Social institution. Social institution: signs

a form of organization and regulation of human activity that ensures the sustainability of social life, consisting of institutions and organizations, a set of norms and patterns of behavior, a hierarchy of social roles and statuses. Depending on the spheres of social relations, there are economic institutions (bank, stock exchange), political institutions (parties, state), legal institutions (court, prosecutor's office, notaries, advocacy, etc.), scientific institutions (academy), educational institutions, etc.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

SOCIAL INSTITUTE

a relatively stable form of organization of social life, ensuring the stability of ties and relationships within society. SI. should be distinguished from specific organizations and social groups. Thus, the concept of "the institution of a monogamous family" does not mean a separate family, but a set of norms that is realized in countless families of a certain type. The main functions performed by the SI: 1) create an opportunity for the members of this institution to satisfy their needs and interests; 2) regulates the actions of members of society within the framework of social relations; 3) ensure the sustainability of public life; 4) ensures the integration of aspirations, actions and interests of individuals; 5) exercise social control. SI activities. is determined by: 1) a set of specific social norms that regulate the corresponding types of behavior; 2) its integration into the socio-political, ideological, value structures of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the formal legal basis of activity; 3) the availability of material resources and conditions that ensure the successful implementation of regulatory proposals and the exercise of social control. SI. can be characterized not only with t. sp. their formal structure, but also meaningfully, from the standpoint of the analysis of their activities. SI. - this is not only a set of persons, institutions equipped with certain material means, a system of sanctions and performing a specific social function. Successful functioning of S.I. associated with the presence within the institute of a coherent system of standards for the behavior of specific individuals in typical situations. These standards of behavior are normatively regulated: they are enshrined in the rules of law and other social norms. In the course of practice, certain types of social activity arise, and the legal and social norms that regulate this activity are concentrated into a certain legitimized and sanctioned system that ensures this type of social activity in the future. Such a system is the SI. Depending on the scope and their functions, I. are divided into a) relational - determining the role structure of society in the system of relations; b) regulatory, defining the permissible framework for independent actions in relation to the norms of society for the sake of personal goals and sanctions punishing for going beyond this framework (this includes all mechanisms of social control); c) cultural, associated with ideology, religion, art, etc.; d) integrative, associated with social roles responsible for ensuring the interests of the social community as a whole. The development of a social system is reduced to the evolution of the SI. The sources of such evolution can be both endogenous, i.e. occurring within the system itself, as well as exogenous factors. Among the exogenous factors, the most important are the impacts on the social system of cultural and personal systems associated with the accumulation of new knowledge, etc. Endogenous changes occur mainly because one or another SI. ceases to effectively serve the goals and interests of certain social groups. The history of the evolution of social systems is a gradual transformation of the SI. traditional type into modern SI. Traditional SI. characterized primarily by ascriptiveness and particularism, i.e. is based on the rules of behavior strictly prescribed by ritual and customs and on family ties. In the course of its development, SI. becomes more specialized in its functions and less rigorized in terms of rules and frameworks of behavior.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Social institutions are stable forms of organization and regulation of public life. They can be defined as a set of roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs.

The term "social institution" in sociology, as well as in everyday language or in other humanities, has several meanings. The combination of these values ​​can be reduced to four main ones:

1) a certain group of persons called to perform tasks that are important for living together;

2) certain organizational forms of a set of functions performed by some members on behalf of the entire group;

3) a set of material institutions and means of activity that allow certain authorized individuals to perform social impersonal functions aimed at satisfying the needs or regulating the behavior of group members;

4) some social roles that are especially important for the group are sometimes called institutions.

For example, when we say that a school is a social institution, then by this we can mean a group of people working in a school. In another meaning - the organizational forms of the functions performed by the school; in the third sense, the most important for the school as an institution will be the institutions and means that it has at its disposal in order to fulfill the functions entrusted to it by the group, and finally, in the fourth sense, we will call the social role of the teacher an institution. Therefore, we can talk about different ways of defining social institutions: material, formal and functional. In all these approaches, however, we can identify certain common elements that form the main component of the social institution.

