Culture of Muscovite Rus' XIV-XVII centuries. Russian culture of the XIV-XVII centuries

SARANSK COOPERATIVE INSTITUTE OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF CONSUMER COOPERATION.

Essay on cultural studies on the topic:

Russian cultureXIV-XVIIcenturies.

Completed: Plyusnin I. G.

Checked: Alaberdina O. E.

SARANSK 1997

1. Introduction.

2. Architecture.

3. art.

From the 10th century Almost half of the European part of Russia became part of the feudal Old Russian state, where an original artistic culture developed with a number of local schools (southwestern, western, Novgorod-Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal), which gained experience in building and beautifying cities, created wonderful monuments of ancient architecture, frescoes, mosaics, iconography. Its development was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led Ancient Rus' to economic and cultural decline and to the isolation of the southwestern lands that became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state. After a period of stagnation in the Old Russian lands located on the territory of Russia from the end of the 13th century. Russian (Great Russian) artistic culture begins to take shape. In its development is more tangible than in art Ancient Rus', the influence of the urban lower classes, which became an important social force in the struggle for the deliverance of the Mongol- Tatar yoke and unification of Russian lands. Leading already in the XIV century. Grand-ducal Moscow synthesizes this struggle from the achievements of local schools and from the 15th century. becomes an important political and cultural center, where the art of Andrei Rublev, imbued with a deep faith in the beauty of a moral feat, and the architecture of the Kremlin proportionate to man in its grandeur are formed. The apotheosis of the ideas of unification and strengthening of the Russian state was embodied in the temples-monuments of the 16th century. With the development of economic and public relations in the 17th century the isolation of individual regions is finally liquidated, and international relations are expanding, secular features are growing in art. Without going out as a whole almost until the end of the 17th century. outside the framework of religious forms, art reflected the crisis of the official church ideology and gradually lost the integrity of the worldview: direct life observations destroyed the conditional system of church iconography, and the details borrowed from Western European architecture came into conflict with the traditional composition of the Russian church. But this partly prepared the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the church, which took place by the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of the reforms of Peter I.

After the Mongol-Tatar invasion for a long time chronicles mention only the construction of wooden structures that have not survived to us. From the end of the XIII century. in North-Western Rus', which escaped ruin, stone architecture, primarily military architecture, is also being revived. Stone city fortifications of Novgorod and Pskov, fortresses on riverine capes (Koporye) or on islands are being erected, sometimes with an additional wall at the entrance, forming together with the main protective corridor - “zahab” (Izborsk, Porkhov). From the middle of the XIV century. the walls are strengthened by mighty towers, at the beginning above the gates, and then along the entire perimeter of the fortifications, which in the 15th century received a layout close to regular. The uneven masonry of rough-hewn limestone and boulders endowed the structure with painting and enhanced their plastic expressiveness. The masonry of the walls of small single-domed four-pillar churches of the late 13th - 1st half of the 14th centuries was the same, to which the plastering of the facades gave a monolithic appearance. The temples were built at the expense of the boyars, wealthy merchants. Becoming the architectural dominants of certain districts of the city, they enriched its silhouette and created a gradual transition of a representative stone kremlin to an irregular wooden residential building, following the natural relief. It was dominated by 1-2 storey houses on basements, sometimes three-part, with a passage in the middle.

In Novgorod, its former layout developed, streets leading to the Volkhov were added. The stone walls of Detinets and the Roundabout city, as well as churches built at the expense of individual boyars, merchants, and groups of citizens, changed the face of Novgorod. In the XIII-XIV centuries. architects move in the completions of the facades of churches from semicircles - "zakomar" to more dynamic gables - "tongs" or more often to three-bladed curves that corresponded to the shape of the vaults, lower above the corners of the temple. The temples of the 2nd half of the 14th century are majestic and elegant. - the heyday of the Novgorod Republic, - more fully reflecting the worldview and tastes of the townspeople. Slender, of elongated proportions, covered with eight slopes along three-bladed curves, which was later often altered to gable, they combine the picturesqueness and plastic richness of the architectural decor (ledged blades on the facades, decorative arcades on the apses, patterned brickwork, embossed "edges" above the windows , lancet completions of perspective portals) with tectonic clarity and compactness of the upwardly directed composition. The wide arrangement of pillars inside made the interiors more spacious. In the XV century. Novgorod churches become more intimate and cozier, and porches, porches, storerooms appear in the sub-church. From the XIV-XV centuries. in Novgorod, stone residential buildings with basements and porches appear. The one-pillar "Chamber of Facets" in the courtyard of Archbishop Euthymius, built with the participation of Western masters, has Gothic rib vaults. In other chambers, the walls were divided by shoulder blades and horizontal bands, which passed into the monastery refectories of the 16th century.

In Pskov, which became independent from Novgorod in 1348, the main Trinity Cathedral had, judging by the drawing of the 17th century, zakomary located on different levels, three vestibules and decorative details similar to those of Novgorod. Placed in the Kremlin (Krom) on a high cape at the confluence of Pskov and Velikaya, the cathedral dominated the city, which grew to the south, forming new parts, fenced with stone walls, cut through by streets leading to the Kremlin. Later, the Pskovians developed the type of a four-pillar, three-apse parish church with a pozakomar, and later an eight-slope gabled roof. Galleries, chapels, porches with thick round pillars and belfries gave these squat buildings, as if fashioned by hand, erected outside the Kremlin, a special picturesqueness. In the Pskov pillarless one-apse churches of the 16th century. the drum with a dome rested on intersecting barrel vaults or stepped arches. In Pskov, as in Novgorod, the streets had log pavements and were also built up with wooden houses.

With the beginning of the revival of Moscow in it in the 1320-1330s. The first white-stone temples appear. The not preserved Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor with belts of carved ornament on the facades ascended in type to four-pillared with three apses Vladimir temple pre-Mongol period. In the second half of the XIV century. the first stone walls of the Kremlin are being built on a triangular hill at the confluence of the Neglinnaya with the Moscow River. To the east of the Kremlin there was a settlement with a main street parallel to the Moscow River. Similar in plan to the earlier ones, the temples of the late XIV - early XV centuries. thanks to the use of additional kokoshniks at the base of the drum, raised on spring arches, a tiered top composition was obtained. This gave the buildings a picturesque and festive character, enhanced by the keeled outlines of the zakomar and the tops of the portals, carved belts and thin semi-columns on the facades. In the cathedral of the Moscow Andronikov Monastery, the corner parts of the main volume are greatly reduced, and the composition of the top is especially dynamic. In the pillarless churches of the Moscow school of the XIV-beginning of the XV centuries. each facade was sometimes crowned with three kokoshniks. In formation by the end of the XV century. The centralized state put forward the task of widely deploying the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital - Moscow - to build temples and palaces that correspond to its significance. For this, architects and masons from other Russian cities, Italian architects and fortification engineers were invited to the capital. Main building material became a brick. The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half of the 15th century. expanded to its current size, and the settlement covered it from three sides and was cut through by radial streets. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, part of the settlement was surrounded in the 1530s. stone wall, and then the stone wall of the White City and the earthen wall of the Earthen City surrounded the capital with two rings, which determined the radial - ring layout of Moscow. The monasteries-fortresses, which protected the approaches to the city and were consonant with the Kremlin in their silhouette, eventually became the compositional centers of the outskirts of Moscow. Radial streets with log pavements led to the center through the towered gates of Zemlyanoy and Bely Gorods. Residential development of city streets consisted mainly of wooden houses, which had two or three floors on basements, separate roofs over each part of the house, a middle vestibule and a porch. The Kremlins of other cities, as in Moscow, followed the terrain in their plans, and on level ground they had regular rectangular plans. The fortress walls became taller and thicker. Hinged loopholes and battlements in the form of a dovetail, used by Italian architects in the Moscow Kremlin, also appeared in the Kremlin of Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, etc. Later, the towers began to be decorated with shoulder blades and horizontal rods, and the loopholes with platbands. Freer from new influences were the fortresses of the distant Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries, with powerful walls and towers built of large boulders and almost devoid of decorations.

The surviving part of the Grand Duke's Kremlin Palace in Moscow with a huge one-pillar hall is endowed with features of Western architecture (faceted rustication, double windows, Renaissance cornice), but the entire composition of the palace, which was composed of separate buildings with passages and porches, is close to the composition of wooden choirs. In the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, which was proposed to be built like the cathedral of the same name of the XII century. in Vladimir, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture underwent a significant rethinking. The majestic five-domed temple with rare slit-like windows cut in mighty drums and in the smoothness of the walls, girded with arcade frieze, is more powerful in proportions and more monumental than its prototype. An impressive contrast to the somewhat austere facades of the cathedral is the interior with six evenly spaced high thin pillars, giving it the appearance of a front hall. The temple-bell tower of Ivan the Great, dominating not only not only the Kremlin, but the whole of Moscow, has become a traditional model for similar high-rise dominants in other Russian cities. An attempt to transfer the motifs of the early Venetian Renaissance led to a discrepancy between the tiered divisions of the facade. In other temples of the second half of the XV-XVI centuries. there are characteristic of Moscow architecture of the XIV-XV centuries. tiers of keeled zakomaras, but their rhythm is less dynamic, and the measured divisions of the facades, decorated with arcuate friezes and patterned masonry with terracotta details, make the temples elegantly majestic. Terracotta details are found in Belozerye and the Upper Volga region, for example, in the palace chamber in Uglich, where crowning tongs over smooth walls are filled with patterned brickwork with terracotta inserts. The facades of other secular buildings of this time are usually more modest.

From the XIV-XVI centuries. several wooden churches have been preserved. The earlier ones are "cage", resembling a hut with a gable roof and outbuildings. Churches of the 16th century - high, octagonal, covered with a tent, and extensions on two or four sides have curved roofs - "barrels". Their slender proportions, contrasts of figured "barrels" and a strict tent, severe chopped walls and carvings of the gallery and porches, their inextricable connection with the surrounding landscape are evidence of the high skill of folk craftsmen - "woodworkers" who worked as artels.

