Forum architecture of ancient China. China: architecture

Another cradle of the most ancient civilization can be considered China, where already in the III millennium BC there was a developed culture, in which architecture and art played an important role.

The development of ancient Chinese architecture can be divided into several time periods - periods of dynasties:

• Shang dynasty(about 1300 BC) - during this period there is a flourishing of culture against the backdrop of the emergence of many new types of art.
• Zhou dynasty(from the end of the II millennium BC to the III century BC) - culture and art reach their highest rise. Glorious moments of the historical past are depicted in the works of art of this period. At the same time, artists and sculptors often turn to nature in search of a new source of inspiration.
• Han dynasty(from 206 BC to 220 AD) - during this period, the scattered lands are united, due to which the borders of the empire are expanding. At the same time, a peculiar Chinese worldview was being formed, the foundations of which have survived to this day almost unchanged. During the reign of the Han Dynasty, all the attention of the creators was focused on the truthful depiction of the surrounding reality.

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese empire was tormented by internecine wars for several centuries, until a new unification of the country took place in the 6th century AD.

The Chinese are waging wars of conquest in many countries, influencing the culture of other peoples. But at the same time, local traditions also penetrate Chinese cultural foundations. So, Buddhism comes from India, and with it new types of structures appear. Among them are the famous pagodas built of natural stone or, and rising up in several tiers, as well as cave temples carved into the rock.

And although Chinese architecture was influenced by the traditions of architecture of other peoples, it nevertheless developed in its own way. In ancient China, monasteries and temples were built, as well as entire palace ensembles for rulers and luxurious houses for nobles and nobility.

Among the most common building and finishing materials of that period are the following:

• natural
• Bamboo
• Cane
• Terracotta
• Faience

Under the influence of the appearance of buildings made of bamboo, some architectural structures took on a peculiar form. For example, the corners of the roof were raised, and the roof itself turned out to be slightly bent.

At the beginning of our era, new large cities were built, in the architectural appearance of which palaces again play an important role, which were entire large-scale complexes with competently arranged entrance gates, elegant pavilions and luxurious pools. The entire territory of the palace complex was competently decorated in the best traditions of that period.

Since ancient times, the worldview of the Chinese has been characterized by love for nature in all its manifestations. They are very sensitive to the natural environment as an important part of the living space. This feature is manifested in the temples, which are combined into symmetrical complexes, surrounded by well-maintained garden and park ensembles. In the immediate vicinity you can find individual buildings of pagodas.

Chinese masters have been famous for their building art since ancient times. Therefore, in the history of architecture of ancient China, many hydraulic structures, dams and canals have been preserved.

But the most famous technical structure is considered to be the one that protected the country from attacks by nomadic tribes. This is a well-thought-out fortification fortification, which for many centuries was considered almost impregnable.

The identity of China's architecture

The architecture of China has a number of traditional features inherent only to it, and the nature of decoration makes it possible to recognize Chinese buildings all over the world.

Most of the buildings of Ancient China were built of wood, which was typical for residential buildings and for the imperial palace. The construction consisted of wooden pillars, which were connected to each other by beams, which in turn served as the foundation of the building, and the roof, covered with tiles, completed the construction. The openings were filled with bamboo, clay, bricks.

One of the first to use the "flow method" in architecture was the ancient Chinese. The peculiarity of the method was that, based on the standard size of the structure, it was possible to accurately determine the size of its remaining parts, which allowed builders to manufacture separately from the general structure of the building, and then assemble the parts on site. This method of construction allowed Chinese builders to significantly reduce the time for building a building.

Remark 1

Examples of this are the Forbidden City in Beijing - the imperial residence, 720 thousand square meters of which were built in just 13 years, while it took about three decades to erect the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

Possessing flexibility and elasticity, wooden buildings, unlike stone ones, were more resistant to earthquakes. However, for many advantages, wooden structures turned out to be relatively short-lived and fire hazardous. Many architectural monuments were damaged or not preserved at all as a result of lightning strikes or fires.

The architecture of China is distinguished by its bright originality. Its main principles and style developed in the third century BC. Like other countries of the East, it is characterized by adherence to once found and fixed by tradition forms, known for conservatism.

Buildings in China could be periodically rebuilt, accurately reproducing the forms of the previous structure. The main material for construction was wood. Although China is a large country with diverse climatic zones, various building materials may have been used in different regions. Pile structures were typical for the humid southern regions, while brick was common in the north. It depended on the purpose of the building (pagodas were built of stone), as well as on the social status of the owner. The emperor in China was elevated to the rank of a deity, and secular power was endowed with great power. Unlike India, temple buildings were rare in Chinese architecture.

Traditional Chinese structures are post-and-beam structures with wooden infill. The wall is a partition of insignificant thickness and does not carry a tectonic load. Despite the presence of a post-and-beam frame, revealed in the external forms of the structure, Chinese architecture is atectonical: traditional Chinese palaces and temples are characterized by high roofs with a strong overhang. But this is precisely one of the main features of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of its most attractive features.

Such forms of the roof are associated with a love for the decorative interpretation of forms, as well as with climatic conditions - an abundance of rain. The buildings were distinguished by a picturesque bizarre silhouette, with roofs arranged in several tiers. For pagodas, this was a characteristic feature. In secular buildings, several tiers of roofs spoke of the high social position of their owner.

Remark 2

The architecture of Ancient China is characterized by color combined with decorative elements.

The architectural forms are dynamic, the dougongs echo the silhouettes of the roofs. Picturesque and sculptural images of dragons were considered symbols of renewal, the protector of Chinese land and imperial power. The masters of China loved figurativeness, similitude and comparison, which is also characteristic of the art of other peoples of the East. So, the shape of the roof can be compared with the spread wings of a flying crane. At the same time, the natural motif is exposed to a frankly decorative interpretation.

The transition from beams to roofing was carried out with the help of a complex system of carved brackets arranged in several tiers - dougong, which are an important and original element of traditional Chinese architecture. Light, openwork also removed the feeling of heaviness of the architectural masses, the pressure of the ceilings. Dougongs, brightly colored and covered with carvings, performed not only a constructive, but also a purely decorative function (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Architectural painting of He Xi in the Forbidden City. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Basically, the structure of Chinese buildings is extremely simple. As a rule, this is a regular-shaped quadrilateral with beam ceilings. From individual cells of this type, more complex structures were formed. They could be supplemented by external porticoes. Along with the form of the roof mentioned above, they contributed to the connection of buildings with the natural environment. This relationship, as well as the significant role of space in the architectural image, is an important component of the style of Chinese architecture.

In the palace ensemble, vast free spaces create an atmosphere of solemnity, their paved surfaces contrast with elegant palace buildings. The most significant buildings are distinguished by their scale and the shape of the roofs (two-tier four-pitched roofs, which were supposed to be only for the most important buildings). The main chambers of the Gugong palace complex (Fig. 2) are the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Complete Harmony and the Hall of Preservation of Harmony.