In total, there are five fundamental needs and five basic social institutions:

1) the need for the reproduction of the genus (the institution of the family);

2) needs for security and order (state);

3) the need to obtain means of subsistence (production);

4) the need for the transfer of knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation (institutions of public education);

5) the need for solving spiritual problems (the institute of religion). Consequently, social institutions are classified according to public spheres:

1) economic (property, money, regulation of money circulation, organization and division of labor), which serve the production and distribution of values ​​and services. Economic social institutions provide the entire set of production relations in society, connecting economic life with other areas of social life. These institutions are formed on the material basis of society;

2) political (parliament, army, police, party) regulate the use of these values ​​and services and are associated with power. Politics in the narrow sense of the word is a set of means, functions, based mainly on the manipulation of the elements of power to establish, execute and maintain power. Political institutions (state, parties, public organizations, court, army, parliament, police) in a concentrated form express the political interests and relations existing in a given society;

3) the institutions of kinship (marriage and family) are associated with the regulation of childbearing, relations between spouses and children, and the socialization of young people;

4) institutions of education and culture. Their task is to strengthen, create and develop the culture of society, to pass it on to the next generations. These include schools, institutes, art institutions, creative unions;

5) religious institutions organize a person's attitude to transcendent forces, i.e., to supersensitive forces acting outside the empirical control of a person, and the attitude to sacred objects and forces. Religious institutions in some societies have a strong influence on the course of interactions and interpersonal relations, creating a system of dominant values ​​and becoming dominant institutions (the influence of Islam on all aspects of public life in some countries of the Middle East).

Social institutions perform the following functions or tasks in public life:

1) create an opportunity for members of society to satisfy various kinds of needs;

2) regulate the actions of members of society within the framework of social relations, i.e., ensure the implementation of desirable actions and carry out repressions in relation to undesirable actions;

3) ensure the stability of public life by supporting and continuing impersonal public functions;

4) carry out the integration of the aspirations, actions and relationships of individuals and ensure the internal cohesion of the community.

Taking into account E. Durkheim's theory of social facts and proceeding from the fact that social institutions should be considered the most important social facts, sociologists have deduced a number of basic social characteristics that social institutions should have:

1) institutions are perceived by individuals as an external reality. In other words, the institution for any individual person is something external, existing separately from the reality of thoughts, feelings or fantasies of the individual himself. In this characteristic, the institution resembles other entities of external reality—even trees, tables, and telephones—each of which is outside the individual;

2) institutions are perceived by the individual as an objective reality. Something is objectively real when any person agrees that it really exists, and independently of his consciousness, and is given to him in his sensations;

3) institutions have coercive power. To some extent, this quality is implied by the two previous ones: the fundamental power of the institution over the individual is precisely that it exists objectively, and the individual cannot wish it to disappear at his will or whim. Otherwise, negative sanctions may occur;

4) institutions have moral authority. Institutions proclaim their right to legitimation - that is, they reserve the right not only to punish the violator in any way, but also to issue a moral reprimand to him. Of course, institutions vary in their degree of moral strength. These variations are usually expressed in the degree of punishment imposed on the offender. The state in an extreme case can deprive him of his life; neighbors or co-workers may boycott him. In both cases, punishment is accompanied by a sense of indignant justice in those members of society who are involved in this.

The development of society goes largely through the development of social institutions. The wider the institutionalized sphere in the system of social ties, the more opportunities society has. The diversity of social institutions, their development is, perhaps, the most accurate criterion for the maturity and reliability of a society. The development of social institutions manifests itself in two main variants: first, the emergence of new social institutions; secondly, the improvement of already established social institutions.

The formation and formation of an institution in the form in which we observe it (and take part in its functioning) takes a rather long historical period. This process is called institutionalization in sociology. In other words, institutionalization is the process by which certain social practices become sufficiently regular and long-lasting to be described as institutions.

The most important prerequisites for institutionalization - the formation and establishment of a new institution - are:

1) the emergence of certain social needs for new types and types of social practice and the socio-economic and political conditions corresponding to them;

2) development of the necessary organizational structures and related norms and rules of conduct;

3) internalization by individuals of new social norms and values, the formation on this basis of new systems of individual needs, value orientations and expectations (and, therefore, ideas about the patterns of new roles - their own and correlated with them).

The completion of this process of institutionalization is the emerging new kind of social practice. Thanks to this, a new set of roles is formed, as well as formal and informal sanctions for the implementation of social control over the corresponding types of behavior. Therefore, institutionalization is the process by which a social practice becomes sufficiently regular and continuous to be described as an institution.

23. Basic social institutions and their functions

Social institutions are the main structural units of society. They arise, function in the presence of relevant social needs, ensuring their implementation. With the disappearance of such needs, the social institution ceases to function and collapses.

Social institutions ensure the integration of society, social groups and individuals. Hence, it is possible to define a social institution as a certain set of individuals, groups, material resources, organizational structures that form social ties and relationships, ensure their stability and contribute to the stable functioning of society.