The growth of the Russian state and national self-consciousness after the overthrow of the Tatar yoke was reflected in the stone temples-monuments of the 16th century. Representing a high achievement of Moscow architecture, these majestic buildings dedicated to important events, as if they combined the dynamism of wooden tent churches and tiered completions of temples of the XIV - XV centuries. with the monumentality of the cathedrals of the XVI century. In stone churches-towers, the forms inherent in stone became the leading ones - tiers of zakomars and kokoshniks around a tent cut through by windows. Sometimes the tent was replaced by a drum with a dome, or towers with domes surrounded the central tower covered with a tent. The predominance of verticals gave jubilant dynamism to the soaring composition of the temple, as if growing out of the open "ambulances" surrounding it, and the elegant decor gave the structure a festive solemnity.

In churches of the late XV and XVI centuries. the use of the so-called groin vault, which rested on the walls, relieved the interior of the supporting pillars and made it possible to diversify the facades, which received either a three-lobed, sometimes imitating zakomary completion, or were crowned with tiers of kokoshniks. Along with this, they continued to build four-pillar five-domed temples, sometimes with galleries and side chapels. Stone one-pillar refectory and residential monastery buildings of the 16th century. have smooth walls crowned with a simple cornice or a belt of patterned masonry. In residential architecture, wood dominated, from which houses of 1-2 floors were built, and boyar and episcopal palaces, which consisted of multi-frame groups connected by transitions on basements.

In the 17th century the transition to a commodity economy, the development of domestic and foreign trade, the strengthening of central power and the expansion of the country's borders led to the growth of old cities and the emergence of new ones in the south and east, to the construction of guest houses and administrative buildings, stone houses of boyars and merchants. The development of old cities proceeded within the framework of the already established planning, and in the new fortified cities they tried to introduce regularity into the layout of streets and the shape of quarters. In connection with the development of artillery, the cities were surrounded by earthen ramparts with bastions. In the south and in Siberia, wooden walls with earthen backfill were also built, which had towers with hanging battlements and low hipped roofs. At the same time, the stone walls of the Central Russian monasteries were losing their old defensive structures and becoming more ornate. The plans for the monasteries became more regular. The enlargement of the scale of Moscow caused the superstructure of a number of Kremlin buildings. At the same time, they thought more about the expressiveness of the silhouette and the elegance of the decoration than about improving the defensive qualities of the fortifications. The complex silhouette and rich white-stone carving of cornices, porches and figured architraves received the Terem Palace built in the Kremlin. The number of stone residential buildings is increasing. B XVII century. they were usually built according to a three-part scheme (with a vestibule in the middle), had utility rooms on the lower floor and an outer porch. The third floor in wooden buildings was often framed, and in stone buildings - with a wooden ceiling instead of vaults. Sometimes the upper floors of stone houses were wooden. In Pskov, houses of the 17th century. almost devoid of decorative decoration, and only in rare cases, the windows were framed with platbands. Central Russian brick houses, often asymmetrical, with roofs of different heights and shapes, had cornices, interfloor belts, embossed window frames made of shaped bricks and were decorated with coloring and tiled inserts. Sometimes a cruciform plan was used, three-part buildings were connected at right angles, internal stairs instead of external ones.

often consisted of three-part sections forming long hulls. Administrative buildings of the 17th century. looked like houses. Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk, which had 2-storey buildings with housing above and warehouses below, was at the same time a fortress with towers that dominated the surrounding buildings. The expansion of cultural ties between Russia and the West contributed to the appearance on the facades of houses and palaces of order forms and glazed tiles, in the distribution of which the Belarusian ceramists, who worked for Patriarch Nikon on the construction of the New Jerusalem Monastery in Istra, played a certain role. They began to imitate the decoration of the patriarchal cathedral and even tried to surpass it with elegance. At the end of the XVII century. order forms were made in white stone.

Churches during the 17th century the same evolution took place from complex and asymmetric compositions to clear and balanced ones, from the picturesque brick "patterns" of facades to order decoration clearly placed on them. For the first half of the XVII century. typical pillarless with a closed vault "patterned" churches with a refectory, aisles and a bell tower. They have five domes, cupolas above the aisles, tents over the porches and the bell tower, tiers of kokoshniks and cornices inspired by residential architecture, platbands, milled belts. With their fractional decor, picturesque silhouette and complexity of volume, these churches resemble rich mansions, reflecting the penetration of secular principles into church architecture and losing the monumental clarity of the composition.

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. In the conditions of greatly reduced international and interregional relations in the 2nd half of the 13th century and at the beginning of the 14th century. the old schools of painting finally crystallize and new ones are formed.

In icons and miniatures of the manuscripts of Novgorod already from the 2nd half of the 13th century. purely local features that have developed here in the paintings of the 12th century are determined: a clear image not complicated by allegories, a somewhat elementary large drawing, decorative brightness of color. On the temple icon of the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, executed by Alexa Petrov, Nicholas the Wonderworker is presented as an attentive mentor and helper to people. Rounded lines, elegant ornamentation reflected the impact of the decorative trends of folk art.

In the cities of North-Eastern Rus' that survived the invasion, painting developed for a long time on a pre-Mongolian basis. Art workshops were focused on hierarchical and princely courts, and their works have a church or caste princely character. Rostov icons of the XIII-XIV centuries. characterized by translucent colors, soft and warm colors. Hagiographic icons, in which the literary narrative principle is clearly expressed, were very popular. Several outstanding icons and obverse manuscripts of the 13th-14th centuries are associated with Yaroslavl. The icon “Boris and Gleb” stands out with solemn beauty, but the place of its writing has not been precisely established.

In the 70-80s of the XIII century. the Tver school of painting arose. The murals of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Tver, made by local masters, were the first attempt to turn to monumental painting after the Tatar invasion. Tver icons and manuscripts of not very high quality are characterized by whitish highlights and decorative combinations of white, red, and blue. Somewhat later, the Moscow school arose in Tver, the early monuments of which testify to its close ties with Rostov and Yaroslavl.

In the XIV century. with the beginning of the extensive construction of stone temples, fresco painting was revived. The frescoes of the cathedral of the Snetogorsk monastery near Pskov are still close in style to the frescoes of Novgorod of the Nereditsky type. Novgorod paintings of the 2nd half of the 14th century. more free in nature. Some of them were painted by people from Byzantium: the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Ilyina Street and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field. Others were painted by the southern Slavs: the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Kovalev and the Nativity in the cemetery and the Church of Michael the Archangel of the Skovorodsky Monastery.

The most impressive are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street, executed by Feofan the Greek, as well as the frescoes of Volotov, striking in their spiritualized pathos of images and artistry. Theophan's murals, in their severe expressiveness, exceptional freedom of composition and writing, are unparalleled not only in Rus', but also in Byzantium. The frescoes of the corner chamber in the choir stalls are well-preserved: the images embodying ascetic ideals are distinguished by psychological tension, the writing technique is dynamic and original, and the coloring is extremely restrained. The deity and saints appear in Theophanes in the form of a formidable force, designed to control a person and remind him of exploits in the name of supreme idea. Their dark faces with vaguely laid white highlights, in contrast to which bleached yellow, crimson, blue tones clothes, have a direct and deep impact on the viewer. The frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratilat are stylistically close to the paintings of the Savior on Ilyina Street. It is possible that Russian masters who studied with the Greeks took part in their performance.

The fresco also influenced the style of Novgorod icons of the 14th century, which became freer and more picturesque. Works of the Pskov icon painters of the XIV century. are distinguished by bold color modeling and unusual coloring based on a combination of orange-red, green, brown and yellow tones. The gloomy expressiveness of the images of saints not in Pskov icons reveals their well-known closeness to the works of Theophan the Greek.

North in the 14th century the Vologda school of painting was formed. Her famous representative- icon painter Dionysius Glushitsky. Vologda icons are dominated by dark, somewhat muted tones. Archaic traditions persistent in the north make the icons of the northern writing of the XIV-XV centuries. often similar in style to monuments of an earlier period.

The flourishing of Novgorod painting occurred in the 15th century. On the Novgorod icons there is a specific selection of saints: Ilya, Vasily, Flor and Laurus, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Anastasia, Nikola, George. They were associated in the popular mind with the forces of nature and were called upon to protect a person, his house and economy. The iconography reveals traces of the impact of pagan survivals, folklore, local historical events, and everyday life. Extraordinary activity and well-known democracy public life Novgorod contributed to the formation of a special ideal of a person in local painting - decisive, energetic, strong. Novgorod icons are characterized by confident, harsh drawings, symmetrical compositions, and bright, cold tones.

From the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries. the artistic role of Moscow is enhanced. Feofan Grek, Prokhor from Gorodets, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. In the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Feofan slightly increased the size of the icons of Christ, the Mother of God and the saints and achieved a clear expressiveness of the silhouette (“deesis rank”). This rank had great importance for the subsequent development of the Russian high iconostasis. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local masters, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's. In 1408, Andrey Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft harmonious tones of the painting are imbued with a sense of peace. The icons of the Zvenigorod rank, painted somewhat later by Rublev, are a purely Russian interpretation of the theme of the deesis. The image of the blessing Christ is full of inner strength and wise calmness. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art the bright sides of life and the state of mind of a person. In his works, the inner turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is not replaced by the beauty of peace of mind and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, nationwide character. In the remarkable icon "Trinity", painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. The figures of angels, sitting with their heads bowed to each other in silent conversation, form a circle - a symbol of eternity, and smooth, harmonious lines evoke a mood of bright, concentrated thoughtfulness. Delicate, subtly coordinated tones, among which golden and sonorous blue predominate, the inner freedom of a precisely found composition with its expressive rhythm are closely related to the deeply human intention of this brilliant work.

