasiums. The graduates of these gymnasiums began to train teachers of public schools, who brought Ukrainianism to the masses. The result was not long in coming - before the collapse of Austria-Hungary, it was possible to grow several generations of the Ukrovochny population.

In 1885, Hebrew was recognized as the only language for teaching certain subjects at the Jerusalem Bible and Work School. In 1904, the Hilfsverein founded the Mutual Assistance Association of German Jews. Jerusalem's first teacher's seminary for teachers of Hebrew. Hebrewization of names and surnames was widely practiced. All Moses became Moses, Solomons became Shlomo. Hebrew was not just heavily promoted. Propaganda was reinforced by the fact that from 1923 to 1936, the so-called Gdut Meginei Khasafa (גדוד מגיני השפה) language defense units darted through British-mandated Palestine, who beat the faces of everyone who spoke not in Hebrew, but in Yiddish. Particularly stubborn muzzles were beaten to death. In Hebrew, borrowing words is not allowed. Not even a computer קאמפיוטער , A מחשב , the umbrella is not שירעם (from the German der Schirm), and מטריה but the midwife אַבסטאַטרישאַן , A מְיַלֶדֶת - almost like a Ukrainian navel cutter.

7 facts about the Ukrainian language that Ukrainians consider indisputable

(taken from the Ukrainian site 7dniv.info)

1. The oldest mention of the Ukrainian language dates back to 858. Slavic enlightener Konstantin (Kirill) Philosopher, describing his stay in the Crimean city of Khersones (Korsun) during a journey from Byzantium to the Khazars, notes that: "Chlovka yelling with a Russian conversation". And for the first time the Ukrainian language was equated to the level of the literary language at the end of the 18th century after the release in 1798 of the first edition of the Aeneid, the author of which is Ivan Kotlyarevsky. It is he who is considered the founder of the new Ukrainian literary language.

2. The oldest grammar in Ukraine called "Grammar of the good-verbal Hellenic-Slovenian language" was published by the Stavropegian printing house of the Lvov brotherhood in 1651.

3. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. the letters s, b, e, b have been dropped from the civil alphabet in Ukraine; letters and i were fixed by different sounds.

4. The Byzantine traveler and historian Priscus of Panius in 448, while in the camp of the Hun leader Attila, wrote down the words “honey” and “strava” on the territory of modern Ukraine, this is a mention of the very first Ukrainian words.

5. Spelling became the basis of the modern spelling system, applied by B. Grinchenko in the Dictionary of Ukrainian Language in 1907-1909.

6. The “most Ukrainian” letter, that is, not used in the alphabets of other peoples, is “g”. This breakthrough sound has been denoted in Ukrainian writing in various ways since at least the 14th century, and from 1619 the letter r in the Ukrainian alphabet traces its ancestry, which was first introduced as a variety of the Greek “gamma” in his Grammar by M. Smotrytsky.

7. “The most passive”, that is, the least used letter of the Ukrainian alphabet, is “f”.

“Language padonkaff” or “who does not know words must create them”

As you can see, the Ukrainians themselves admit that the current “Ridna Mova” was invented at the end of the 18th century. Ivan Kotlyarevsky, but they are silent about its playful creation by deliberately distorting common Slavic phonetics and clogging the language with heterodox borrowings and deliberately invented neologisms like pissal.

Modern ukrophilologists are also silent about the fact that Kotlyarevsky's Aeneid in the 18th century was perceived precisely as macaronic poetry - a kind of comic poetry. Now it is presented as an epic work of the Little Russians.

No one even stutters about why the letter “f” has become the least used in Ukrainian Newspeak. After all, Kotlyarevsky in the newly invented Little Russian language replaced the sound “f” with “hv” solely for comic effect.

Eh, Ivan Petrovich knew what crap he had invented ... However, he was horrified during his lifetime when he found out what his linguistic tricks had led to. The innocent joke of the Poltava nobleman became a terrible daydream.

Ukraine is preparing to switch to the Latin alphabet

Sergiy Mironovich Kvit

The Minister of Education and Science of Ukraine, a member of the Petro Poroshenko bloc and a member of the right-wing Ukrainian nationalist organization "Trident" named after S. Bandera, said in one of his private conversations that Ukraine would soon switch to Latin script. According to the minister, such a decision will lead to significant budget savings due to the fact that the interfaces of computers, mobile phones, smartphones and other equipment will not have to be modified to Cyrillic.