Figure 2. The Forbidden City in Beijing (Gugong). Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Architectural sights of China

The richness and unique style of architectural structures in China is very diverse, among them:

• palace architecture(Forbidden City, Mountain refuge from the summer heat)
• Temples and altars(Temple of Heaven, Temple of Heaven, Altar of Earth and Cereals, Residence of Heavenly Masters, Longmen Cave Temples, Fengxian Cave Temples, Mogao Caves, Yungang, Putozongcheng, Nanyue Damiao, Palace of Supreme Purity, Daqin Pagoda, Baochu Pagoda, True Unity Temple, Six Pagoda Harmonium, Porcelain Pagoda, Iron Pagoda, Tianning Temple).
• Memorial buildings(Temple of Confucius, Temple of Baogong, Pailou, Steles (on a turtle pedestal)
• tombs(Ming Dynasty Tombs, Hanging Coffins, Ming Changling Tomb, Qin Shi Huang Tomb)
• Bridges(Anji Bridge, Lugou Bridge, Baodai Bridge, curved bridges "moon bridge")
• Fortifications(The Great Wall of China, City Walls - Beijing (demolished), Nanjing (partially preserved), Wanping Fortress in Beijing)
• residential buildings(Siheyuan residential complex, serf-type residential complexes - tulou (Fujian), fortified mansions of diaolou (Guangdong), a typical peasant house of northern China - fanza, heated bench - kang).

| ancient chinese architecture

ancient chinese architecture

Among the numerous and diverse cultural monuments of China, ancient Chinese architecture occupies a very important place. Outstanding examples of ancient Chinese architecture such as palace "Gugong", Sky Temple", yiheyuan park in Beijing, ancient the city of Lijiang in Yunnan Province, ancient living quarters in the southern part of Anhui Province and others have already entered the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List.

Kinds ancient chinese buildings very diverse: these are palaces, and temples, and garden structures, and graves, and dwellings. In their external appearance, these structures are either solemn and magnificent, or elegant, refined and dynamic. Nevertheless, they have a characteristic feature that somehow brings them closer to each other - these are the building ideas and aesthetic aspirations that are unique to the Chinese nation.

In ancient China, the most typical house design was considered frame-pillar using wood for this. Wooden poles were installed on an adobe platform, on which longitudinal transverse beams were attached, and on them - a roof covered with tiles.

In China, they say that "the wall of the house may collapse, but the house will not collapse." This is due to the fact that the weight of the house is supported by the pillars, not the wall. Such a frame system not only allowed Chinese architects to freely design the walls of the house, but also helped to prevent the destruction of the house during earthquakes. For example, in the northern province of China, Shanxi, there is a Buddhist temple over 60 meters high, the frame of which was wooden. This pagoda is more than 900 years old, but it is very well preserved until today.

Other feature of Chinese ancient architecture- this is the integrity of the composition, i.e. an ensemble of many houses is immediately created. In China, it is not customary to build free-standing buildings: be it palace buildings or private premises, they are always overgrown with additional buildings.

However, structures in an architectural ensemble are not necessarily placed symmetrically. For example, buildings in the mountainous regions of China or the premises of a landscape gardening complex sometimes deliberately allow violations of the symmetrical shape in order to create a richer variety of building compositions. The pursuit of such a variety of forms during the construction of houses led not only to the creation of a single building style in Chinese ancient architecture, but also demonstrated its diversity at the same time.

The ancient architectural structures of China also have another striking character: they are subjected to artistic development, giving them a specific decorative effect. For example, the roofs of houses were not even, but always concave. And in order to give the building a certain mood, the builders usually carved various animals and plants on the beams and cornices. Similar patterns were applied to engraved and wooden pillars of rooms, windows and doors.

In addition, ancient Chinese architecture is characterized by the use of paints. Usually the roofs of the palace were torn with yellow glazed tiles, the cornices were painted blue-green, the walls, pillars and courtyards red, the rooms were lined with white and dark marble platforms that sparkled under the blue sky. The combination of yellow, red and green colors with white and black in the decoration of houses not only emphasizes the majesty of the buildings, but also pleases the eye.

Compared to palaces, living quarters in southern China are very modest. The houses are covered with dark gray tiled roofs, their walls are covered with white flowers, and their wooden frames are in dark coffee color. Bamboo and bananas grow around the houses. Similar premises still exist in the southern provinces of Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and others.

“Chinese architecture followed a different path than European. Its main tendency is to find harmony with nature. In many cases, the search was successful. And success was achieved because the architect was inspired by a branch of a wild plum, which first turned into a dynamic feature of a hieroglyph, and then transformed into lines and forms of architecture” - Lin Yutang: “The Chinese: my country and my people.”

Chinese traditional architecture is inseparable from modernity: no matter how strong the creative impulse of the architect is, the distinctive features of Chinese antiquity are preserved even in the most seemingly uncharacteristic building for China. In this article, we will talk about eight traditional elements of Chinese architecture that significantly distinguish it from Western ones.

"Horse head"

"Horse head" - a distinctive element of the architecture of the city of Huizhou (Guangdong Province) in southern China. This design, often located on rooftops in densely populated areas, prevents fires, since the multi-stage "horse heads" isolate the fire, preventing the fire from reaching neighboring houses. For such a useful function, the “horse head” is also called the “fire wall”.

closed yard

Probably, the courtyard is the main exponent of Chinese thousand-year-old architecture. The special form of the courtyard, which is a closed square or rectangle, is installed and filled in accordance with the traditions of Chinese Feng Shui geomancy. A fountain, an arbor, a garden - all links of the Chinese closed courtyard create a miniature of the world for the owner, so appreciated in every home. Trying to absorb all the diversity of the surrounding nature, the courtyard at the same time closes the Chinese house from adversity, representing a dialectical vision of the Chinese world.

Floral openwork windows

It is believed that empty walls are unfortunate, so we can often see how a Chinese house is riddled with flowery openwork windows of bizarre patterns that let light into the closed Chinese courtyard and at the same time ventilate it. Patterns can be devoted to free themes, but most often they depict flowers, phoenixes and unicorns - holy mythical creatures promising longevity and wisdom, or famous scenes from the original Chinese theater.

red gate

An integral part of any wealthy Chinese home are purple gates - the colors of the so-called Chinese cinnabar. Red - the color of happiness - speaks of the noble and noble origin of the family that owns this house. Also, the gates of almost every temple - be it Confucian, Taoist, Buddhist or Christian - are painted with Chinese cinnabar.

Wood, brick and stone carving

The pride of another southeastern city, although with the same name Huizhou (Anhui Province), are the "three carving arts" that have been preserved in people's memory since ancient times. Adding new patterns to brocade, or multiplying the beauty - it is the skillful carving of wood, brick and stone that embodies this famous Chinese idiom. Organically incorporated into structures, the exquisitely carved figures and statues are created over many years, gradually embellished with new curves like patterned brocade.

sloping roof

It is impossible to imagine a Chinese house without a characteristic roof - without it, any building is literally bare. Even small shacks are trying to outwardly create a semblance of a classic Chinese sloping roof - it is so important to the minds of the Chinese. In addition to the symbolic nature, such a roof on hot days collects all the heat above, and on cold days it helps to heat the home. The bent corners of the roof inspire the house, creating a connection between the earth and the sky, which is why they acquire a very important ritual significance.

"Four Way Ensemble"

If inside a Chinese house there is a closed courtyard, then every four buildings form the so-called "four-sided ensemble" - an intra-district division that distinguishes traditional Chinese streets. In such an ensemble, two houses are located horizontally, two vertically, forming a rectangle. Such a construction is explained by the geomancy already mentioned above: for example, four houses contain the four cardinal points, and also represent a miniature of China, which, according to the ancients, was located between the four seas.

Black tile - celestial mantle

If cinnabar is a symbol of happiness and honor, then white is a sign of mourning and funeral. Therefore, the walls of the houses in the traditional Chinese courtyard are greenish-gray, and the roofs, in contrast with the surroundings, are blue-black. Of course, in China you can often find white walls, but most often they try to give it a greenish-gray or yellow-sand hue. Black color, in contrast to the meaning we are used to, in China is considered the personification of mystery and the sky, this explains its choice for tiles, thus reflecting the will of the sky. Also, the roofs are painted in emerald color, like green jasper - the most precious stone for the Chinese.