In the last third of the XV century. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, created during the formation of the Russian centralized state headed by Moscow, a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of masters to the artistic form, features of festivity and decorativeness increase. The delicate drawing and exquisite coloring of the icons of Dionysius, with strongly elongated graceful figures, are full of elegant solemnity. But in psychological terms, his images are inferior to Rublevsky. Created by Dionysius and his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, the murals of the cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Kirillov are marked by a special softness of color, the beauty of compositions subordinate to the plane of the wall with graceful figures, as it were, sliding. Numerous works of Dionysius and the artists of his school caused widespread irritation to them. At the end of the XV century. Moscow artists go to Novgorod, Pskov, to the North, to the cities of the Volga region, and the best masters of these art centers go to work in Moscow, where they get acquainted with the creative techniques of the capital's painters. Moscow art is gradually leveling the local schools and subordinating them to a common pattern.

In the XVI century. the strengthening of the state and the church was accompanied by a theoretical development of questions about royal power, about the attitude of the church towards it, about the role of art in worship, about ways of translating church plots. Art under the influence of dogmatic theological literature becomes artificially complex, scholastically abstract. Numerous speculative allegories and symbols often obscure the content and overload the composition. The letter becomes smaller, the style loses its monumentality and clarity. The unpreserved painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, executed on the basis of the “Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”, clearly illustrated the idea of continuity of power of the Moscow autocrats. Painted on the occasion of the capture of Kazan, the icon-picture "Church Militant", representing the apotheosis of Ivan the Terrible, is filled with allegories and historical parallels. In such works, political, secular tendencies became predominant. These tendencies were even stronger in the miniature of a number of handwritten books. The largest book-writing workshops were located in Novgorod, Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The fundamental "Facial Vault" contains about 16,000 miniatures. Military and genre scenes with everyday details drawn from life are made in a graphic manner and tinted with watercolors. They appear multifaceted constructions of space, a real landscape. Typography, the first experiments of which in the 50s. XVI century., marked the beginning of Russian engraving. Ivan Fedorov found an artistic solution for it, independent of icon and miniature painting.

At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. in Moscow, two trends in painting were formed, conditionally called by the names of their zealous supporters "Godunov" and "Stroganov", the first of them gravitated towards the strict style of icons and monumental painting of the 15th-16th centuries, but also showed typical for the masters of the 16th century. love for royal splendor, and when illustrating psalters, it revived the old tradition of designing manuscripts with marginal drawings. The Stroganov school cultivated small, smartly refined writing, combining colors with gold and silver; icons were painted for the home chapels of wealthy feudal lords - connoisseurs of sophisticated craftsmanship. The somewhat pampered beauty and defenseless weakness of the saints in colorful robes, the background with a complex fantastic landscape are characteristic of the works of the masters of this school - Emelyan Moskvitin, Stefan Pakhiri, the royal icon painters Procopius Chirin, the Savin family, and others.

Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the 17th century. delayed the development of art, but by the 1640s artistic creativity visibly revived. The social contingent of customers has expanded. Along with the royal court, the clergy and the boyars, merchants and wealthy townspeople carried out intensive construction and decoration of stone churches and chambers. The number of artists is growing, sometimes insufficiently professionally trained, which reduces the overall level of skill. But among those who came from the urban lower classes and state peasants there were many people with a bright talent who created murals, icons, miniatures that amaze with the freshness of their worldview, freedom and variety of interpretation of plots, and the courage of technical methods. Art is democratizing, becoming more understandable and accessible, approaching the people's worldview. Many names of masters of the 17th century are known. - Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, most often working in large artels: some masters planned compositions on the walls of the church, others painted faces, still others - clothes and draperies, fourth - architecture and landscapes, fifth - ornaments, etc. Collective creativity worked out clearly pronounced uniformity. In icon painting of the 1st half of the 17th century. Traditions of the Stroganov school are traced. The author of the icon “Aleksy, Metropolitan of Moscow” lovingly colors both the magnificent robe of the saint, and the intricate clouds of the background, and the landscape spreading below. In icons designed to be perceived from a distance, the shapes are larger, the line is more energetic, the silhouette is more expressive, the coloring is simpler and duller. Monumental painting develops under the noticeable influence of icon painting and Western European engraving. Plots are multiplied, reduced to an entertaining story with everyday details, the scale of the figures is reduced, the drawing loses its former laconic expressiveness, individual images are crowded out endlessly by repetitive types.

In the middle of the XVII century. The Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin became the center of art painting, which strongly influenced Russian art as a whole. Its painters were masters of the widest range: they painted wall paintings, icons and miniatures, painted furniture and household utensils, painted royal portraits, decorated church and secular holidays, etc. And although the frequent change of occupations developed stereotyped techniques among the masters, the Armory art at a very high professional level. Here, the first special treatises on painting in the history of Russian art, written by Iosif Vladimirov and Simon Ushakov, arose, posing the problem of the life-like plausibility of icon images. In painting, Ushakov paid the main attention to the chiaroscuro molding of the form, achieving softness of transitions, three-dimensionality of the image, persistently achieving the impression of their reality.

In the 17th century in Russian art, a new genre appeared for him - a portrait. Until the middle of the XVII century. the authors of the portraits still follow icon-painting principles, and their works differ little from icons. Later, not without the influence of foreigners working in Russia, techniques appear in the portrait. Western European painting, facial features are accurately fixed, the volume of the figure is revealed, although the interpretation of the clothes remains flat, and the image as a whole is frozen and motionless.

The mural painting of the Yaroslavl and Kostroma icon painters, who also worked in Moscow, Rostov, Romanov and Borisoglebskaya Sloboda, Vologda, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and other cities, is marked by inexhaustible fantasy, interest in the surrounding reality. The craftsmen were able to add interest and decorativeness to multi-figure, full of dynamics, multi-color murals covering the walls and vaults of temples with a picturesque carpet. A number of scenes are formed into narrative cycles with many subtly noticed everyday details and motifs from real landscapes. These murals, like the icons in the Yaroslavl church of Elijah the Prophet and several excellent icons of Semyon Kolmogorodets, are permeated with the optimistic attitude of people who still timidly but joyfully reveal the beauty of earthly life.

The art of the 17th century, predominantly narrative and decorative, strove for literacy and external expressiveness, which was often achieved through a very free interpretation of iconographic scenes and saturating them with everyday details. This, as well as the constant interest of artists in the portrait and in the depiction of real buildings and landscapes, prepared Russian art for the transition to the path of secular development. This transition was impossible, however, without a decisive liberation of art from the influence of the church, without the introduction of the secular principle into the culture, which was carried with it by the reforms of Peter I.

Usually the statues were made in wood, although individual works in metal: a self-portrait of master Avram on the trophy bronze gates of Sophia of Novgorod, collected by him at the turn of the 12th – 14th centuries; silver figure of Tsarevich Dmitry by Gavrila Ovdokimov “with comrades”. There is also a sculpture in stone: "George" by V. D. Yermolin, large commemorative crosses with reliefs. As a rule, wooden sculpture was polychrome. Local painting with tempera paints brought it closer to the icon. This proximity was aggravated by the fact that the reliefs did not protrude beyond the plane of the untouched edge of the board framing the image, and the flattened figures, designed for strictly frontal perception, were placed in icon cases with a colored background, the density of color and the weight of the volume, reinforcing each other, create a special intensity of the decorative sound of the sculpture. . Figures deployed on a plane retain the integrity and power of a rounded tree block. Shallow geometrized cuts, denoting clothes and armor, emphasize the monumentality of the volume and the impenetrable hardness of the mass, in contrast to which the finely modeled facial features acquire increased spirituality, revealing the inner life concentrated in majestic, frozen figures. As in painting, in sculpture, the lofty idea was expressed by the rhythm, proportions, and silhouette of closed compositions, endowing the bodily appearance of the saints with intense spirituality, devoid of individual features.

During the XIV - XVII centuries. Sculpture went through the same general evolution as painting, from a lapidary, generalized treatment of static figures to greater narrative and freedom in conveying movement. Not directly related to the Byzantine tradition, sculpture was freer in embodying the local understanding of the ideals of moral beauty and strength. Echoes of pre-Christian traditions are felt in some local schools. These traditions, although they called for decisive measures on the part of the church to eradicate them, found their direct development in folk sculpture of the 18th-19th centuries.

The revival of arts and crafts in the post-Mongol period was complicated by the fact that many craftsmen were captured and a number of craft skills were lost. From the middle of the XIV century. jewelry art revived. The setting of the “Gospel of the boyar Fyodor Koshka” with chased relief figures in multi-lobed frames and with the finest filigree, a jasper chalice made by Ivan Fomin with embossing and filigree, chased censers, “ions”, reproducing the forms of hipped and domed churches, brothers, ladles, bowls, cast with the chasing panagiar of the Novgorod master Ivan, they retain the tectonic clarity of form and ornament, emphasizing the structure of the object. In the XVI century. chasing and filigree are complemented by enamel. In the 17th century floral ornamentation develops, completely braiding the products. Moscow and Solvychegodsk enamel, losing in the subtlety of execution and integrity of the color range, wins in brightness and richness of shades, competing with the brilliance of precious stones. By order of the Stroganovs, in Solvychegodsk, items of the “Usolsky case” are made, painted with bright fairy-tale colors on white ground enamel. There are plot images bearing the imprint of Western European influence. From the 16th century a niello with a clear beautiful pattern is used, corresponding to the shape of the products. From the 2nd half of the 17th century. and patterning grows in the niello, oriental motifs spread. Only towards the end of the century is a more rigorous ornament revived. Basma is widely used, covering wood products, decorating the backgrounds of icons. In the XIV - early XV centuries. it uses an ornament in the form of flowers in circles, borrowed from Byzantine and Balkan manuscripts. In the 17th century its bizarre floral patterns acquire a purely Russian character. Fascination in the 17th century lush ornamentation leads to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns that were previously made of gold were assembled. Casting from non-ferrous metals experienced the same evolution - from the Tsar Cannon by Andrey Chokhov to the bronze canopy of Dmitry Sverchkov in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow and to tin openwork cast frames for icon cases of the 17th century. Even in iron products there is a fascination with patterned forms: forged lattices of the Moscow church of St. George of Neo-Caesarius, gates made of pierced iron in the Ryazan Assumption Cathedral, hinges and door handles of ordinary buildings.