Also, the introduction of the Latin alphabet in Ukraine will greatly simplify the stay of foreign tourists in the country and make it more comfortable, and, therefore, will contribute to the influx of tourists from Northern Europe.

I must say that the project of switching to the Latin alphabet was proposed even under Yanukovych. The author of the bill was then a deputy with the characteristic surname Latynin.

cyrillic | Latin alphabet | pronunciation

a A a A [a]
b B b B [b]
in V v V [v]/[w]
g G gh Gh [γ]
ґ Ґ g G [g]
d D d D [d]
e E e E [e]
Є je Je / [‘e]
Zh Zh Zh [z]
z Z z Z [z]
and Y y Y [y]
i І i I [i]
ї Ї ji Ji
j J J [j]
k K k K [k]
l l l l [l]
m M m M [m]
n N n N [n]
o o o o [o]
p P p P [p]
R R r R [r]
c C s S [s]
t T t T [t]
u U u [u]
f f f F [f]
х Х kh Kh [x]
c c c c
h ch ch
sh sh sh [∫]

However, then this project was blocked by the communists. Now, when the communists were simply expelled from the Rada, no one will prevent the nationalists from abandoning everything national in favor of the “universal”. nevertheless, preparations for such a transition had been implicitly going on all previous years. So, on January 27, 2010, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine issued Resolution No. 55, in which it streamlined the rules for transliterating the Ukrainian alphabet in Latin, approving the transliteration table, and the corresponding guest was adopted on July 11, 1996. The official system of Ukrainian transliteration is based on political rather than scientific principles and is too closely tied to English spelling. The motivation for such a close link is the arguments that, firstly, if the English language in the modern globalized world is international, then all transliterations must be strictly subject to the rules of English spelling.

The Galician nationalists, still fed by the Austro-Hungarian General Staff, tried to write in Latin in Ukrainian. However, even the creator of the Ukrainian Latin alphabet, the so-called "abetsadlo", Iosif Lozinsky later revised his position and completely broke with the Ukrainophile movement. In 1859, the Czech Slavist Josef Irechek proposed his own version of the Ukrainian Latin alphabet, based on the Czech alphabet.

Overall rating of the material: 4.8

SIMILAR MATERIALS (BY MARKS):

Khokhol, kike, katsap, moskal and others In Ukraine or in Ukraine. Issue resolved a long time ago

The Russian and Ukrainian languages, which have common roots, at first glance seem very similar. But it's not. In fact, they have more differences than similarities.

One roots

As you know, Ukrainian and Russian belong to the same group of East Slavic languages. They share a common alphabet, similar grammar, and considerable lexical uniformity. However, the peculiarities of the development of the cultures of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples led to noticeable differences in their language systems.

The first differences between Russian and Ukrainian are already found in the alphabet. In the Ukrainian alphabet, which took shape at the end of the 19th century, unlike the Russian one, the letters Ёё, Ъъ, Yы, Еэ are not used, but there are Ґґ, Єє, Іі, Її, which are not in Russian.

As a result, the pronunciation of some sounds of the Ukrainian language, which is unusual for Russian. So, the letter “Ї”, which is absent in Russian, sounds approximately like “YI”, “Ch” is pronounced more firmly, as in Belarusian or Polish, and “G” conveys a guttural, fricative sound.

Close languages?

Modern studies show that the Ukrainian language is closer to other Slavic languages - Belarusian (29 common features), Czech and Slovak (23), Polish (22), Croatian and Bulgarian (21), and it has only 11 common features with the Russian language.

Some linguists, on the basis of these data, question the unification of the Russian and Ukrainian languages into one language group.

Statistics show that only 62% of words are common to Russian and Ukrainian. According to this indicator, the Russian language in relation to Ukrainian is only in fifth place after Polish, Czech, Slovak and Belarusian. For comparison, it can be noted that English and Dutch are 63% similar in lexical composition - that is, more than Russian and Ukrainian.

Divergence of paths

The differences between the Russian and Ukrainian languages are largely due to the peculiarities of the formation of the two nations. The Russian nation was centrally formed around Moscow, which led to the dilution of its vocabulary with Finno-Ugric and Turkic words. The Ukrainian nation was formed by uniting the South Russian ethnic groups, and therefore the Ukrainian language largely retained the Old Russian basis.

By the middle of the 16th century, the Ukrainian and Russian languages had significant differences.

But if the texts of that time in the Old Ukrainian language are generally understandable to a modern Ukrainian, then, for example, documents from the era of Ivan the Terrible are very difficult to “translate” by a resident of today's Russia.