Here are eight entertaining elements of Chinese architecture, inextricably linked with the culture and tradition of the Middle Kingdom. Of course, Chinese architecture is not limited to only eight features, and the storehouse of its creative flows is as bottomless as Chinese thought, which I hope to reveal in future publications.

The perception of space in traditional Chinese culture is so significant and comprehensive that it could not but affect the formation of architecture and arts. The traditional Chinese city exactly repeats the structure of the cosmogonic structure of the universe.

The cosmogonic map of China is symbolized by " Five Palaces» in which the Five Dragons rule. Four of them symbolize the cardinal points ( Red Dragon rules in the south (which is placed at the top of the map), he is in charge of summer and the element of fire. Black dragon rules the north, commanding winter and the elements of water. blue dragon- East, spring and flora. White - the west, autumn and the elements of metals). Fifth - Palace of the Yellow Dragon - Divine Emperor Huang Di - the deity of the center, in fact, the supreme heavenly deity and the first Emperor of the Middle Kingdom. Also, the Four Dragons symbolize the natural elements, and the Middle Emperor is their lord and coordinator. It was Huang Di who invented and gave people many tools and technologies, clothes and writing.

China- (from Tatar kytai from Turkic, kytan - "middle"). The art of this largest of the ancient states has evolved over many centuries from a variety of ethnic sources, and is a symbiosis of many cultures.

In the IV millennium BC. e. in the river basin The Huang He formed a group of tribes of the Mongoloid race (self-name "Hanzhen"). There are assumptions about the Tibetan origin of the Chinese and about the "Sino-Caucasian" linguistic relationship. In a clash with tribes of southern origin, the Shang civilization (1765-1122 BC) was formed with its center in the city of Anyang. At the end of 2 thousand BC. e. "shants" were conquered by the Zhou tribes. The unification of the ancient kingdoms took place during the Qing (632-628 BC) and Han (206 BC - 220 AD) dynasties. At the stages of the formation of an ethnic community, the Chinese, due to their natural receptivity, easily absorbed the achievements of other cultures - Mesopotamia, Persia of the Sassanid era, Buddhist India, Asian nomadic peoples, Hellenized Middle Eastern tribes. In the IV-VI centuries. China was divided into North and South. Ancient authors called the northern tribes Seres (Greek serikon, Latin seres - after the name of the silk fabrics exported from this country), and the southern tribes - Sins (cf. Lat. sinae - after the name of the dynasty of Qin rulers). On a world map published at the end of the 16th century. order of the Jesuits to educate the Chinese, their country is placed in the middle (etymologically, the word "middle" is explained by the Chinese name of the Manchu people K "itan).

The outlook and worldview of the Chinese is significantly different from the European one. In this country, there was no consistent development and change of artistic trends and styles, as in European art. The very concept of history in China has no signs of "duration", and art has no signs of evolution. Artistic trends do not follow one after another, and "styles" and "schools" are associated not with differences in creative methods, but with techniques and materials. In China, “... we find an unusually stable, meticulously thought out and aesthetically reworked way of life, an integral and consistent worldview, a complex but strong fusion of artistic styles... The stylistic unity of Chinese art is not only the result of a deep penetration of Chinese masters into the nature of things ... but above all, their sincere and impeccable trust in life in all its diversity.” While rationalism was born in the Western European civilization, mysticism was born in the Middle East, in Central Asia a special culture of following the flow of life was being formed. In China, the “measure of all things” turned out to be not man, but nature, which is infinite and therefore unknowable. What happened in art was not a reflection of life, but its continuation in the movements of the brush and strokes of ink. On this peculiar basis, the "self-typification" of Chinese art was carried out, the subject of which was not the image of a human hero and not spiritual ideals, but the life of nature. Hence the special aesthetic taste and artistic tact of traditional Chinese art. In the ancient beliefs of the Chinese, any objects of nature were deified: trees, stones, streams, waterfalls (however, this trend is more clearly expressed in Shintoism). Religion was considered the art of life, and a contemplative attitude demanded a complete and humble merging with nature. The sages of the East like to repeat that if for an active European, overwhelmed by the idea of ​​​​conquering nature and demonstrating strength, there is no greater pleasure than climbing to the top of a high mountain, then for the Chinese, the greatest happiness is to contemplate the mountain at its foot. Buddhism, spreading in the countries of Southeast Asia from the 5th century BC. BC e., contributed to the strengthening of the pantheistic worldview in China. Therefore, the central place in Chinese art is occupied by the landscape - a sophisticated technique of drawing mountains, waterfalls, and plants with a brush and ink. The traditional genre of Chinese landscape is called shan shui (“mountains-waters”). Mountain (shan) personifies Yang (light, active principle of nature), water (shui) - Yin (feminine, dark and passive). The philosophy of Chinese landscape painting is revealed in the interaction of these two principles, which is conveyed by looking at the landscape from above, from a high point of view, by alternating plans: mountain peaks, fog strips, waterfalls. The philosophy of the Chinese landscape is set forth in the treatise of the painter Guo Xi (c. 1020 - before 1100) "On the high essence of forests and streams." The object of the image in this form of art is not even the landscape itself in the European sense of the word, but the subtly changing state of nature (compare impressionism) and the experience of this state by man. Therefore, the person himself, even if he is depicted in a landscape, never occupies the main place in it and looks like a small figure, an outside observer. The mood of a poeticized reality is conveyed by two “manners”: gongbi (Chinese for “careful brush”), based on the finest graphic elaboration of details and clarity of lines, and sei (Chinese for “expression of thought”), a manner characterized by pictorial freedom, washes of ink, which create a feeling of "diffused perspective", streaks of fog and endless distances. The landscapes of the wen-ren-hua school (Chinese "painting of the people of written culture") were complemented by exquisite calligraphy - poetic and philosophical inscriptions that do not directly reveal the content, but create an "expression of thought", as well as tibas - epigrams. They are written by the artist's admirers at different times in free areas of the image. The symbolism of Chinese painting also differs from European symbolism, it is revealed in poetic concreteness. For example, a landscape may have an inscription: “In spring, Lake Xihu is not at all like it is at other times of the year.” It is difficult to imagine such a name in European painting. Chinese architecture merges with nature. Due to the abundance of rain in China, a high roof with steep slopes has long been used. The house in several tiers with roofs one above the other testified to the nobility of the owner. Using curved rafters, the Chinese created original forms of curvilinear slopes with raised corners. Short blocks of wood were brought under the rafters, creating stepped console protrusions. Boards with carved ornaments and silhouettes of dragons were attached to them. The wood was covered with bright red or black lacquer with gilding and mother-of-pearl inlay. Chinese pagodas are not tectonic, but organic in unity with the surrounding landscape; they grow out of the ground as simply and naturally as trees, flowers, or mushrooms after rain. The silhouettes of Tibetan temples are similar to the shapes of mountains or gentle hills on the slopes of which they are located. All this beauty is not so much construction in the European sense of the word (as a way of sheltering from the elements), but, on the contrary, the creation of the best conditions for contemplating nature by means of art.