In the bone carvings of the XV century. unexpired forms are visible animal style» in openwork ornament. In the "Crucifixion" of the XVI century. The Uglich Museum of History and Art was affected by the elongated-graceful proportions of the figures of Dionysius. In the 17th century the art of carvers from Kholmogory is highly valued in Moscow, where they work, decorating their products with birds and animals “in herbs”. Particularly good are numerous caskets with large end-to-end floral ornaments.

Few large examples of woodcarving of the XIV-XVI centuries have come down to us. Such is the Ludogoshchinsky cross from Novgorod, sharp in silhouette, decorated with complex ornaments and images of saints. More small wooden items have been preserved, among which the work of the craftsman Ambrose stands out with the subtlety and beauty of execution. In the XVI century. elements of oriental art penetrate into wooden carving. A virtuoso small flat-relief openwork carving of the Royal Doors from the Church of St. John the Theologian on Ishna near Rostov, made by the monk Isaiah. Throne of Ivan the Terrible with a tent and carved historical scenes and holy places of the XVI-XVII centuries. with a relatively fractional pattern, they are distinguished by the architectural clarity of complexly arranged completions. Sophisticated Yaroslavl openwork carving resembles the clarity of metal forms. From the middle of the XVII century. a number of Belarusian carvers led by Klim Mikhailov came to Moscow, who introduced Western European baroque forms. "Belarusian carving" has become widespread in iconostases, striking in the richness and variety of details. Its forms were also used in outdoor white-stone decor. If a variety of wooden ladles and dishes of the XVI-XVII centuries. differed in soft plasticity of rounded shapes, tinted with a light geometric ornament, large openwork plant motifs were used in the furniture. Geometric trihedral carving adorned caskets, candle boxes, tables. Often, furniture used forms borrowed from architectural decoration. Carvings were often colorfully painted.

The painting was predominantly ornamental. In terms of technique and character, for a long time she retained a connection with icon painting. Apparently, in the XVI century. there is a "golden" painting of wooden utensils, later known as Khokhloma. The painting extends to the walls, window glass, carved decor in the interior. Often, ornamental shoots completely cover the surface of objects. These motives existed in the Russian regions until recently. In the 17th century on furniture and utensils there is a "bite letter" - everyday scenes, fairy creatures etc.

Household ceramics of the XIV-XV centuries. crude and primitive in form. Only since the 16th century "Staining" and burnishing are used. On flasks of the 17th century. geometric ornamentation appears, and then flat-relief images of figures. Many products reproduce metal forms, the influence of wooden carving is visible in the ornamentation. From the end of the XV century. figured balusters and red terracotta tiles, decorated with palmettes, and sometimes covered with light ocher glaze, are included in the decor of the facades. In the 17th century green tiles with relief household and military scenes are made for the decoration of buildings. From the middle of the XVII century. Belarusian craftsmen made multi-colored tiles for the cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery in Istra.

Sewing had much in common with painting. The best sewing workshops were in the 16th century. concentrated in Moscow at the royal court. Two large shrouds came out of the Staritskys' workshop, differing in their deep psychological characteristics of the characters and impeccable artistic technique.

Heels of the 16th-17th centuries along with geometric and floral motifs, possibly dating back to pre-Mongolian patterns, they reproduce eastern and western ornaments of imported silk fabrics. At the end of the XVII century. a three- and four-color heel appears. During the XIV-XVII centuries. there was a highly developed patterned weaving, as evidenced by the canvas of the icon of the "Zvenigorod rank" by Andrei Rublev. In the 17th century gold lace with geometric mesh motifs or with plant elements is gaining popularity. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, colored drilled stone are introduced into the patterns. Some designs from the 17th century lived in thread linen lace until the 20th century.

In the XIV-XVII centuries. art in Russia developed under the great influence of the church. IN architectural monuments churches predominate, in the monuments of painting - icons. There was also a strong influence of Byzantine motifs on the development of Rus' during this period. Only a part of the crafts not subject to this influence developed independently. The exit of Russian art from under the influence of the church began only at the end of the XVI - early XVI 1st century, which gave a powerful impetus to development.

List of used literature:

1. Art of countries and peoples of the world. Art Encyclopedia.

2. Gribushina N. G. "History of world artistic culture".

3. Encyclopedic dictionary of a young artist.

4. Ilyina T. V. "History of Arts".

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Other Documents Like Russian Culture of the 14th–17th Centuries

Essay

on the topic "Russian culture of the XIV - XVII centuries"

Tula 2008

Introduction

1. Architecture

2. Visual arts

Bibliography

Introduction

From the 10th century almost half of the European part of Russia became part of the feudal Old Russian state, where an original artistic culture has developed with a number of local schools (southwestern, western, Novgorod-Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal), which has accumulated experience in the construction and improvement of cities, created wonderful monuments of ancient architecture, frescoes, mosaics, icons. Its development was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led Ancient Rus' to economic and cultural decline and to the isolation of the southwestern lands that became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state. After a period of stagnation in the Old Russian lands located on the territory of Russia from the end of the 13th century. Russian (Great Russian) artistic culture begins to take shape. In its development, more tangibly than in the art of Ancient Rus', the influence of the urban lower classes, which became an important social force in the struggle to get rid of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and unite Russian lands, manifested itself. Leading already in the XIV century. this struggle grand-ducal Moscow synthesizes the achievements of local schools and from the 15th century. becomes an important political and cultural center, where the art of Andrei Rublev, imbued with a deep faith in the beauty of a moral feat, and the architecture of the Kremlin proportionate to man in its grandeur are formed. The apotheosis of the ideas of unification and strengthening of the Russian state was embodied in the temples-monuments of the 16th century.

Architecture

With the development of economic and social relations in the XVII century. the isolation of individual regions is finally liquidated, and international relations are expanding, secular features are growing in art. Without going out as a whole almost until the end of the 17th century. outside the framework of religious forms, art reflected the crisis of the official church ideology and gradually lost the integrity of the worldview: direct life observations destroyed the conditional system of church iconography, and the details borrowed from Western European architecture came into conflict with the traditional composition of the Russian church. But this partly prepared the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the church, which took place by the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of the reforms of Peter I.

After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicles for a long time mention only the construction of wooden structures that have not survived to us. From the end of the XIII century. in North-Western Rus', which escaped ruin, stone architecture, primarily military architecture, is also being revived. Stone city fortifications of Novgorod and Pskov, fortresses on riverine capes (Koporye) or on islands are being erected, sometimes with an additional wall at the entrance, forming together with the main protective corridor - "zakhab" (Izborsk, Porkhov). From the middle of the XIV century. the walls are strengthened by mighty towers, at the beginning above the gates, and then along the entire perimeter of the fortifications, which in the 15th century received a layout close to regular. The uneven masonry of rough-hewn limestone and boulders endowed the structure with painting and enhanced their plastic expressiveness. The masonry of the walls of small single-dome four-pillar churches of the late 13th - 1st half of the 14th centuries was the same, to which the plastering of the facades gave a monolithic appearance. The temples were built at the expense of the boyars, wealthy merchants. Becoming the architectural dominants of certain districts of the city, they enriched its silhouette and created a gradual transition of a representative stone kremlin to an irregular wooden residential building, following the natural relief. It was dominated by 1-2 storey houses on basements, sometimes three-part, with a passage in the middle.

In Novgorod, its former layout developed, streets leading to the Volkhov were added. The stone walls of Detinets and the Roundabout City, as well as churches built at the expense of individual boyars, merchants and groups of citizens, changed the face of Novgorod. In the XIII-XIV centuries. architects move in the completion of the facades of churches from semicircles-zakomar to more dynamic pediments - "tongs" or more often to three-blade curves, corresponding to the shape of vaults, lower over the corners of the temple. The temples of the 2nd half of the 14th century are majestic and elegant. - the heyday of the Novgorod Republic, which more fully reflected the worldview and tastes of the townspeople. Slender, of elongated proportions, covered with eight slopes along three-bladed curves, which was later often altered to gable, they combine the picturesqueness and plastic richness of the architectural decor (ledged blades on the facades, decorative arcades on the apses, patterned brickwork, embossed "edges" above the windows , lancet completions of perspective portals) with tectonic clarity and compactness of the upwardly directed composition. The wide arrangement of pillars inside made the interiors more spacious. In the XV century. Novgorod churches become more intimate and cozier, and porches, porches, storerooms appear in the sub-church. From the XIV-XV centuries. in Novgorod, stone residential buildings with basements and porches appear. The one-pillar "Chamber of Facets" in the courtyard of Archbishop Euthymius, built with the participation of Western masters, has Gothic rib vaults. In other chambers, the walls were divided by shoulder blades and horizontal bands, which passed into the monastery refectories of the 16th century.

In Pskov, which became independent from Novgorod in 1348, the main Trinity Cathedral, judging by the drawing of the 17th century, had zakomaras located at different levels, three vestibules and decorative details similar to those of Novgorod. Placed in the Kremlin (Krom) on a high cape at the confluence of Pskov and Velikaya, the cathedral dominated the city, which grew to the south, forming new parts, fenced with stone walls, cut through by streets leading to the Kremlin. Later, the Pskovians developed the type of a four-pillar, three-apse parish church with a pozakomar, and later an eight-slope gabled roof. Galleries, chapels, porches with thick round pillars and belfries gave these squat buildings, as if fashioned by hand, erected outside the Kremlin, a special picturesqueness. In the Pskov pillarless one-apse churches of the 16th century. the drum with a dome rested on intersecting barrel vaults or stepped arches. In Pskov, as in Novgorod, the streets had log pavements and were also built up with wooden houses.