Even more noticeable differences between the two languages began to appear with the beginning of the formation of the Russian literary language in the first half of the 18th century. The abundance of Church Slavonic words in the new Russian language made it incomprehensible to Ukrainians.

For example, let's take the Church Slavonic word "thank you" from which the well-known "thank you" arose. The Ukrainian language, on the contrary, retained the old Russian word "dakuyu", which now exists as "dakuyu".

From the end of the 18th century, the Ukrainian literary language began to form, which, being in line with the pan-European processes, gradually got rid of ties with the Russian language.

In particular, there is a rejection of Church Slavonicisms - instead, emphasis is placed on folk dialects, as well as borrowing words from other, primarily Eastern European languages.

To what extent the vocabulary of the modern Ukrainian language is close to a number of Eastern European languages and far from Russian, the following table can clearly show:

An important feature of the Ukrainian language is its dialectical diversity. This is a consequence of the fact that certain regions of Western Ukraine are part of other states - Austria-Hungary, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia. Thus, the speech of a resident of the Ivano-Frankivsk region is far from always understandable to a person from Kiev, while a Muscovite and a Siberian speak the same language.

Game of meanings

Despite the fact that there are a lot of common words in Russian and Ukrainian languages, and even more words similar in sound and spelling, they often have different semantic shades.

Let's take, for example, the Russian word "other" and the related Ukrainian word "inshiy". If these words are similar in sound and spelling, then their meaning has noticeable differences.

A more accurate correspondence to the Ukrainian word "inshiy" in Russian would be "other" - it is somewhat more formal and does not carry such emotional and artistic expressiveness as the word "other".

Another word - "sorry" - in both languages is identical in spelling and pronunciation, but differs in semantic meaning. In Russian, it exists as a predicative adverb. Its main task is to express regret about something, or pity for someone.

In Ukrainian, used as an adverb, the word "sorry" has a similar meaning. However, it can also be a noun, and then its semantic shades are noticeably enriched, becoming consonant with such words as sorrow, bitterness, pain. “Oh, it’s a pity that the hardship has come all over Ukraine.” In this context, this word is not used in Russian.

Western style

You can often hear from foreign students that the Ukrainian language is more close to European languages than Russian. It has long been noticed that translation from French or English into Ukrainian is in some respects easier and more convenient than into Russian.

It's all about certain grammatical constructions. Linguists have such a joke: in European languages “the priest had a dog” and only in Russian “the priest had a dog”. Indeed, in the Ukrainian language in such cases, along with the verb "is", the verb "to have" is used. For example, the English phrase "I have a younger brother" in Ukrainian can sound both like "I have a younger brother" and like "I have a younger brother."

The Ukrainian language, unlike Russian, adopted modal verbs from European languages. So, in the phrase “I may tse zrobiti” (“I must do this”), modality is used in the sense of obligation, as in English - “I have to do it”. In Russian, this function of the verb "to have" has long disappeared from use.

Another indicator of the difference in grammar is that the Russian verb “wait” is transitive, while the Ukrainian “chekati” is not, and, as a result, it is not used without a preposition: “I check on you” (“waiting for you”). For comparison, in English - "waiting for you".

However, there are cases when borrowings from European languages are used in Russian, but they are not in Ukrainian. So, the names of the months in Russian are a kind of tracing paper from Latin: for example, March - martii (Latin), März (German), march (English), mars (French). The Ukrainian language here has retained its connection with the Slavic vocabulary - "birch".

The inventor of the Little Russian dialect Ivan Petrovich Kotlyarevsky (August 29 (September 9), 1769, Poltava - October 29 (November 10), 1838, Poltava).

According to the second principle, the stool became a pissal, the runny nose became undead, and the umbrella became a rose. Later, Soviet Ukrainian philologists replaced the rosehip with a parasol (from the French parasol), the Russian name was returned to the stool, since the stool did not sound very decent, and the runny nose remained undead. But during the years of independence, common Slavic and international words began to be replaced with artificially created, stylized as common lexemes. As a result, the midwife became a nub-cutter, the elevator became a pedestal, the mirror became a chandelier, the percentage became a hundred, and the gearbox became a screen of a perepihuntsiv.

Initially, the scope of the future language was limited to everyday satirical works that ridiculed the illiterate chatter of marginal social strata. The first to synthesize the so-called Little Russian language was the Poltava nobleman Ivan Kotlyarevsky. In 1794, for the sake of humor, Kotlyarevsky created a kind of padonkaff language, in which he wrote a playful transcription of the Aeneid by the greatest ancient Roman poet Publius Virgil Maron.