In China, to perpetuate oneself meant not so much to leave a material monument about oneself as to glorify one's name "written on bamboo and silk." Chinese art has never directly followed the interests of religion, philosophy or politics. If religion and philosophy are the art of living, then living is an art. In the teachings of the ancient philosophers Lao Tzu and Confucius, it was argued that the nature of art is not determined by the material conditions of life, but, on the contrary, the artistic worldview teaches labor, philosophy, morality and law (there was no separate concept of “artistry” in China, it was dissolved in life). For this reason, the European category of art morphology, the division of art into genera and types, easel and applied, fine and technical, or artistic crafts, is inapplicable to traditional Chinese art. In China, as in the traditional art of Japan, all types of art are both easel and applied, fine and decorative. The Latin word "decor" or the name "Chinese decorative art" is completely inappropriate here. For example, in the art of China there is no framed easel painting at all - one of the main achievements of European artists. A Chinese master (painter, graphic artist, calligrapher, poet and philosopher at the same time) paints walls, silk scrolls, paper screens and fans. The Chinese tradition does not know the gap between the rational and expressive, sensual beginnings of creativity, "ideological" and "non-ideological" art, realism and formalism - those troubles that the European exaltation of man brings with it. Therefore, in China there were no separate artistic movements - Classicism and Romanticism, the struggle of ideological movements. There is a tradition based on a thoughtful contemplation of nature, and styles differ not in the ambitions of the artists, but in the state of the landscape depicted: “a running stream”, “a bamboo leaf in the wind”, “heaven cleared after a snowfall”. There were "angular brush" and "mascara splatter" styles. The theoretical treatises speak of eighteen types of contour lines and sixteen types of strokes in the image of mountains. The detachment of the artist's personality determines another important feature of traditional Chinese aesthetics: the master does not reflect on the frailty of his life, but contemplates and aestheticizes the frailty of material things. The unfinished form or patina of time acquires value, in comparison with which the symbolism of the Eight Immortals and the Eight Jewels is comprehended. Any everyday object has a symbolic meaning (such an attitude to things can only be conditionally correlated with the European concept of decorativeness). Therefore, the works of traditional Chinese art are elegant and colorful, but do not seem pretentious. In Chinese literature, the themes of sleep, dreams and miraculous transformations are constant, revealing the highest meaning of simple things. The body is not perceived as a material form, it is a continuation of the conceivable space. Therefore, in particular, in Chinese art, even in erotic pictures, there is no “nudity”, the aestheticization of corporality. The symbolic relationship to form is well revealed in the parable of the Chinese artist who finally reduced the image of the dragon to a single line. The esotericism of aesthetics, philosophy and art of life inevitably led the country to isolation from the outside world. From the 3rd century BC e. China was fenced off from the north by the Great Wall of China, at the same time the name "inner China" appeared. Beijing also has its own "inner" or "Forbidden City". Geographically, China is not a continental, but a coastal country. Having in the XIV-XV centuries. navy, the Chinese gradually abandoned sea travel. They were unnecessary. Surprisingly, gunpowder invented by the Chinese in the 10th century did not reach nearby Japan until the 17th century. with the help of Dutch sailors! Such is the fate of many other inventions. China closed in on itself (in 1757 the country was officially closed to foreigners) and from the outside seemed to be in a state of immobility. Therefore, the periodization of Chinese art is also very peculiar - the account goes not by years, but by reigning dynasties, and their change does not mean progressive development. The main advantage in art has always been considered the repetition of the work of old masters, fidelity to tradition. Therefore, it is sometimes quite difficult to determine, say, whether a given porcelain vase was made in the 12th century. or in the 17th century. Chinese art is also characterized by a special attitude to the material, to its natural properties, careful processing and clarity, purity of technical technique.

Rather conditionally, satisfying the need for analogies with the history of European art, the Tang era (VII-IX centuries) can be compared with the early Middle Ages, Song (X-XIII centuries) can be called the era of classical Chinese art (late Middle Ages), Ming (XIV-XVII centuries), chronologically correlated with the European Renaissance, is more suitable for the definition of the period of mannerism and academicism. The art of China had a decisive influence on the formation of national artistic traditions in Korea and Japan. Chinese products have always been of interest to Europeans, they attracted with their special aesthetics, the beauty of the material and the thoroughness of its processing. Chinese porcelain and silk were worth their weight in gold in the literal sense of the word. The products of Chinese porcelain makers were imitated by the masters of Delft faience in Holland. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. in Holland and England, Chinese lacquer furniture was in vogue. The “Chinese secret” of porcelain production was unraveled in Europe only by 1710. Woodcut printing - woodcut - was developed in European art eight centuries after its development in China (I century AD).

Features of Chinese architecture.

The history of the development of Chinese architecture is inextricably linked with the development of all types of art in China, and especially painting. Both the architecture and painting of this era were various forms of expression of general ideas and ideas about the world that had developed in ancient times. However, in architecture there were even more ancient rules and traditions than in painting. The main ones retained their significance throughout the entire period of the Middle Ages and formed a completely special, solemn and at the same time unusually decorative artistic style, unlike other countries, which reflected the cheerful and at the same time philosophical spirit inherent in the art of China as a whole. The Chinese architect was the same poet and thinker, distinguished by the same sublime and heightened sense of nature as the landscape painter.

The Chinese architect is like an artist. He selects a place and fits one object into another, trying not to disturb the natural harmony. He will never build a building unless it is in harmony with the surrounding massif. One of the landscape painters in his poetic treatise on painting conveyed that feeling of the natural relationship between architecture and landscape, which is characteristic of this time: “Let the temple tower be at the top of the sky: buildings should not be shown. As if there is, as if not. When temples and terraces rise out of the blue, it would be necessary just for a row of tall willows to stand in front of human dwellings; and in the famous mountain temples and chapels it is very worthy to give a fancy spruce that clings to houses or towers. Picture in summer: ancient trees cover the sky, green water without waves; and the waterfall hangs, breaking through the clouds; and here, by the nearby waters - a secluded quiet house.

Architectural features of the Chinese house.

Unlike the ancient civilizations of the Middle East, China has not preserved the architectural monuments of the distant past. The ancient Chinese built with wood and clay bricks, and these materials are quickly destroyed by time. Therefore, very few monuments of ancient and early art have come down to us. The cities, which consisted of light wooden buildings, burned down and collapsed, the rulers who came to power destroyed the old palaces and built new ones in their place. At present, it is difficult to show a consistent picture of the development of Chinese architecture before the Tang period.

From the feudal era and even from the Han, no structures have come down to us, with the exception of the tombs hidden under the burial mounds. The Great Wall, built by Qin Shi Huang-di, was repaired so often that its entire upper layer was created much later. In place of the Tang palaces of Chang'an and Luoyang, only shapeless hills remained. The first Buddhist buildings, such as the Baimasi monasteries in Luoyang and Dayansi, near Chang'an, are still in the same place, however, they were often rebuilt. In general, with the exception of some Tang pagodas, the existing structures are Ming creations.

In part, this gap is filled by written sources and archaeological finds (especially the discovery of Han clay dwellings and bas-reliefs depicting buildings). These finds show the character and style of Han architecture, because the created "models" were supposed to provide the soul of the deceased with an existence in the afterlife, no different from the earthly one. The bas-reliefs depict the classical houses of that era, the kitchen, the female half and the hall for receiving guests.

Clay specimens prove that, with few exceptions, both in layout and style, Han domestic architecture is similar to modern. The Han house, like its current descendant, consisted of several courtyards, on the sides of which there were halls, divided, in turn, into smaller rooms. The high and steep roof rested on columns and was covered with tiles, although the characteristic curved ends of the roofs were previously less curved. This is a significant change, although relying entirely on the "clay evidence" is also not worth it.