With the beginning of the revival of Moscow in it in the 1320-1330s. the first white-stone temples appear. The not-preserved Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor with belts of carved ornament on the facades ascended in type to the four-pillared with three apses Vladimir temple of the pre-Mongolian period. In the second half of the XIV century. the first stone walls of the Kremlin are being built on a triangular hill at the confluence of the Neglinnaya with the Moscow River. To the east of the Kremlin there was a settlement with a main street parallel to the Moscow River. Similar in plan to earlier ones, temples of the late XIV - early XV centuries. thanks to the use of additional kokoshniks at the base of the drum, raised on spring arches, a tiered top composition was obtained. This gave the buildings a picturesque and festive character, enhanced by the keeled outlines of the zakomar and the tops of the portals, carved belts and thin semi-columns on the facades. In the cathedral of the Moscow Andronikov Monastery, the corner parts of the main volume are greatly reduced, and the composition of the top is especially dynamic. In the pillarless churches of the Moscow school of the XIV-beginning of the XV centuries. each facade was sometimes crowned with three kokoshniks.

Formation by the end of the XV century. The centralized state put forward the task of widely deploying the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital - Moscow - to build temples and palaces that meet its significance. For this, architects and masons from other Russian cities, Italian architects and fortification engineers were invited to the capital. The main building material was brick. The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half of the 15th century. expanded to its current size, and the settlement covered it from three sides and was cut through by radial streets. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, part of the settlement was surrounded in the 1530s. stone wall, and then the stone wall of the White City and the earthen wall of the Earthen City surrounded the capital with two rings, which determined the radial-ring layout of Moscow. The monasteries-fortresses that protected the approaches to the city and were consonant with the Kremlin in their silhouette, eventually became composition centers outskirts of Moscow. Radial streets with log pavements led to the center through the towered gates of Zemlyanoy and Bely Gorods. Residential development of city streets consisted mainly of wooden houses, which had two or three floors on the basement, separate roofs over each part of the house, middle vestibule and porch.

The Kremlins of other cities, as in Moscow, followed the terrain in their plans, and on level ground they had regular rectangular plans. The fortress walls became taller and thicker. Hinged loopholes and battlements in the form of a dovetail, used by Italian architects in the Moscow Kremlin, also appeared in the Kremlin of Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, and others. Freer from new influences were the fortresses of the distant Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries, with powerful walls and towers built of large boulders and almost devoid of decorations.

The surviving part of the Grand Duke's Kremlin Palace in Moscow with a huge one-pillar hall is endowed with features of Western architecture (faceted rustication, double windows, Renaissance cornice), but the entire composition of the palace, which was composed of separate buildings with passages and porches, is close to the composition of wooden choirs. In the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, which was proposed to be built like the cathedral of the same name of the XII century. in Vladimir, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture underwent a significant rethinking. The majestic five-domed temple with rare slit-like windows cut in mighty drums and in the smoothness of the walls, girded with arcade frieze, is more powerful in proportions and more monumental than its prototype. An impressive contrast to the somewhat austere facades of the cathedral is the interior with six evenly spaced high thin pillars, giving it the appearance of a front hall. The temple-bell tower of Ivan the Great, dominating not only the Kremlin, but the whole of Moscow, has become a traditional model for similar high-rise dominants in other Russian cities. An attempt to transfer the motifs of the early Venetian Renaissance to the Russian temple led to a discrepancy between the tiered divisions of the facade. In other temples of the second half of the XV-XVI centuries. there are characteristic of Moscow architecture of the XIV-XV centuries. tiers of keeled zakomaras, but their rhythm is less dynamic, and the measured divisions of the facades, decorated with arched friezes, patterned masonry with terracotta details, make the temples elegantly majestic. Terracotta details are found in Belozerye and the Upper Volga region, for example, in the palace chamber in Uglich, where crowning tongs over smooth walls are filled with patterned brickwork with terracotta inserts. The facades of other secular buildings of this time are usually more modest.

The growth of the Russian state and national self-consciousness after the overthrow of the Tatar yoke was reflected in the stone temples-monuments of the 16th century. Representing a high achievement of Moscow architecture, these majestic buildings, dedicated to important events, seemed to combine the dynamism of wooden hipped churches and the tiered tops of temples of the 14th-15th centuries. with the monumentality of the cathedrals of the XVI century. In the stone churches-towers, the forms inherent in stone became the leading ones - tiers of zakomars and kokoshniks around a tent cut through by windows. Sometimes the tent was replaced by a drum with a dome, or towers with domes surrounded the central tower covered with a tent. The predominance of verticals endowed with jubilant dynamism the composition of the temple directed upwards, as if growing out of the open “ambulances” surrounding it, and the elegant decor gave the building a festive solemnity.

Palaces in the 17th century evolved from picturesque dispersion to compactness and symmetry. This can be seen from the comparison of the wooden palace in the village of Kolomenskoye with the Lefortovo Palace in Moscow. The palaces of church rulers included a church, and sometimes, consisting of a number of buildings, they were surrounded by a wall with towers and looked like a Kremlin or a monastery. Monastic cells often consisted of three-part sections forming long buildings. Administrative buildings of the 17th century. looked like houses. Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk, which had 2-storey buildings with housing above and warehouses below, was at the same time a fortress with towers that dominated the surrounding buildings. The expansion of cultural ties between Russia and the West contributed to the appearance on the facades of houses and palaces of order forms and glazed tiles, in the distribution of which the Belarusian ceramists, who worked for Patriarch Nikon on the construction of the New Jerusalem Monastery in Istra, played a certain role. They began to imitate the decoration of the patriarchal cathedral and even tried to surpass it with elegance. At the end of the XVII century. order forms were made in white stone.

Churches during the 17th century the same evolution took place from complex and asymmetric compositions to clear and balanced ones, from picturesque brick "patterns" of facades to order decoration clearly placed on them. For the first half of the XVII century. typical are pillarless "patterned" churches with a refectory, aisles and a bell tower with a closed vault. They have five domes, cupolas above the aisles, tents over the porches and the bell tower, tiers of kokoshniks and cornices inspired by residential architecture, platbands, milled belts. With their fractional decor, picturesque silhouette and complexity of volume, these churches resemble rich mansions, reflecting the penetration of secular principles into church architecture and losing the monumental clarity of the composition.

2. Visual arts

In icons and miniatures of the manuscripts of Novgorod already from the 2nd half of the 13th century. purely local features that have developed here in the paintings of the 12th century are determined: a clear image, not complicated by allegories, a somewhat elementary large drawing, decorative brightness of color. On the temple icon of the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, executed by Alexa Petrov, Nicholas the Wonderworker is presented as an attentive mentor and helper to people. Rounded lines, elegant ornamentation reflected the impact of the decorative trends of folk art.

In the cities of northeastern Rus' that survived the invasion, painting developed for a long time on a pre-Mongolian basis. Art workshops were concentrated in the bishops' and princely courts, and their works have an ecclesiastical or caste princely character. Rostov icons of the XIII-XIV centuries. characterized by translucent colors, soft and warm colors. Hagiographic icons, in which the literary narrative principle is clearly expressed, were very popular. Several outstanding icons and obverse manuscripts of the 13th-14th centuries are associated with Yaroslavl. The icon "Boris and Gleb" stands out with solemn beauty, but the place of its writing has not been precisely established.

In the XIV century, with the beginning of the extensive construction of stone churches, fresco painting was revived. The frescoes of the Cathedral of the Svyatogorsk Monastery near Pskov are still close in style to the frescoes of Novgorod of the Nereditsky type. Novgorod paintings of the 2nd half of the 14th century. more free in nature. Some of them were painted by people from Byzantium: the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Ilyina Street and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field. Others were painted by the southern Slavs: the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Kovalev and the Nativity in the cemetery and the Church of Michael the Archangel of the Skovorodsky Monastery.

The most impressive are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street, executed by Feofan the Greek, as well as the frescoes of Volotov, striking in their spiritualized pathos of images and artistry. Theophan's murals, in their severe expressiveness, exceptional freedom of composition and writing, are unparalleled not only in Rus', but also in Byzantium. The frescoes of the corner chamber in the choir stalls are well preserved: images embodying ascetic ideals are distinguished by psychological tension, the writing technique - by dynamics and originality of techniques, coloring by extreme restraint. The deity and saints appear in Theophanes as a formidable force intended to control a person and remind him of his deeds in the name of a higher idea. Their dark faces with lightly placed white highlights, in contrast to which whitewashed yellow, crimson, blue tones of clothes acquire a special sonority, have a direct and deep impact on the viewer. The frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratilat are stylistically close to the paintings of the Savior on Ilyina Street. It is possible that Russian masters who studied with the Greeks took part in their performance.

The fresco also influenced the style of Novgorod icons of the 14th century, which became freer and more picturesque. Works of Pskov icon painters of the XIV century. are distinguished by bold color modeling and unusual coloring based on a combination of orange-red, green, brown and yellow tones. The gloomy expressiveness of the images of the saints on the Pskov icons reveals their closeness to the works of Theophan the Greek.

North in the 14th century the Vologda school of painting was formed. Its famous representative is the icon painter Dionysius Glushitsky. Vologda icons are dominated by dark, somewhat muted tones. Archaic traditions persistent in the north make the icons of the northern writing of the XIV-XV centuries. often similar in style to monuments of an earlier period.

The flourishing of Novgorod painting occurred in the 15th century. On the Novgorod icons there is a specific selection of saints: Ilya, Vasily, Flor and Laurus, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Anastasia, Nikola, George. They were associated in the popular mind with the forces of nature and were called upon to protect a person, his house and economy. The iconography reveals traces of the impact of pagan survivals, folklore, local historical events, and everyday life. The extraordinary activity and well-known democratism of the social life of Novgorod contributed to the formation in local painting of a special ideal of a person - resolute, energetic, strong. Novgorod icons are characterized by confident, harsh drawings, symmetrical compositions, and bright, cold tones.