Kotlyarevsky's "Aeneid" in those days was perceived as macaronic poetry - a kind of comic poetry created according to the principle formulated by the then Franco-Latin proverb "Qui nescit motos, forgere debet eos" - who does not know words should create them. This is how the words of the Little Russian dialect were created.

The creation of artificial languages, as practice has shown, is available not only to philologists. So, in 2005, the Tomsk businessman Yaroslav Zolotarev created the so-called Siberian language, “which is an idiot from the time of Velikovo Novgorod and has come down to our days in the dialects of the Siberian people.” In this pseudo-language, on October 1, 2006, a whole Wikipedia section was even created, numbering more than five thousand pages and deleted on November 5, 2007. In terms of content, the project was a mouthpiece for politically active anti-fans of "This Country". As a result, every second SibWiki article was a non-illusory masterpiece of Russophobic trolling. For example: "After the Bolshevik coup, the Bolsheviks made out Central Siberia, and then completely pushed Siberia to Russia." All this was accompanied by poems by the first poet of the Siberian dialect, Zolotarev, with the telling names "Moskal's bastard" and "Moskal's vy..dki." Using the rights of the administrator, Zolotarev rolled back any edits as written “in a foreign language.

The idea of creating a separate national language on the basis of the language invented by Kotlyarevsky was first picked up by the Poles - the former owners of Ukrainian lands: A year after the appearance of Kotlyarevsky's Aeneid, Jan Pototsky called for calling the lands of Volynsh and Podolia, which had recently become part of Russia, the word "Ukraine", and the people inhabiting them should not be called Russians, but Ukrainians. Another Pole, Count Tadeusz Chatsky, deprived of his estates after the second partition of Poland, in his essay “O nazwiku Ukrajnj i poczatku kozakow” became the inventor of the term “Ukr”. It was Chatsky who produced him from some unknown horde of “ancient ukrov”, who allegedly emerged from behind the Volga in the 7th century.

At the same time, the Polish intelligentsia began to attempt to codify the language invented by Kotlyarevsky. So, in 1818 in St. Petersburg Alexei Pavlovsky published "Grammar of the Little Russian dialect", but in Ukraine itself this book was received with hostility. Pavlovsky was scolded for the introduction of Polish words, they called him a Pole, and in "Additions to the Grammar of the Little Russian Dialect", published in 1822, he specifically wrote: "I am afraid of you that I am your united earthman." The main innovation of Pavlovsky was that he proposed to write "i" instead of "ѣ" in order to aggravate the differences between the South Russian and Central Russian dialects that had begun to blur.

But the biggest step in the propaganda of the so-called Ukrainian language was a major hoax associated with the artificially created image of Taras Shevchenko, who, being illiterate, actually did not write anything, and all his works were the fruit of mystifying work, first by Yevgeny Hrebyonka, and then by Panteleimon Kulish .

The first who began to introduce the newly invented dialect into the minds of the Galicians was the Greek Catholic canon Ivan Mogilnitsky. Together with Metropolitan Levitsky, in 1816, with the support of the Austrian government, Mogilnitsky set about creating elementary schools with a "local language" in Eastern Galicia. True, Mogilnitsky slyly called the “local language” promoted by him Russian. The help of the Austrian government to Mogilnitsky, the main theoretician of Ukrainianism Grushevsky, who also existed on Austrian grants, justified this: “The Austrian government, in view of the deep enslavement of the Ukrainian population by the Polish gentry, sought ways to raise the latter in social and cultural terms.” A distinctive feature of the Galician-Russian revival is its complete loyalty and extreme servility towards the government, and the first work in the "local language" was a poem by Markiyan Shashkevich in honor of Emperor Franz, on the occasion of his name day.

On December 8, 1868, in Lvov, under the auspices of the Austrian authorities, the All-Ukrainian Association "Prosvita" named after Taras Shevchenko was created.

To get an idea of what the real Little Russian dialect was like in the 19th century, you can read an excerpt from the then Ukrainian text: “Reading the harmonious text of the Word, it is not difficult to notice its poetic size; for this I tried not only to correct the text of the same in the internal part, but also in the external form, if possible, restore the original poetic warehouse of the Word.