In small features and details of ornamentation, clay houses from Han burials are also very similar to modern examples. The main entrance is protected by a "spirit screen" (in bi) wall built directly opposite the main entrance to prevent the courtyard from being visible from the outside. She was supposed to block the entrance to the house of evil spirits. According to Chinese demonology, spirits can only move in a straight line, so such a trick seemed very reliable. According to Han finds, such beliefs and customs of building a wall that protects from spirits were already widespread at least by the 1st century BC. n. e.

The type of house did not undergo major changes primarily because it perfectly matched the social conditions of Chinese life. The Chinese house was intended for a large family, each generation of which lived in a separate courtyard, which ensured both the necessary separation to avoid possible strife, and the achievement of the ideal of unity under the patronage of the head of the family. Therefore, all houses, both large and small, are planned that way. From peasant dwellings with one yard to huge and spacious palaces, called "palace cities", the same layout was preserved everywhere.

Clay "samples" and bas-reliefs give some idea of ​​the richer Han houses, but we can learn about the splendor of the imperial palaces only from written sources. Qin palace site discovered Shi Huang-di in Xianyang (Shaanxi), but no excavation has yet taken place. Sima Qian gives a description of the palace in his work. There is no doubt that it, although written a hundred years after the fall of the Qin dynasty and the destruction of Xianyang, depicts him quite reliably: “Shi Huang, believing that the population of Xianyang is large and the palace of his predecessors is small, began to build a new reception palace in Shanglin Park south of the Wei River. First of all, he built the main hall. From east to west it was 500 paces, from north to south 100 paces. It could hold 10,000 men and raise standards 50 feet high. A road was laid around the hill. From the entrance to the hall, a straight road led to Mount Nanshan, on the crest of which a ceremonial arch was built in the form of a gate. From the palace to Xianyang, a paved road was laid across the Weihe River. She symbolized the Tianji Bridge, which goes through the Milky Way to the constellation Yingzhe.

Sima Qian also says that along the banks of the Weihe River, Shi Huang-di built copies of the palaces of all the rulers he conquered and defeated. In these palaces were the concubines and wealth of the conquered rulers, everything was prepared for the arrival of the emperor. Not satisfied with these luxurious apartments, Shi Huang-di built several more summer palaces and hunting estates in the vicinity of Xianyang and connected them with secret roads and passages, so that he could be unnoticed in any of them.

Perhaps the description of Shi Huang-di's palaces is not without exaggeration, but it is undoubted that under the empire, architecture received a new impetus for development, and buildings were built on a previously unknown scale. Shi Huang-di found the palace of his ancestors too small and built another one, corresponding to his power and ambition. Copies of the palaces of the rulers he conquered were, of course, more modest. The story told by Chuang Tzu two centuries before Shi Huang Di testifies that the palaces of the rulers were rather unpretentious. This is the story of Prince Wenhui-wang's cook, who applied Taoist principles to his household when he cut up the carcass of an ox. The prince, admiring his art, watched him from the hall of his palace. If so, the cook was preparing the meat in the main courtyard in front of the audience hall. The palace of the prince is very reminiscent, therefore, of the house of a prosperous peasant. Even if Chuang Tzu invented the story for the sake of morality, it obviously did not seem so impossible for the people of that era to have a prince oversee the household from the reception hall.

Religious buildings are much better preserved - pagodas.

The arrival of Buddhism in China did not have a significant impact on the style of Chinese temples. Both Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same plan of a Chinese house, modified for religious purposes. The layout of the courtyard and side halls is exactly the same as in residential buildings, the main halls in the center are for the worship of the Buddha or other gods, and the home apartments behind the temple served as dwellings for the monks. However, some motifs in the decoration and ornamentation of the main halls are clearly Buddhist in origin and bear traces of the influence of Greco-Indian art (for example, the caryatids supporting the roof of the temple in the Kaiyuansi monastery, in the city of Quanzhou, Fujian province). The current buildings in Kaiyuansi of the Ming time (1389), however, the monastery was founded under Tang. It is possible that the caryatids were copied from the Tang specimens in their time, because during the Tang the influence of foreign cultures was especially great.

Considered the most characteristic Chinese building, the pagoda was thought to be of Indian origin. However, there is very little resemblance between the Indian stepped monument resting on a low base and the tall Chinese pagoda. And although now the latter have been preserved only in Buddhist monasteries, their true predecessor, most likely, is the pre-Buddhist Chinese multi-storey tower, which can be seen on Han bas-reliefs. Such towers were most often located on the sides of the main hall of the building.

Han towers were usually two-storied, with projecting roofs similar to those of today's pagodas. On the other hand, they are very thin at the base, and most likely were monolithic columns. Although the true size of such buildings cannot be unambiguously judged from the bas-reliefs (after all, the artist emphasized what he considered the most important), they were hardly much higher than the main hall itself, on the sides of which they were located. This means that the pagoda became tall and powerful only in subsequent centuries.

The difference between the two styles of Chinese architecture is especially pronounced in temples and pagodas. Often these two styles are referred to as northern and southern, although their distribution does not always follow geographic boundaries. For example, in Yunnan, the northern style prevails, while in Manchuria, the southern style is found. These exceptions are due to historical reasons. In Yunnan under the Ming and at the beginning of the Qing, northern influence was very strong, and southern Manchuria, in turn, was influenced by the south (via sea routes).

The main difference between the two styles is the degree of curvature of the roof and the ornamentation of the ridge and cornice. In the southern style, the roofs are very curved, so that the projecting eaves rise up like a forge. The ridges of the roofs are often studded with small figurines depicting Taoist deities and mythical animals in such abundance that the lines of the roof itself are lost. Cornices and supports are decorated with carvings and ornaments, so that there is almost no smooth and “empty” surface. The most striking examples of this passion for decoration, which influenced the European style of the 18th century, can be seen in Canton and the southern coastal regions. However, they do not cause much admiration, because if the subtlety of the carving and decoration are sometimes delightful in themselves, on the whole the lines of construction are lost, and a general impression of artificiality and congestion is created. The Chinese themselves gradually departed from this style. Even in Canton, many buildings, such as the Kuomintang Memorial Hall, were built in the northern style.

The northern style is often called palatial, because its best examples are the magnificent buildings of the Forbidden City and the imperial tombs of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The curl of the roof is softer and more restrained and resembles the roof of a tent. However, the assumption that this style originates from the famous tents of the Mongol emperors is unfounded. The decoration is restrained and less magnificent. Smaller and more stylized compared to the southern style, figurines can only be seen on the ridges of the roofs. A successful compromise between the congestion of the southern style and the stylization of Beijing's palaces is especially evident in Shanxi. Here, the ridges of the roofs are decorated with small, but graceful and lively figures of horsemen.

The origin of these two styles is shrouded in mystery. From Han examples and bas-reliefs (the earliest known depictions of buildings), it can be seen that the roofs in that era were only slightly curved, and sometimes there was no curve at all (it is not known, however, whether this is due to the imperfection of the material or the sculptor, or whether it really reflects the style that time). In Tang reliefs and Sung painting, the curvature of the roof is already visible, but it is not as significant as in modern southern buildings. On the other hand, this feature is characteristic of Burmese and Indo-Chinese architecture. Perhaps the Chinese borrowed it from their southern neighbors. In Japan, which inherited the architectural tradition from Tang China, the curvature is also negligible and resembles that of the northern style.