From the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. the artistic role of Moscow is enhanced. Feofan Grek, Prokhor from Gorodets, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. In the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Feofan slightly increased the size of the icons of Christ, the Mother of God and the saints and achieved a clear expressiveness of the silhouette ("deesis rank"). This rank was of great importance for the subsequent development of the Russian high iconostasis. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local masters, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's. In 1408, Andrey Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft harmonious tones of the painting are imbued with a sense of peace. The icons of the Zvenigorod rank painted somewhat later by Rublev are a purely Russian interpretation of the theme of the deesis. The image of the blessing Christ is full of inner strength and wise calmness. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art the bright sides of life and the state of mind of a person. In his works, the inner turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is replaced by the beauty of peace of mind and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, nationwide character. In the remarkable icon "Trinity", painted for the cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. The figures of angels, sitting with their heads bowed to each other in silent conversation, form a circle - a symbol of eternity, and smooth, harmonious lines evoke a mood of bright, concentrated thoughtfulness. Delicate, subtly coordinated tones, among which golden and sonorous blue predominate, the inner freedom of a precisely found composition with its expressive rhythm are closely related to the deeply human intention of this brilliant work.

In the last third of the XV century. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, created during the formation of the Russian centralized state headed by Moscow, a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of masters to the artistic form, features of festivity and decorativeness increase. The delicate drawing and exquisite coloring of the icons of Dionysius, with strongly elongated graceful figures, are full of elegant solemnity. But in psychological terms, his images are inferior to Rublevsky. Created by Dionysius and his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, the murals of the cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Kirillov are marked by a special softness of color, the beauty of compositions subordinate to the plane of the wall with graceful figures, as it were, sliding. Numerous works of Dionysius and the artists of his school caused widespread irritation to them. At the end of the XV century. Moscow artists travel to Novgorod, Pskov, to the North, to the cities of the Volga region, and the best masters of these art centers go to work in Moscow, where they get acquainted with the creative techniques of the capital's painters. Moscow art is gradually leveling the local schools and subordinating them to a common pattern.

In the XVI century. the strengthening of the state and the church was accompanied by a theoretical development of questions about royal power, about the attitude of the church towards it, about the role of art in worship, about ways of translating church plots. Art under the influence of dogmatic theological literature becomes artificially complex, scholastically abstract. Numerous speculative allegories and symbols often obscure the content and overload the composition. The letter becomes smaller, the style loses its monumentality and clarity. The unpreserved painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, executed on the basis of "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir", clearly illustrated the idea of continuity of power of the Moscow autocrats. Painted on the occasion of the capture of Kazan, the icon-picture "Militant Church", representing the apotheosis of Ivan the Terrible, is filled with allegories and historical parallels. In such works, political, secular tendencies became predominant. These tendencies were even stronger in the miniature of a number of handwritten books. The largest book-writing workshops were located in Novgorod, Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The fundamental "Facial Vault" contains about 16,000 miniatures. Military and genre scenes with everyday details drawn from life are made in a graphic manner and tinted with watercolors. They appear multifaceted constructions of space, a real landscape. Printing, the first experiments of which occurred in the 50s. XVI century., marked the beginning of Russian engraving. Ivan Fedorov found for her artistic decision independent of icon and miniature painting.

At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. in Moscow, two trends in painting were formed, conditionally called by the names of their zealous supporters "Godunov" and "Stroganov". The first of them gravitated toward the strict style of icons and monumental painting of the 15th-16th centuries, but also showed a typical style for the masters of the 16th century. love for royal splendor, and when illustrating psalters, it revived the old tradition of designing manuscripts with marginal drawings. The Stroganov school cultivated small, smartly refined writing, combining colors with gold and silver; icons were painted for the home chapels of wealthy feudal lords - connoisseurs of sophisticated craftsmanship. The somewhat pampered beauty and defenseless weakness of the saints in colorful robes, the background with a complex fantastic landscape are characteristic of the works of the masters of this school - Emelyan Moskvitin, Stefan Pakhiri, the royal icon painters Procopius Chirin, the Savin family, and others.

Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the 17th century. delayed the development of art, but by the 1640s, artistic creativity noticeably revived. The social contingent of customers has expanded. Along with the royal court, the clergy and the boyars, merchants and wealthy townspeople carried out intensive construction and decoration of stone churches and chambers. The number of artists is growing, sometimes insufficiently professionally trained, which reduces the overall level of skill. But among those who came from the urban lower classes and state peasants there were many people with a bright talent who created murals, icons, miniatures that amaze with the freshness of their worldview, the freedom and variety of interpretation of plots, and the courage of technical methods. Art is democratizing, becoming more understandable and accessible, approaching the people's worldview. Many names of masters of the 17th century are known. - Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, most often working in large artels: some masters planned compositions on the walls of the church, others painted faces, still others - clothes and draperies, fourth - architecture and landscapes, fifth - ornaments, etc. Collective creativity developed a clearly expressed uniformity. In icon painting of the 1st half of the 17th century. Traditions of the Stroganov school are traced. The author of the icon "Alexy, Metropolitan of Moscow" lovingly colors both the magnificent robe of the saint, and the intricate clouds of the background, and the landscape spreading below. In icons designed to be perceived from a distance, the shapes are larger, the line is more energetic, the silhouette is more expressive, the coloring is simpler and duller. Monumental painting develops under the noticeable influence of icon painting and Western European engraving. Plots are multiplied, reduced to an entertaining story with everyday details, the scale of the figures is reduced, the drawing loses its former laconic expressiveness, individual images are crowded out endlessly by repetitive types.

In the middle of the XVII century. The Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin became the center of art painting, which strongly influenced Russian art as a whole. Its painters were masters of the widest range: they made wall paintings, icons and miniatures, painted furniture and household utensils, painted royal portraits, decorated church and secular holidays, etc. And although the frequent change of occupations developed stereotyped techniques among the masters, the Armory supported the art at a very high professional level. Here, the first special treatises on painting in the history of Russian art, written by Iosif Vladimirov and Simon Ushakov, arose, posing the problem of the life-like plausibility of icon images. In painting, Ushakov paid the main attention to the chiaroscuro molding of the form, achieving softness of transitions, three-dimensionality of the image, persistently achieving the impression of their reality.

In the 17th century in Russian art, a new genre appeared for him - a portrait. Until the middle of the XVII century. the authors of the portraits still follow icon-painting principles, and their works differ little from icons. Later, not without the influence of foreigners who worked in Russia, the techniques of Western European painting appeared in the portrait, facial features are accurately recorded, the volume of the figure is revealed, although the interpretation of clothes remains flat, and the image as a whole is frozen motionless.

Sculpture occupied a special place in the artistic life of the Russian Middle Ages. The official church treated her negatively as a relic of idolatry, but could not but reckon with her popularity among the people. In those moments of history, when the unification of all the forces of the people was especially important, the sculpture gained access to the temple, serving as an effective guide actual ideas. Therefore, it is dominated by plots that in the popular mind were associated with a heroic or high moral and aesthetic principle.

Usually the statues were made in wood, although individual works in metal are known: a self-portrait of the master Avram on the trophy bronze gates of St. Sophia of Novgorod, collected by him at the turn of the 12th - 14th centuries. ; silver figure of Tsarevich Dmitry by Gavrila Ovdokimov "with comrades". There is also a sculpture in stone: "George" by VD Yermolin, large memorial crosses with reliefs. As a rule, wooden sculpture was polychrome. Local painting with tempera paints brought it closer to the icon. This proximity was aggravated by the fact that the reliefs did not protrude beyond the plane of the untouched edge of the board framing the image, and the flattened figures, designed for strictly frontal perception, were placed in icon cases with a colored background, the density of color and the weight of the volume, reinforcing each other, create a special intensity of the decorative sound of the sculpture. . Figures deployed on a plane retain the integrity and power of a rounded tree block. Shallow geometrized cuts, denoting clothes and armor, emphasize the monumentality of the volume and the impenetrable hardness of the mass, in contrast to which the finely modeled facial features acquire increased spirituality, revealing the inner life concentrated in majestic, frozen figures. As in painting, in sculpture, the lofty idea was expressed by the rhythm, proportions, and silhouette of closed compositions, endowing the bodily appearance of the saints with intense spirituality, devoid of individual features.

During the XIV - XVII centuries. sculpture made in in general terms the same evolution as painting, from a lapidary, generalized treatment of static figures to greater narrative and freedom in the transfer of movement. Not directly related to the Byzantine tradition, sculpture was freer in embodying the local understanding of the ideals of moral beauty and strength. Echoes of pre-Christian traditions are felt in some local schools. These traditions, although they called for decisive measures on the part of the church to eradicate them, found their direct development in folk sculpture of the 18th - 19th centuries.