At the same time, the definition of a social institution can be approached from the position of considering them as regulators of social life, through social norms and values. Consequently, a social institution can be defined as a set of patterns of behavior, statuses and social roles, the purpose of which is to satisfy the needs of society and establish order and well-being.

There are other approaches to the definition of a social institution, for example, a social institution can be considered as a social organization - an organized, coordinated and ordered activity of people under the condition of general interaction, rigidly focused on achieving the goal.

All social institutions function in close relationship with each other. The types of social institutions and their composition are very diverse. They typologize social institutions according to different principles: spheres of social life, functional qualities, time of existence, conditions, etc.

R. Mills highlights in society 5 main social institutions:

economic - institutions that organize economic activities

political - institutions of power

family institution - institutions that regulate sexual relations, the birth and socialization of children

military - institutions organizing legal heritage

religious - institutions that organize the collective worship of the gods

Most sociologists agree with Mills that there are only five main (basic, fundamental) institutions in human society. Their purpose− meet the most important vital needs of the team or society as a whole. Everyone is endowed with them in abundance, besides, everyone has an individual combination of needs. But there are not so many fundamental, important for everyone. There are only five of them, but exactly five and the main social institutions:

the need for the reproduction of the genus (the institution of family and marriage);

the need for security and social order (political institutions, the state);

the need for means of subsistence (economic institutions, production);

the need to acquire knowledge, to socialize the younger generation, to train personnel (institutions of education in the broad sense, i.e. including science and culture);

the need to solve spiritual problems, the meaning of life (the institute of religion).

Along with these social institutions, communication social institutions, institutions of social control, educational social institutions, and others can also be distinguished.

Functions of social institutions:

integration,

regulatory,

communicative,

function of socialization

reproduction,

control and protective functions,

also the function of forming and consolidating social relations, etc.

The functions of social institutions can change over time. All social institutions have common features and differences.

If the activity of a social institution is aimed at stabilizing, integrating and prospering society, then it is functional, but if the activity of a social institution is harmful to society, then it can be regarded as dysfunctional.

The intensification of the dysfunctionality of social institutions can lead to the disorganization of society up to its destruction.

Major crises and upheavals in society (revolutions, wars, crises) can lead to disruptions in the activities of social institutions.

Explicit functions of social institutions. If we consider in the most general form the activities of any social institution, we can assume that its main function is to satisfy social needs, for which it was created and exists. However, in order to perform this function, each institution performs functions in relation to its participants that ensure the joint activities of people striving to meet needs. These are primarily the following functions.

The function of fixing and reproducing social relations. Each institution has a system of rules and norms of behavior that fixes, standardizes the behavior of its members and makes this behavior predictable. Appropriate social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the social structure of society. Indeed, the code of the institution of the family, for example, implies that members of society should be divided into sufficiently stable small groups - families. With the help of social control, the institution of the family seeks to ensure the stability of each individual family, and limits the possibility of its disintegration. The destruction of the family institution is, first of all, the appearance of chaos and uncertainty, the collapse of many groups, the violation of traditions, the impossibility of ensuring a normal sexual life and high-quality education of the younger generation.

Regulatory function lies in the fact that the functioning of social institutions ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior. The whole cultural life of a person proceeds with his participation in various institutions. Whatever type of activity an individual engages in, he always encounters an institution that regulates his behavior in this area. Even if some kind of activity is not ordered and regulated, people immediately begin to institutionalize it. Thus, with the help of institutions, a person exhibits predictable and standardized behavior in social life. He fulfills the role requirements-expectations and knows what to expect from the people around him. Such regulation is necessary for joint activities.

Integrative function. This function includes the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups, occurring under the influence of institutionalized norms, rules, sanctions and systems of roles. The integration of people in the institute is accompanied by the streamlining of the system of interactions, an increase in the volume and frequency of contacts. All this leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure, especially social organizations. Any integration in the institute consists of three main elements, or necessary requirements:

1) consolidation or combination of efforts;

2) mobilization, when each member of the group invests its resources in achieving goals;

3) the conformity of the personal goals of individuals with the goals of others or the goals of the group. Integrative processes carried out by those with the help of institutions are necessary for the coordinated activities of people, the exercise of power, and the creation of complex organizations. Integration is one of the conditions for the survival of organizations, as well as one of the ways to correlate the goals of its participants.

Broadcasting function. Society could not develop if it were not possible to transfer social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people. This can happen both by expanding the social boundaries of the institution, and by changing generations. In this regard, each institution provides a mechanism that allows individuals to socialize to its values, norms and roles. For example, a family, raising a child, seeks to orient him to the values ​​of family life that his parents adhere to. State institutions seek to influence citizens in order to instill in them norms of obedience and loyalty, and the church tries to bring as many new members to the faith as possible.