In the calm and austere brick pagodas of the Tang period, everything breathes with monumental simplicity. They almost lack any architectural decorations. The protruding corners of numerous roofs form straight and clear lines. The most famous pagoda of the Tang period is dayanta (Big Wild Goose Pagoda), built within the then capital of Chang'an (modern Xian) in 652 - 704. Located against the backdrop of a mountain range, as if framing the entire city, Dayanta is visible at a great distance and rises above the entire surrounding landscape. Heavy and massive, resembling a fortress in the vicinity (its dimensions: 25m at the base and 60m in height). Weather due to the harmony and elongation of the proportions from a distance gives the impression of great lightness. Square in plan (which is typical for this time), Dayanta consists of 7 evenly tapering towards the top and repeating each other exactly the same tiers and, accordingly, decreasing windows, located one in the center of each tier. Such an arrangement gives the viewer, captured by the almost mathematical rhythm of the proportions of the pagoda, the illusion of its even greater height. An exalted spiritual impulse and reason seemed to be combined in the noble simplicity and clarity of this structure, in which the architect in simple, straight lines and repeating volumes, so freely aspiring to the top, managed to embody the majestic spirit of his time.

Not all Chinese pagodas are like Dayanta. The more refined and contradictory tastes of the Sung time were reflected in the gravitation towards more refined and lighter forms. Song pagodas, usually hexagonal and octagonal, are also amazingly beautiful. Even today, located on the highest points, they crown with their slender peaks such picturesque cities, drowning in greenery and surrounded by mountains, as hangzhou And Suzhou. Very diverse in their forms and architectural ornamentation, they are either covered with glazed slabs, or finished with a pattern of brick and stone, or decorated with numerous curved roofs separating tier from tier. Elegance and harmony are combined in them with amazing simplicity and freedom of form. Against the background of the bright blue of the southern sky and the lush greenery of the foliage, these huge, forty and sixty-meter light structures seem to be the embodiment and symbol of the radiant beauty of the surrounding world.

Urban planning of Beijing in feudal times. Street layout. "Forbidden City" Palace Ensemble Gugun.

The same logical clarity is felt in the architecture of Chinese cities and the planning of urban ensembles. The largest number of wooden urban structures have survived to this day, starting from the 15th - 17th centuries, when, after the expulsion of the Mongols, intensive construction and restoration of destroyed cities began. Since that time, Beijing has become the capital of China, which has preserved to this day many of the architectural monuments of antiquity. By the way, Beijing - in Chinese Beijing (Northern Capital) - has existed for more than 3,000 years. And he didn't change the layout. The growing capital was conceived as a powerful fortress. Massive brick walls (up to 12 meters high) with monumental tower gates surrounded it from all sides. But the symmetry and clarity of the plan did not make the appearance of Beijing dry or monotonous. In Beijing, the correct layout of the streets. In the form of a grid. The symmetry technique of Chinese city planning is also inherent and has not changed over time. Artificially dug lakes are symmetrical to each other. Houses in Beijing are built with a facade to the south, and a highway runs from north to south, ending at the northern border of the city. Huge fortress walls with mighty stone gate towers and gates in the form of long tunnels closed the city from all sides. Each main street crossing the city rested on similar gates, located symmetrically opposite each other. The oldest part of Beijing is called the "Inner City", which, in turn, is separated from the "Outer City" located to the south by a wall and gates. However, a common highway connected both parts of the capital. All major structures are built along this straight axis. Thus, the entire vast expanse of the capital was united, organized and subordinated to a single plan.

The main ensemble located in the center of " inner city", was a huge " imperial city”, stretching for many kilometers, closed by a ring of walls with mighty gates. Inside it was located forbidden city”(now turned into a museum), also walled and surrounded by a moat. This was the Imperial Palace, where only the elite could enter. The palace was not one building, it was divided into several parts. Wide squares paved with light stone, curved canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn pavilions raised on terraces revealed their fabulous splendor before the gaze of those who, having passed through a series of massive fortress gates, starting from the gate Taihemen (« Gate of Heavenly Peace”), penetrated the palace. The front part of the ensemble consisted of a suite of squares connected to each other by stairs, gates, and pavilions. The whole "Forbidden City" with multi-colored roofs of palaces, shady gardens and courtyards, corridors and pavilions, countless passages and side branches was a kind of city within a city, in the depths of which the chambers of imperial wives, entertainment facilities, a theater stage and much more were hidden.

Wide squares paved with light bricks, canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn palace buildings reveal their fabulous splendor before the gaze of those who, having passed a series of massive fortress gates, starting from Tiananmen Square, penetrate the palace. The whole ensemble consists of spacious squares and courtyards connected to each other, surrounded by various front rooms, presenting the viewer with a change of more and more new impressions growing as he moves. The entire Forbidden City, surrounded by gardens and parks, is a whole labyrinth with countless side branches, in which narrow corridors lead to quiet sunny courtyards with decorative trees, where ceremonial buildings are replaced in the depths by residential buildings and picturesque gazebos. Along the main axis that crosses the whole of Beijing, the most significant buildings are located in an orderly manner, standing out from the rest of the buildings of the Forbidden City. These structures, as if elevated above the ground by high platforms made of white marble, with carved ramps and stairs, make up the leading, solemn enfilade of the complex. The central pavilions form a common solemn rhythmic harmony of the entire ensemble with the bright rich lacquer of their columns and double curved roofs of golden glazed tiles, the silhouettes of which are repeated and varied.

Still preserved Gugun Palace Ensemble, which served as the imperial residence during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This residence, also known as purple forbidden city» ( Zi jin cheng), was built in the years 4-18 of the reign of the Ming emperor Cheng Zu, which corresponds to 1406-1420. The entire palace complex occupies an area of ​​72 hectares, surrounded on four sides by a wall about 10 m high, a moat 50 m wide. On the territory of the palace complex there are several dozen palace ensembles of various sizes, in total about 9 thousand rooms with a total area of ​​15 thousand square meters. m. This is the most grandiose and most integral of their architectural ensembles preserved in China. From the time of the establishment of the Ming emperor Cheng Zu, until the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, swept away by the whirlwind of the revolution of 1911, 24 emperors managed the affairs of the empire here for 491 years.

Palace Ensemble Gugong is divided into two major parts: inner chambers and outer courtyard. The main structures of the outer courtyard are three large pavilions: Taihedian (Pavilion of Supreme Harmony),Zhonghedian (pavilion complete harmony) And Baohedian (Harmony Preservation Pavilion). All of them are built on 8-meter-high bases made of white marble, and from a distance they look like beautiful fairy-tale towers. The most important ceremonial buildings of the Imperial Palace were located on the north-south main axis of Beijing. Halls alternated one after another in orderly order, where the emperors of China held receptions and listened to reports. These were rectangular pavilions raised on terraces and crowned with two-tiered roofs covered with golden tiles.

Each of the buildings had its own name. The main one, Taihedian (“Pavilion of Supreme Harmony”), reflects all the most characteristic features of the wooden architecture of medieval China. Elegance, brightness, lightness are combined in this building with simplicity and clarity of form. Tall lacquered red columns, mounted on a multi-stage white marble platform, beams crossing them and branched multi-colored brackets - dougong serve as the basis for the entire structure. They rest on a huge two-tiered roof. This roof with wide, curved up edges is, as it were, the basis of the entire building. Its wide extensions protect the room from the merciless summer heat as well as from the heavy rains alternating with it. The smoothly curved corners of this roof give the whole building a special festive feeling. Its solemnity is also emphasized by the beauty of the vast carved terrace, on which two subsequent front halls were erected one after the other. Light walls, consisting of openwork wooden partitions, serve as screens and do not have a reference value. In the Taihedian pavilion, as in the rest of the central buildings of the palace, the curves of the roofs, as if lightening their weight and width, are distinguished by smooth calmness. They give the whole building a feeling of great lightness and balance, concealing its true dimensions. The greatness of the scale of the building is felt mainly in the interior of Taihedian, where the rectangular room is filled with only two rows of smooth columns, and all its length and clear simplicity appear unhidden from the eye.