The revival of arts and crafts in the post-Mongol period was complicated by the fact that many craftsmen were taken prisoner, and a number of craft skills were lost. From the middle of the XIV century. jewelry art revived. Salary of the Gospel of the boyar Fyodor Koshka with chased relief figures in multi-lobed frames and with the finest filigree, a jasper chalice made by Ivan Fomin with chasing and filigree, chased censers, "ions" that reproduce the forms of hipped and domed churches, brothers, ladles, bowls, cast with chasing the panagiar of the Novgorod master Ivan retain the tectonic clarity of form and ornament, emphasizing the structure of the object. In the XVI century. chasing and filigree are complemented by enamel. In the 17th century floral ornamentation develops, completely braiding the products. Moscow and Solvychegodsk enamel, losing in the subtlety of execution and integrity of the color range, wins in brightness and richness of shades, competing with the brilliance of precious stones. By order of the Stroganovs in Solvychegodsk, objects of the "Usolsky case" are made, painted with bright fairy-tale colors on white ground enamel. There are plot images bearing the imprint of Western European influence. From the 16th century a niello with a clear beautiful pattern is used, corresponding to the shape of the products. From the 2nd half of the 17th century. and patterning grows in the niello, oriental motifs spread. Only towards the end of the century is a more rigorous ornament revived. Basma is widely used, covering wood products, decorating the backgrounds of icons. In the XIV - early XV centuries. it uses an ornament in the form of flowers in circles, borrowed from Byzantine and Balkan manuscripts. In the 17th century its bizarre floral patterns acquire a purely Russian character. Fascination in the 17th century lush ornamentation leads to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns that were previously made of gold were assembled. Casting from non-ferrous metals experienced the same evolution - from the Tsar Cannon by Andrey Chokhov to the bronze canopy of Dmitry Sverchkov in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral and to tin openwork cast frames for icon cases of the 17th century. Even in iron products there is a fascination with patterned forms: forged lattices of the Moscow church of St. George of Neo-Caesarius, gates made of pierced iron in the Ryazan Assumption Cathedral, hinges and door handles of ordinary buildings.

In the bone carvings of the XV century. one can see the inexhaustible forms of the "animal style" in the openwork ornament. In the "Crucifixion" of the XVI century. The Uglich Museum of History and Art was affected by the elongated-graceful proportions of the figures of Dionysius. In the 17th century the art of carvers from Kholmogory is highly valued in Moscow, where they work, decorating their products with birds and animals "in herbs". Particularly good are numerous caskets with large end-to-end floral ornaments.

Few large examples of woodcarving of the XIV-XVI centuries have come down to us. Such is the Ludogoshchinsky cross from Novgorod, sharp in silhouette, decorated with complex ornaments and images of saints. More small wooden items have been preserved, among which the work of the craftsman Ambrose stands out with the subtlety and beauty of execution. In the XVI century. elements of oriental art penetrate into wooden carving. The small flat-relief openwork carving of the royal gates from the Church of St. John the Theologian on Ishna near Rostov, made by the monk Isaiah, is virtuosic. Throne of Ivan the Terrible with a tent and carved historical scenes and clergy places of the 16th-17th centuries. with a relatively fractional pattern, they are distinguished by the architectural clarity of complexly arranged completions. Sophisticated Yaroslavl openwork carving resembles the clarity of metal forms. From the middle of the XVII century. a number of Belarusian carvers led by Klim Mikhailov came to Moscow, who introduced Western European baroque forms. "Belarusian carving" has become widespread in iconostases, which amaze with the richness and variety of details. Its forms were also used in outdoor white-stone decor. If a variety of wooden ladles and dishes of the XVI-XVII centuries. differed in soft plasticity of rounded shapes, tinted with a light geometric ornament, large openwork plant motifs were used in the furniture. Geometric trihedral carving adorned caskets, candle boxes, tables. Often, furniture used forms borrowed from architectural decoration. Carvings were often colorfully painted.

The painting was predominantly ornamental. In terms of technique and character, for a long time she retained a connection with icon painting. Apparently, in the XVI century. there is a "golden" painting of wooden utensils, later known as Khokhloma. The painting extends to the walls, window glass, carved decor in the interior. Often, ornamental shoots completely cover the surface of objects. These motives existed in the Russian regions until recently. In the 17th century "existential writing" appears on furniture and utensils - everyday scenes, fairy-tale creatures, etc.

Household ceramics of the XIV-XV centuries. crude and primitive in form. Only since the 16th century "Staining" and burnishing are applied. On flasks of the 17th century. geometric ornamentation appears, and then flat-relief images of figures. Many products reproduce metal forms, the influence of wooden carving is visible in the ornamentation. From the end of the XV century. figured balusters and red terracotta tiles, decorated with palmettes, and sometimes covered with light ocher glaze, are included in the decor of the facades. In the 17th century green tiles with relief household and military scenes are made for the decoration of buildings. From the middle of the XVII century. Belarusian craftsmen made multi-colored tiles for the cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery in Istra.

In the XIV-XVII centuries. art in Russia developed under the great influence of the church. Churches predominate in architectural monuments, icons dominate in monuments of painting. There was also a strong influence of Byzantine motifs on the development of Rus' during this period. Only a part of the crafts not subject to this influence developed independently. The exit of Russian art from under the influence of the church began only at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, which gave a powerful impetus to development.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion, the struggle with Lithuania and the Commonwealth caused significant damage ancient Russian culture. Many monuments of ancient architecture were destroyed, handicraft culture practically disappeared. Craftsmen forgot how to make precious jewelry, products from precious metals, the technique of making partition enamel was forgotten. WITH early XIII and until the middle of the XIV century, not a single significant stone building was built. To the detriment of quality, stone construction technology has become much simpler. The absence of stone buildings had a negative impact on the development of fresco painting.

Mongolian period in culture (XIV-XV century)

Architecture is developing. Moscow, Tver, Pskov and Novgorod become its center. Mostly temples and churches are built. A special Novgorodian style is being formed, based on picturesqueness, festivity and nationality. The best buildings created in this style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilat on the Brook and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin in Novgorod. Moscow architectural style begins to form only in the second quarter of the 15th century, finally taking shape only after the liberation from the yoke.

Painting develops. Write icons. The iconography has a Byzantine style. Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow, Tver, Vologda and Rostov schools of painting are being created. In the second half of the 14th century, the icon painter Theophanes the Greek, the author of frescoes in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin, arrived from Byzantium. Outstanding Moscow painters of this time are Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny, who painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in Trinity-Sergievsky Posad and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronnikov Kremlin in Moscow. Andrei Rublev is the author of the Trinity icon. For his work, he used biblical motifs in particular, the myth of the trinity of God. The creation of the "Trinity" had a tremendous impact on the further development of iconography. New icon painters appeared, among them Dionysius. The main theme of Russian iconography of this period is the creation of the image of the Mother of God. There are more than 800 types of icons related to this topic.

Toward the end of the 15th century, new genres appeared in literature, and social thought developed. The Mongol yoke stirred up the rise of patriotic sentiment. Poetic stories are filled with patriotism - "Zadonshchina", "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle". An outstanding thinker of this period is Sergius of Radonezh.

The heyday of the culture of Moscow Rus' (XVI-XVII centuries)

The formation of Russian national identity takes place in the heyday of the Muscovite kingdom. Liberation from the yoke was the impetus for the formation of an all-Russian culture. At the beginning of the 16th century, printed books appeared. The first printed book "Apostle" was printed by Ivan Fedorov in 1564. In 1574 the first Russian primer was published. During the first century of the printing press in Russia, up to 20 books were printed, mostly church ones.

In the literature of this period, one of the fundamental questions of the existence of the state is raised - the question of origin, place and role in the world. The famous "Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" attempts to explain the origin of the Russian princes from the Roman emperor Augustus and the receipt by Vladimir Monomakh of the royal regalia from the hands of the emperor Constantine himself. The Pskov elder Philotheus puts forward the idea of Moscow as the third Rome. Philotheus believed that Rome, once the center of the Christian world, lost its position, Constantinople became the new center, the fall of which allowed Moscow to become the center of all Orthodox Christianity.

In the 16th century, social thought received a new development. There are disputes over the structure of the state, the status of the church, the position of individual social strata. There is a new genre in literature - journalism. Of particular interest is the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky. Confident in the divine origin of royal power, Ivan the Terrible tries to convince his opponent of the right to judge not only for deeds, but also for thoughts.
The general cultural boom also affected the field of architecture. the most beautiful architectural ensemble This period is the Moscow Kremlin, consisting of three magnificent churches: the five-domed Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479), the three-domed Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489), the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509).

The architect of the Assumption Cathedral was Aristotle Fioravanti. The structure was distinguished by splendor, rigor and restraint of style. The Cathedral of the Annunciation was distinguished by elegance and sophistication, included the Church of the Deposition of the Robe, was connected to the palace complex, which included the Faceted Chamber, built between 1487 and 1492, by the architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario. When creating the Archangel Cathedral, secular elements were used. The building was used as the tomb of the great princes.

The Kremlin was surrounded by brick walls, over 2 kilometers long. Also, 18 towers were built, which are not only protective fortifications, but also a real work of architectural architecture. The tent style, which continued the traditions of Russian wooden architecture, is becoming a new trend in architecture. The Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1530-1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral (1555-1561) were built in the tent style.

Western European culture has an impact on Russian painting, artists give more and more preference to secular subjects. At the beginning of the 17th century, there were two schools of painting in Russia: Godunovskaya and Stroganovskaya. Representatives of the Godunov school adhered to the traditions of the past, focusing on the ruble-Dionysian style of painting.

The Stroganov school focused on the creation of iconic miniatures with meticulous fine writing, intricate designs and polychrome coloring, including silver and gold painting. A prominent representative of the school is Simon Ushakov, one of the painters who took part in the painting of the Armory.

During this period, fresco painting continued to develop and even the first treatises on painting appeared. Freed from external influences, the culture of the Muscovite state entered a new direction. Painters, architects and writers have more scope for creative thought than ever before.

With the decline of Kievan Rus, the first civilizational cycle in the development of Russian culture ended. The process of formation of the Russian cultural archetype falls on the next period in the history of Russia. It is formed in the era of the Muscovite kingdom in the XIV-XVII centuries. There are differences and continuity in the development of these two civilizational cycles. With the fall of Kievan Rus, the path of inclusion in Christian civilization, familiarization with European values was not used. A Moscow subculture is being formed, in the formation of which a geopolitical factor played an important role: the middle position between the civilizations of the East and West and not joining either of them, the shift of the center of the country to the northeast. On the new soil, there was a delay in the development of immigrants from Kievan Rus. Under the auspices of the church, national self-consciousness is being developed. As a result of the imposition of Orthodox values on pagan culture, a certain type of person is formed.