Communicative function. Information produced in an institution should be disseminated both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with regulations, and in interactions between institutions. Moreover, the nature of the institute's communicative links has its own specifics - these are formal links carried out in a system of institutionalized roles. As the researchers note, the communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some are specifically designed to transmit information (mass media), others have very limited opportunities for this; some actively perceive information (scientific institutions), others passively (publishing houses).

The explicit functions of institutions are both expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. When an institution fails to fulfill its explicit functions, it is bound to face disorganization and change: these explicit, necessary functions can be appropriated by other institutions.

Concept, signs ,types, functions of social institutions

English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer He was the first to introduce the concept of a social institution into sociology and defined it as a stable structure of social actions. He singled out six types of social institutions: industrial, trade union, political, ceremonial, church, domestic. He considered the main purpose of social institutions to meet the needs of members of society.

The consolidation and organization of relations that develop in the process of meeting the needs of both society and the individual are carried out by creating a system of standard samples based on a generally shared system of values ​​- a common language, common ideals, values, beliefs, moral norms, etc. They establish the rules for the behavior of individuals in the process of their interaction, embodied in social roles. Accordingly, the American sociologist Neil Smelzer calls a social institution "a set of roles and statuses designed to meet a specific social need"

In addition, in order to ensure the implementation of these rules, it is necessary to form a system of sanctions that establish how a person should behave in a given situation. Conforming to standards activities of people are encouraged, and behavior that deviates from them is suppressed. Thus, social institutions are value-normative complexes through which people's actions are directed and controlled in vital areas - economy, politics, culture, family, etc.

Since a social institution has a stable value-normative structure, the elements of which are patterns of people's activities and behavior, values, norms, ideals, is characterized by the presence of a goal, and also performs socially significant functions, it can be considered as a social system.

So, social institution(lat.socialis- public and lat.institution- establishment) - these are historically established, stable, self-renewable forms of specialized activity that satisfy human needs and ensure the stable functioning of society.

The following sequences are distinguished in the literature stages of the institutionalization process:

1) the emergence of a need (material, physiological or spiritual), the satisfaction of which requires joint organized actions;

2) formation of common goals;

3) the emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction carried out by trial and error;

4) the emergence of procedures related to rules and regulations;

5) institutionalization of norms, rules and procedures, i.e. their adoption, practical use;

6) the establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, the differentiation of their application in individual cases;

7) creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute without exception.

In addition, one of the most important elements of institutionalization is the organizational design of a social institution - the formation of a set of persons, institutions, provided with material resources, to perform a certain social function.

The result of institutionalization is the creation, in accordance with the norms and rules, of a clear status-role structure supported by the majority of participants in this social process.

signssocial institution. The range of features is wide and ambiguous, because in addition to features common to other institutions, they have their own specific features. So. as the main A. G. Efendiev highlights the following.

A clear distribution of functions, rights, obligations of participants in institutional interaction and the performance by each of them of their function, which ensures the predictability of their behavior.

Division of labor and professionalization to meet people's needs effectively.

a special type of regulation. The main condition here is the anonymity of the requirements for the performer of the actions provided for by this institution. These actions must be carried out regardless of the personal interests of the individuals included in this institution. Deindividualization of requirements ensures the integrity and stability of social ties, regardless of the personal composition, the preservation and self-reproduction of the social system;

A clear, often rationally justified, rigid and binding nature of the regulatory mechanisms, which is ensured by the presence of unambiguous norms, a system of social control and sanctions. Norms - standard patterns of behavior - regulate relationships within the institution, the effectiveness of which is based, among other things, on sanctions (encouragements, punishments) that guarantee the implementation of the norms underlying it.

The presence of institutions in which the activities of the institute are organized, management and control of the necessary means and resources (material, intellectual, moral, etc.) for its implementation.

The listed features characterize social interaction within a social institution as regular and self-renewing.

S. S. Frolov combines features common to all institutions V five big groups:

* attitudes and patterns of behavior (for example, for the institution of the family, this is affection, respect, responsibility; for the institution of education, it is love for knowledge, attendance at classes);

* cultural symbols (for the family - wedding rings, marriage ritual; for the state - coat of arms, flag, anthem; for business - company symbols, patent sign; for religion - objects of worship, shrines);

*utilitarian cultural traits (for a family - a house, apartment, furnishings; for business - a shop, office, equipment; for a university - classrooms, a library);

* oral and written codes of conduct (for the state - the constitution, laws; for business - contracts, licenses);

* ideology (for a family - romantic love, compatibility, individualism; for business - monopoly, freedom of trade, the right to work).