Architecture and decoration Taihedian Pavilion is a unique example, unparalleled not only in comparison with other pavilions of Gugong, but, perhaps, in the entire collection of wooden structures of ancient China. The pavilion is 35.5 m high, 63.96 m wide, and 37.2 m deep. The roof of the pavilion is supported by 84 wooden columns one meter in diameter, six of them surrounding the throne are gilded and decorated with carvings of wriggling dragons. The throne stands on a two-meter-high pedestal, in front of which graceful bronze cranes, censers, tripod vessels are installed; behind the throne is a finely carved screen. The entire decoration of the Taihedian pavilion is distinguished by grand splendor and splendor. The rectangular courtyard in front of the Taihedian Pavilion covers an area of ​​more than 30,000 square meters. m. It is completely naked - there is neither a tree nor any decorative structure. Every time during palace ceremonies, ranks of armed guards lined up in strict order in this courtyard, civil and military dignitaries knelt in order of subordination. The smoke of incense rose from numerous tripods and censers, aggravating the already mysterious atmosphere that surrounded the emperor.

Zhonghedian Pavilion served as a place where the emperor rested before the start of ceremonies, and rehearsals of the etiquette ritual were also performed here. The Baohedian pavilion served as a place where the emperor held banquets on New Year's Eve, to which vassal princes were invited. This pavilion, like the Zhonghedian Pavilion, is a structure made entirely of wood.

Inner quarters. On the back half of the Gugong palace ensemble there were inner chambers. Lined up along the central axis Qianqinggong palaces,Jiaotaidian And kunningong, on either side of them are six eastern and six western palaces. It housed the chambers of the emperor, members of the imperial family, his wives and concubines.

In terms of volume, the Qianqinggong, Jiataidian and Kunninggong palaces are significantly inferior to the three large pavilions of the outer courtyard. The Qianqinggong Palace was the bedchamber of the emperor. Here the emperor was engaged in daily state affairs, looked through documents, made orders. On holidays, feasts were held here, to which the emperor invited his dignitaries. The Kunninggong palace housed the chambers of the empress. Jiaotaidian Palace, located between the Qianqinggong and Kunninggong Palaces, served as a hall for family celebrations. During the Ming and Qing times, it was in this hall that celebrations were held on the occasion of the birthday of the empress. During the Qing Dynasty, the imperial seal was kept here.

Empress Dowager Cixi, who ruled over China for over 40 years, lived in Chuxiugong Palace, one of the six Western palaces. On the occasion of her 50th birthday, she undertook the repair of two palaces - Chusyugun and Ykungun. 1,250,000 liang of silver was spent on repairs and gifts to dignitaries and servants.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Gugong Palace served as the political center of the Chinese Empire. The emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, who lived in this palace for more than five hundred years, did not occupy the same apartments all the time. At their own whim, or believing that one or another part of the palace is unhappy, they moved to another place, and sometimes even left and sealed the chambers of their predecessors. Darlin, one of the princesses close to Cixi, told how one day the Empress Dowager was making her rounds and saw buildings that were locked and not used for so long that it was impossible to approach them because of the grass and bushes. She was told that no one remembers why this palace was abandoned, but it was suggested that one of the members of the imperial family had once died here from an infectious disease. No one from the palace ever visited the abandoned apartments.

Temples in Beijing also located in large complexes. Majestic Tiantan (« Sky Temple”), erected in the years 1420-1530 in the “Outer City”, consists of a series of buildings lined up one after another in a vast area and surrounded by a ring of greenery. These are two temples and a white marble stepped altar on which sacrifices were made. The grandiose temple ensemble was associated with the ancient religious rites of the Chinese, who revered heaven and earth as the givers of the harvest. This was reflected in the originality of the architectural design. The round terraces of the altar and the blue conical roofs of the temples symbolized the sky, while the square territory of the ensemble symbolized the earth. Despite the different form of buildings than in the Forbidden City, the same enfilade principle of their location dominated here. The viewer, passing all the long way from the gates to the temples through the system of white carved arches, gradually got used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending the beauty of each structure.

The highest building Qingyandian (« Temple of Prayer for a Rich Harvest”), crowned with a deep blue three-tiered cone-shaped roof, is elevated to a triple white marble terrace. The small temple with a single-tiered roof, as it were, echoes this structure, repeating its shape.

An unprecedented spatial scope is also felt in the burial complex of the Ming emperors Shisanling (“13 tombs”), built near Beijing in the 15th-17th centuries. The way to these burials was made out with special solemnity. It started from afar and was marked by a number of gates and arches, which, in turn, led to a huge Alley of Spirits 800 meters long, framed on both sides by monumental stone statues of the guardians of the rest of the dead - twenty-four figures of animals and twelve figures of officials and warriors. The burials themselves included many structures: a burial mound with an underground palace full of treasures, temples, towers, arches. Severe and monumental buildings located at the foot of the mountains were picturesquely included in the surrounding landscape.

Architectural styles of summer palaces.

Although the private chambers of the Forbidden City were vast and varied, the emperors found the city's summer air too unhealthy. From the most ancient times, the courtyard moved to special country residences for the summer. Their construction gave rise to a new, less formal architectural style. Qin Shi Huangdi, as already mentioned, had many summer palaces in the surrounding parks, which at the same time served as hunting estates. His example was followed by the Han and Tang emperors, and especially by the restless builder Yan-di, the second emperor of Sui. Although there is no trace of their palaces and parks, descriptions made by historians show that they were planned in exactly the same way as Yuanmingyuan, built by Qian-long ten miles from Beijing, a vast park with numerous palaces and pavilions, destroyed by English and French soldiers in 1860. The modern Summer Palace, restored by Cixi in the 1990s, only faintly resembles the original.

If in the semi-official "imperial cities", the last of which was the Forbidden City in Beijing, pomp and austerity woven in symmetrical harmony prevailed, in the "summer palaces" grace and charm dominated. If there were no hills and lakes, they were created without regard to costs, so that all forms of landscape were present for every taste. Trees were specially planted or transplanted, as was the case with the Sui Yang-di, who ordered from afar on special carts to deliver already large trees. Magnificent landscapes imitated the canvases of painters.

Among the forests and streams, on the shores of lakes and hillsides, pavilions were built harmoniously connected with the surroundings. It would seem that they are scattered randomly, but in fact, according to a carefully thought-out plan. Each of them was supplied with everything necessary, so that the emperor could go to any of them at will and find everything prepared for his appearance.

They tried to follow the luxury of the imperial palaces, on a smaller scale, however, both in urban and country houses of wealthy families. No one, with the possible exception of the British, could surpass the Chinese in the art of creating gardens and country residences. The Chinese, despite their large and populated cities, have always been closely connected with rural life, always loved natural beauty. Since ancient times, China has been convinced of the high, purifying moral meaning of being in solitude among the mountains. Taoist sages lived on the wooded slopes of high mountains and refused to go down, even if the emperor himself offered them the highest honors. Many prominent scientists and poets lived for years in the outback, only occasionally visiting the cities. The feeling of horror before the wild nature, so characteristic of Europeans, was unknown to the Chinese.

The city wall is an integral part of Chinese urban planning.

Every Chinese city was surrounded by a wall. The inalienability of the concept of "wall" from the concept of "city" was expressed in the fact that they were denoted by the same word "cheng". Naturally, the city walls, which gave the city its status, were treated with the utmost care and attention. Therefore, the city walls in China are a completely unique type of architectural structures. Perhaps they are the most impressive and durable than anywhere else in the world.