From the XII century, active migration began from Kievan Rus to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. There was a mixture of Russian Slavs with the peoples of the Finno-Ugric group (Merya, Mordva, Mari), the formation of the Russian nationality - the Great Russians began. The lands were settled quickly, but unlike Kievan Rus, there were few cities here. The settlers lived in a different geographical environment, in the forests. A different way of life was emerging. Sustainability required great physical effort, hard work, to which they were doomed for centuries. Even the physical type of people has changed. The Mongol-Tatar yoke delayed the development of the country. On the land of Rus', cities, villages, crafts were destroyed, the culture of agriculture was lost, and the population decreased. The formation of the sub-civilization of Moscow Rus was determined by its complex and contradictory connection with the Golden Horde. On the one hand, hostility to the conquerors, on the other hand, the Horde was the metropolis

In the XIV-XV centuries, a centralized state with its capital in Moscow was formed in the north-east of Rus'. The socio-political system that was being formed in the Great Russian state bore the features of the strongest eastern influence, especially from the middle of the 14th century, when the Horde converted to Islam. Such "Islamization" of certain aspects of social culture did not contribute to softening the despotic principles of Russian life and the system of government. At the same time, the importance of this eastern component in the political and social culture of Muscovite Rus, especially in the sphere of worldview, cannot be exaggerated. The country did not remain Christian, and the dramatic events of history and the Eastern Christian Church had a decisive influence on the formation of the system of values and picture of the world that were characteristic of medieval Russia. With the fall of Constantinople in 1454, the Russian Orthodox Church gradually gains independence and at the same time moves away from Western Christendom. Rus' recognizes itself as the only defender of Christianity. She accepts the mission of saving, reviving and spreading Orthodoxy around the world. Thus, Muscovite Rus recognizes itself as "Holy Rus", and Moscow as "the third Rome".

The development of Moscow-centrism was also facilitated by an external factor - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where in the 15th century many Russian cities received the status of self-government, and followed the path of development according to the all-European model. The cultural isolationism of Moscow was directed against the West, based on the antagonism between Orthodoxy and Catholicism.

If in the West society is freed from the influence of the church, then in Moscow, on the contrary, this influence is increasing, having a great impact on the life of the state and the daily life of people. Religious asceticism in the name of Christ and society has become a social ideal. Saint Sergius of Radonezh and Prince Dmitry Donskoy became the spiritual symbols of Moscow.

Since 1547, from the wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom, Rus' began to be called Russia by the pope. Official name countries - the Russian state, Russia. In 1480, Moscow's dependence on the Golden Horde was eliminated. But the influence of the culture of the eastern type on the Russian lands has not weakened. Ivan IV did not accept the European type of the Soviet state. His ideal is an unlimited monarchy, where power is sanctioned by the church. The oprichnina served this purpose. It was the most culturally and psychologically unique event in the history of Muscovite Rus'. Oprichnina is a unique in the world practice, atypical for Russia "political carnival". Almost a century and a half later, another tsar, the young Peter I, would start the same type of “carnival” (but with different goals). Pugachev's "generals") behaved like conquerors in their own country, it was the psychology of impostors playing the card of their formal legality in relation to existing norms and at the same time asserting a new legality of their power based on the right of force.

The political "carnival" and imposture turned into a very specific tool for Russia to legitimize mass violence. As a result of the oprichnina, the problem of power and the state seemed to be in favor of power, eliminating the economically independent power of the owner, who could be the basis of the civil society that was being formed in Russia. In Europe in the 16th century, society spoke in favor of the liquidation of church property. The care of the church about the soul, economic affairs are secular concerns. In Russia in the 15th century, discussions about church property reached a higher range of questions - about the ways of its development. The principle of unity of church and state was confirmed.

By the 16th century, special specific features Russian national self-consciousness: 1) The combination of spirituality characteristic of the East, focused on the highest sense of being, expressed in Orthodoxy, with the desire for freedom, democracy, characteristic of the West. 2) Collectivism and weakly expressed personal consciousness. 3) Adherence to the values of Orthodoxy with its peculiar outlook on the world. 4) The priority of state principles, the interests of the state. The power acquired in the course of the struggle for independence was considered the main national asset, and its interests were perceived as the interests of everyone personally.

The 17th century in the history of Russian culture was "rebellious", when the old and the new were mixed up. The medieval worldview is being destroyed, the picture of the world is changing. People XVII centuries, the decline of the past culture was experienced as a personal and national tragedy. It was a time of rivalry between two cultures - baroque and "peasant". The old everyday culture is being replaced by a new one under the slogan "What we used to boast about, we are now ashamed of." In place of the religious, vertical concept of time "eternity-temporality" comes the horizontal "past-present-future". The idea of unity, transience, infinity of history, reorientation from the past to the future appears in Russian culture. At the beginning of the 17th century, Boris Godunov showed interest in education, culture, and the successes of Western civilization. Trade with the West was encouraged, several noble "guys" were sent to study abroad. Much attention was paid to the development of cities. They became centers of culture, the Kremlin was rebuilt in Moscow. But only 2% of the population lived in Russian cities. The bulk of the population are peasants. Their situation remained unchanged, the country was slipping into civil war.

Since 1613, a new Romanov dynasty has been ruling in Russia, which will stay on the throne for more than 300 years. From the 17th century, the process of the collapse of the authority of state and church authorities began. Documents of that period record the "irreverent" attitude towards the king, the so-called "deviating" behavior, as a symptom social activity wt. Russia needed to be reformed, but this was impossible without preliminary changes in the spiritual sphere. These reforms were initiated by Patriarch Nikon. The church pursued the following goals:

elimination of differences in theological practice between the Greek and Russian churches. This made it possible to restore ties with the European Orthodox world, tie Russia to Europe spiritually and thereby expand the possibilities for influence in the Christian world;

introduction of uniformity in church service throughout the country, since worship was conducted in different places, there were features of pagan cults.

Nikon's reform was moderate, incomparable with the religious reformation in the West. But even this attempt aroused resistance from a significant part of society and the church. There was a split. From now on, the social split as a consequence of the reform will accompany the entire history of Russia. Nikon's supporters advocated the renewal of society, opponents - for the preservation of Orthodox antiquity unchanged. Both here and there were people of different strata, social status. The question of the relationship between spiritual and secular power was discussed at the council of 1666. The Church came to the conclusion that it was necessary to separate the secular and spiritual spheres of activity. The Russian Orthodox Church has drawn closer to the Orthodox world. Changes in such a complex sphere as the spiritual opened the way for the activity of Peter I, the great reformer of Russia.

During the period of the Muscovite kingdom, the process of formation of the Russian national character was going on. Character is a set of psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in his behavior and actions. This is a stable beginning in a person. His development is very long. Its formation was influenced by natural conditions, certain archetypes that underlie human behavior. In all its complexity, the Russian character was "discovered" in the 17th century. Writers of his contemporaries began to notice and describe him. The roots of the new view of man are in the departure from the theological point of view on him, which began in the 16th century.

The “discovery” of the Russian character in the 17th century defined a new outlook on a person, his role in historical events in understanding his own destiny. The new man felt himself the owner of the truth, the creator of history. He created syllabic poetry, portraiture, parterre music. Through his work, Russia overcame cultural loneliness, joined European civilization, and became a European power. By the end of the century, a new layer appears in the system of values - utilitarianism develops, breaking through into the mass consciousness. The idea of human welfare is specified.

During the period of the Muscovite kingdom, the process of secularization, the liberation of art from its subordination to church canons, was gaining momentum. From the second half of the 14th century, the influence of local features Russian culture. Previously, this trend manifested itself in the Moscow historical literature, which acquired an all-Russian character and became the bearer of the idea of \u200b\u200bunity and patriotism (“The Legend of the Mamaev Massacre”). The victory at the Kulikovo field raised the spirit and self-consciousness of the Russian people. A number of works arose that called for the unity of the Russian lands in order to liberate them from the enemy. A significant monument of this period was the "Zadonshchina", written by Safony Ryazanets, glorifying great victory Russian people over the Tatars. In oral folk art, epics gave way to historical stories in which specific historical people in a specific setting (“Song of the Capture of Kazan”). From the beginning of the 15th century, the annals of Moscow came to the fore. Each chronicle is a kind of historical encyclopedia, an integral work. The Trinity Chronicle of 1408 is known, the chronicle of Metropolitan Photius, who promoted the idea of a unified state. In the 16th century, major chronicle works were created. These are the “Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom”, which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the “Book of Powers” - with a description of portraits and the reign of the great Russian princes. Their creation was dictated by concern for the strengthening of the Russian centralized state. The writing of the last chronicles refers to XVII century. They proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

Since the XIV century, in connection with the economic upsurge, the need for records has grown. Paper began to be used instead of expensive parchment. In place of the "charter", when the letters of a square shape were written out with geometric accuracy, comes the semi-charter - a more fluent and free letter, and from the 16th century - cursive, close to modern writing.

Interest in world history, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - a kind of world history of that time. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by the Serb Pachomiy Logofet. An outstanding monument of journalism was the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky. A great event in the culture of the 16th century was the appearance of Russian book printing. Its beginning is considered to be 1564, when the first dated book "Apostle" was published. It was published by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. Over the entire century, 20 books were printed. But the handwritten book will still occupy a leading place in a hundred years.

There was a process of accumulation of theoretical and practical knowledge. Fortifications, temples, churches were built, for which strict mathematical calculations were required. The first manuals on mathematics and geometry were written. Technique developed. The Russians were the first to invent rigs for drilling wells in the extraction of salt. Outstanding hydraulic structures were created in the Solovetsky Monastery. Travels of Russian people, discoveries, annexation of lands led to the birth of cartography. The first maps of the Russian state are being created. The development of trade, politically: cultural ties with foreign countries led to the need to compile the first short dictionaries foreign words - ABCs.