The society set out to promote the Ukrainian language among the Russian population of Chervona Rus. In 1886, a member of the society, Yevgeny Zhelekhovsky, invented Ukrainian writing without "b", "e" and "ѣ". In 1922, this Zhelihovka script became the basis for the Ukrainian alphabet of Radyan.

This process took place before the eyes of the Galician Jews, and the experience of Austria-Hungary was successfully used by them: a similar process of artificial introduction of an artificial language was carried out by the Zionists in Palestine. There, the bulk of the population was forced to speak Hebrew, a language invented by Luzhkov's Jew Lazar Perelman (better known as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Heb. In 1885, Hebrew was recognized as the only language for teaching certain subjects at the Jerusalem Bible and Work School. In 1904, the Hilfsverein founded the Mutual Assistance Association of German Jews. Jerusalem's first teacher's seminary for teachers of Hebrew. Hebrewization of names and surnames was widely practiced. All Moses became Moses, Solomons became Shlomo. Hebrew was not just heavily promoted. Propaganda was reinforced by the fact that from 1923 to 1936, the so-called Gdut Meginei Khasafa (גדוד מגיני השפה) language defense units darted through British-mandated Palestine, who beat the faces of everyone who spoke not in Hebrew, but in Yiddish. Particularly stubborn muzzles were beaten to death. In Hebrew, borrowing words is not allowed. Even the computer in it is not קאמפיוטער, but מחשב, the umbrella is not שירעם (from the German der Schirm), but מטריה, and the midwife is not אַבסטאַטרישאַן, but מְי ַלֶדֶת - almost like a Ukrainian navel cutter.

P.S. from Mastodon. Someone "P.S.V. commentator", a Ukrofascist, a Konto member, was offended at me because yesterday I published in Conte a humoresque "A hare went out for a walk ...", in which N. Khrushchev, in his desire to get rid of the difficulties of Russian grammar by eliminating it, is compared with one of the inventors of the Ukrainian language P. Kulesh (he created the illiterate "Kuleshovka" as one of the original written versions of ukromova). Really offended. The creation of Ukromova is a serious collective work that ended in success. Svidomo should be proud of such work.

- this is one of the East Slavic languages, closely related to the languages; all three languages use the Cyrillic alphabet. At the time of the baptism of Rus' (the East Slavic lands that stretched from the southern part of Kyiv to the northern part of Novgorod) in 988, the East Slavic dialects were relatively unity with minor differences depending on the region. The differences that currently separate these three languages were not the result of just linguistic changes; an important role in this was played by events of a political nature, mainly taking place in the form of invasions of the lands of non-Slavs and the seizure of territory by other Slavs.

Mongol-Tatar yoke

The first devastating event of this kind was the protracted invasion and destruction of Kiev by the Tatars in 1240. The immediate consequence of this was the collapse of the state, the formation of small principalities and, accordingly, the disruption of the continuous linguistic development, which until then was concentrated in Kiev. The rule of the Tatars did not have a long-term effect on the development of local dialects, apart from the borrowing of some words characteristic of the Tatar culture.

Polish-Lithuanian rule

The final overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Kievan Rus left behind an anarchy, the place of which in the XV century. occupied by the Polish-Lithuanian state (mostly still Polish). The historical development of this period differed significantly from the Tatar period, since the Polish language became truly the lingua franca in the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands: Polish culture penetrated deeply into the daily life of these regions, as a result of which the Polish language became widespread. The consequences of this for the further development of the Ukrainian (and Belarusian) language are becoming apparent in our time, since a significant part of the vocabulary of the Ukrainian language is borrowed from the Polish language. Thus, the lexical composition is one of those elements that most of all distinguishes the modern Ukrainian language from Russian. Of course, there are also significant phonological and morphological differences, but they are the result of a gradual linguistic development and are not as clearly visible at first glance as the absolute quantitative superiority of more than one thousand Polish lexemes. It was from this period that the formation of the Ukrainian language began in the form in which we know it today; and as a result of lexical transformations that took place in the Ukrainian-Belarusian lands, the modern Ukrainian language is closer to the Belarusian language than to Russian.

Russian rule

Polish hegemony continued until the middle of the 17th century, after which most of the territories that today are part of Ukraine passed to the Russian Empire. After a brief period of independence following the October Revolution of 1917, Ukraine became part of the Soviet Union. This period, which ended in 1991, had about the same linguistic impact as the Polish period (on Belarusian and Ukrainian): Russian-Ukrainian bilingualism, political life and education with an emphasis on Russian led to the widespread use of Russian lexemes in Ukrainian language. The share of Russianisms was the highest, of course, in the press (as printed organs of the state), in the language of government and politics.
The issues of the interaction of Polish and Russian vocabulary with the original Ukrainian vocabulary, as well as the changes that are taking place in the Ukrainian language at the present time, will be considered in more detail below.