The art of building walls reached its perfection in the north, which was most often attacked by nomads. The walls of Beijing, built in the early 15th century during the Ming Dynasty, deservedly enjoy universal fame. The same high and strong walls can be found everywhere in the northwestern provinces, and especially in Shaanxi, where they surrounded every county town. Modern walls were mostly built during the Ming. After the expulsion of the Mongols, the Chinese emperors of this dynasty found it necessary to restore the city fortifications in the northern provinces, which had fallen into decay during the rule of nomads in the north.

In the planning of cities and fortifications, two styles can also be traced: northern and southern. In the north, where the builders had a lot of free space and flat areas, cities were built in the shape of a rectangle. The city was divided into four parts by two straight streets intersecting in the center. With the exception of the largest cities, there were only four gates in the walls, one on each side. At the intersection of the two main streets, there was an observation tower with four gates, so that in the event of a riot or unrest, each street could be isolated from the rest. Warriors were located in the three-story tower that crowned the gate, like a pagoda, and there was also a huge drum that served as a city clock. He was hit at regular intervals.

The layout of the gates and the two main streets was regular and symmetrical, which is not the case with the streets that cut through residential areas, meandering and curving between houses. In a Chinese city, one rarely sees a division into rich and poor quarters. Next to rich houses, with many yards and gardens, poor shacks with one yard are crowded along the same line. If any part of the city is more prone to flooding after the summer rains than another, it is natural that wealthy people will avoid the low part of the city, although here too large houses can be found next to the dwellings of the poor.

In the north, city walls were erected to save themselves not only from enemies, but also from floods. The wall was based on a thick layer of hard clay, which was lined on the outside and inside with very large bricks, reaching a thickness of 4-5 inches. The top of the wall was also laid out with bricks. The walls were built truncated at the top; if at the base the thickness reached 40 feet, then at the top it was no more than 20-25 feet. The height of the walls varied, but in the cities of Shanxi, Beijing, and Chang'an, they reached 60 feet. At a distance of 50-100 yards from the wall, bastions were built, the perimeter of the upper part of which reached 40 feet. At the foot of the bastions there was a moat; between the moat, wall and towers there was a strip of unoccupied land. see dictionary of units

Towers were built at all four corners of the wall and over the gates. The corner towers were reinforced from the outside with bricks and had loopholes for shooting. The towers above the gates, similar to three-tiered pagodas, only rectangular in shape, were most often built of wood and covered with tiles. Soldiers guarding the gates lived in these towers, which very vividly characterized the city's architecture, and during the war they served as a post for shooters and archers. The towers above the Beijing Gate are 99 Chinese feet high. According to Chinese beliefs, spirits usually fly at a height of one hundred feet, so the towers were specially designed to reach the maximum height and at the same time avoid encountering otherworldly forces.

The gates of the main cities were usually protected by semicircular outer fortifications, in which there was an outer gate at right angles to the open main gate. Thus, if the outer gate was attacked, the main passage remained protected. The suburbs outside the outer gates were also surrounded by a bulk, not fortified with bricks, a wall, rather to protect themselves from robbers than to defend the city. Before the advent of modern artillery, the walls remained virtually indestructible. Their thickness doomed any attempt to undermine or bombard them to failure. Climbing such high walls was also very difficult and dangerous. A protected city could withstand an attack by a huge army, and Chinese history is full of tales of famous sieges and heroic defenses. The blockade and famine could sooner break the resistance, because the city depended on food supplies from the villages.

The city walls in northern and northwestern China were in every way superior to the fortifications of southern cities. In the south, only a few cities could be built symmetrically and on a grand scale, due both to the high value of the land on which to sow rice, and the uneven surface, different from the northern plains. The streets are narrow and winding, the walls are low, although often stone, the gates are not wide. Wheeled transport was not common in the south. The streets were full of loaded mules, palanquins, porters and wheelbarrows, so there was no need to build wide passages. In Canton, for example, only two people could walk side by side in many streets. The main means of transport in the south was a boat, and by land people came to the city only from the suburbs. In addition, the south was not so often attacked, so the fortifications were given less attention.

The great work of human hands, built from the 4th - 3rd centuries BC, and being one of the most majestic monuments of world architecture - The great Wall of China. Built along the northern border of China to protect the country from nomads and cover the fields from the desert sands, the wall initially stretched for 750 km, then, after centuries of completion, it exceeded 3000 km. Chinese architects built the wall only along the steepest ridges. Therefore, in some places the wall describes such sharp turns that the walls almost touch. The wall is 5 to 8 meters wide and 5 to 10 meters high. On the surface of the wall there are battlements and a road along which soldiers could move. Turrets are placed along the entire perimeter, every 100 - 150 meters, for light warning of the approach of the enemy. The wall was first assembled from rammed wood and reeds, then it was lined with gray brick.

Chinese architecture of the 15th-17th centuries is full of grandeur. In the architecture of subsequent centuries, it is still preserved, but the growing craving for pomp and abundance of decorative decoration gradually takes over. Incense burners and vases, carved gates and park sculptures become an integral part of numerous complexes. Sophisticated intricacy distinguishes the design of the out-of-town imperial palace of Yiheyuan (“Garden of serene rest”) with its curving light through galleries, arched bridges thrown over water bodies, whimsical gazebos and pagodas made of porcelain, copper, wood and stone

The architectural structures of the 18th - 19th centuries, while continuing to develop the traditions of the past, at the same time differ from the more rigorous spirit of previous periods in their significantly increased splendor, greater connection with decorative arts. The Yiheyuan country park located near Beijing is built up with light bizarre pavilions and numerous ornamental sculptures. The desire for ornamentation, for the detailed development of individual motifs of architecture, the fusion of decorative, applied and monumental forms are gradually preparing a departure from the monumental nature of the architecture of past periods. However, numerous restoration works were carried out at this time. The Temple of Heaven was restored, the Forbidden City was restored, retaining its original majestic spirit. In the same period, such beautiful and perfect in form and picturesque buildings were built as the Changlan Gallery (long gallery) in Yiheyuan Park, humpbacked marble bridges, forming like a closed ring along with their reflection, etc. However, by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the ever-growing pretentiousness and whimsicalness of patterns led to the loss of the organic connection between the ornament and the shape of the building. The 19th century was the final stage in the development of the brilliant and distinctive architecture of China.

Chinese art influenced the development of the European style of Rococo and even Neoclassicism. In the era of Romanticism of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. and neo-styles of the second half of the 19th century, country palaces, interiors, park pavilions and gazebos were decorated in the fashionable "Chinese style". "Chinese Village" was created in the park of Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg. There were also reverse influences - hobbies for "Europeanism" in China, the so-called "chinoiserie on the contrary" (French chinoiserie - "Chinese"). This phenomenon began with the arrival of Portuguese traders in Guangzhou in 1517, and was intensified by the activities of the East India Dutch Trading Company, especially during the Kangxi period. At the court of Emperor Qiang Long (1736-1796), European artists worked in Beijing. One of them was the Italian Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766). From 1715 he was in China, he knew Chinese art well and "owned Chinese painting techniques on a par with European ones." Many Chinese products made of porcelain and painted enamels were specially made for export to Europe. During the Modern period of the late XIX - early XX centuries. European symbolist poets drew attention to the art of the Far East. They saw in Chinese painting the ability to "enchant objects" and lead away from reality "to daydreams." This quality of Chinese art correlates with the European romantic tradition, one of the expressions of which was the symbolism of the "Silver Age".