Modern Ukrainian language.

The process of development of the linguistic component, which we call "lexical composition", was briefly described in the previous paragraphs, but what about the modern language? Although the Polish and Russian periods can be equated to each other, given the widespread use/borrowing of lexemes from these languages, there is a significant difference between them. In the 17th century there was no such thing as a "literary (standard) language", there were no grammars, rules, mass media. Consequently, most of the lexemes borrowed from the Polish language remained in the Ukrainian language - Polish words became Ukrainian. They were used first in colloquial speech, and then in writing. When we say “dakaya” today, we do not think about the fact that this is a borrowing from the Polish language (Pol. dziękuję). No attempts were made to purify the Ukrainian language from Polish borrowings, because at that time the development of the language was not something planned. Nowadays Ukrainian is the state language. It is the language of a country that defines its identity after centuries of being part of another country. Therefore, in the process of Ukrainization, the introduction of the Ukrainian language into use as the language of education, commerce and state, the unspoken question may arise: "What is the Ukrainian language?". Some native speakers, describing the active use of the Ukrainian language in their experience, say that from time to time they make a conscious decision which lexeme to use: if a word supposedly borrowed from Russian is used in Ukrainian (for example, "spir" (Russian dispute ), but there is a native Ukrainian equivalent (in this case, "super"), they will choose the latter. Of course, Ukrainians, for whom Russian is the first language, are likely to choose the first option.

It takes many years to resolve issues of this kind. Single lexemes of Russian origin may remain in the language or disappear. And most likely, most of them will remain simply because (i) there are a large number of them and they have been used for many years, and (ii) because it is sometimes difficult to understand whether a word is a Russian borrowing or simply has East Slavic roots. The latter refers to the word "spir" because: (i) this word occurs already in the 15th century. (in the form "argue"), despite some semantic difference from the modern word; and (ii) this word reflects the o-i vowel alternation in a closed syllable. If this word were a recent borrowing, it would hardly reflect this feature. The 1997 English-Ukrainian Dictionary offers two equivalents for the English word "argument" - "super" and "spir". However, in the spelling dictionary of 1997, the last option is missing. Subsequent grammars and dictionaries offer us "officially accepted" words in the lexical composition of the Ukrainian language. But, as always, the use of one or another lexeme in colloquial speech or in writing is the choice of everyone.

There are a huge number of variations in the Ukrainian language. In grammatical terms, this is manifested in the existence of alternative forms of endings for nouns. The pronunciation of Ukrainian words may also differ depending on the region and the individual characteristics of the native speaker. Also, pronunciation features may be associated with the influence of the Russian language (for example, there may be two options for pronouncing the name of the city "Lviv" - or; the last option reflects the influence of the Russian language - Rus. Lvov). In the lexical composition, changes occur most rapidly. Until 1991, Russian was the main source of borrowings. At present, given the attempts of a rapid transition to a market economy, English terminology from the sphere of business and advertising is often found in the media. Whether new lexemes will remain in the Ukrainian language, we will see later, and it depends on the success of the market economy in the long run. Most likely, English computer terminology will definitely be preserved, given the ever-increasing widespread use of computer technology.

An important role in the development of a living spoken language is played by the language of youth: as Ukraine opens up to the West, the younger generation actively borrows and adopts Western (mainly English-speaking) mass culture. English-language study programs are available in the major cities of the country, and those who study the language are - predominantly, but not exclusively - representatives of the younger generation.

The effect that all these factors will have on the Ukrainian language in the future can only be assumed. In this context, it is worth remembering, which has been heavily influenced by English-speaking culture since the 1950s. An English speaker who flips through German magazines, watches German TV channels (especially commercials) and talks to young people will be shocked by the number of English lexemes that are constantly used. Very often, such words are no longer used as cultural markers or as a tribute to fashion - this is a clear indication that English words are being transformed into German words (in other words, they become real borrowings). In Ukraine, English is rapidly replacing Russian as the language of international communication. This development of the language, along with the use of Americanisms/Anglicisms as markers of mass culture, will eventually have a significant impact on at least the lexical composition of the Ukrainian language. In the coming years, new dictionaries of the Ukrainian language will reflect these changes.