The presence of the above signs in social institutions suggests that social interactions in any sphere of society's life are becoming regular, predictable and self-renewable.

Types of social institutions. Depending on the scope and functions, social institutions are divided into

relational, determining the role structure of society on a variety of grounds: from gender and age to the type of occupation and abilities;

relative, establishing acceptable limits for individual behavior in relation to the norms of action existing in society, as well as sanctions that punish when they go beyond these limits.

Institutions can be cultural, associated with religion, science, art, ideology, etc., and integrative, associated with social roles, responsible for meeting the needs and interests of the social community.

In addition, allocate formal And informal institutions.

As part of formal institutions the interaction of subjects is carried out on the basis of laws or other legal acts, formally approved orders, regulations, rules, charters, etc.

Informal institutions operate in conditions where there is no formal regulation (laws, administrative acts, etc.). An example of an informal social institution is the institution of blood feud.

Social institutions functions also differ which they carry out in various spheres of society.

Economic institutions(property, exchange, money, banks, business associations of various types, etc.) are considered the most stable, subject to strict regulation, providing the entire set of economic ties. They are engaged in the production of goods, services and their distribution, regulate money circulation, organization and division of labor, while simultaneously connecting the economy with other areas of public life.

Political institutions(the state, parties, public associations, the court, the army, etc.) express the political interests and relations existing in society, create conditions for the establishment, distribution and maintenance of a certain form of political power. They are aimed at mobilizing the opportunities that ensure the functioning of society as a whole.

Institutes of culture and education(church, mass media, public opinion, science, education, art, etc.) contribute to the development and subsequent reproduction of socio-cultural values, the inclusion of individuals in any subculture, the socialization of individuals through the assimilation of stable standards of behavior and the protection of certain values ​​and norms .

Functions of social institutions. The functions of social institutions are usually understood as various aspects of their activities, more precisely, the consequences of the latter, which affect the preservation and maintenance of the stability of the social system as a whole.

Distinguish latent(completely unplanned, unexpected) and explicit(expected, intended) functions of institutions. Explicit functions are concerned with satisfying people's needs. So the institution of education exists for the education, upbringing and preparation of young people for the development of various special roles, the assimilation of the value standards, morality and ideology prevailing in society. However, it also has a number of implicit functions that are not always realized by its participants, for example, the reproduction of social inequality, social differences in society.

The study of latent functions gives a more complete picture of the functioning of the entire system of interrelated and interacting social institutions and each of them separately. Latent consequences make it possible to create a reliable picture of social connections and features of social objects, to control their development, to manage the social processes taking place in them.

Consequences that contribute to the strengthening, survival, prosperity, self-regulation of social institutions, R. Merton calls explicit functions, and the consequences that lead to the disorganization of this system, changes in its structure, - dysfunctions. The emergence of dysfunctions of many social institutions can lead to irreversible disorganization and destruction of the social system.

Unsatisfied social needs become the basis for the emergence of normatively unregulated activities. They, on semi-legal or illegal grounds, make up for the dysfunction of legitimate institutions. Due to the fact that the norms of morality and law, as well as legal laws are not implemented, property, economic, criminal and administrative offenses arise.

The evolution of social institutions

The process of development of social life finds expression in the restructuring of institutionalized social ties and forms of interaction.

Politics, economics and culture have a huge impact on their change. They act on social institutions functioning in society both directly and indirectly through the role positions of individuals. At the same time, it is important to ensure the gradualness, controllability and continuity of renewal or even change of social institutions. Otherwise, the disorganization of social life and even the collapse of the system as a whole are possible. The evolution of the analyzed phenomena goes along the path of transformation of institutions of the traditional type into modern ones. What is their difference?

Traditional institutions characterized ascriptiveness and particularism, i.e., they are based on the rules of behavior and family ties strictly prescribed by rituals and customs.

With the emergence of cities as special types of settlements and the organization of social life, the exchange of products of economic activity becomes more intense, trade appears, a market is formed, and, accordingly, special rules arise that regulate them. As a result, there is a differentiation of types of economic activity (craft, construction), a division of mental and physical labor, etc.

The transition to modern social institutions, according to T. Parsons, is carried out along three institutional "bridges".

First - western christian church. It introduced the idea of ​​general equality before God, which became the basis of a new order of interaction between people, the formation of new institutions, and retained the institutional system of its organization with a single center, independence and autonomy in relation to the state.

The second bridge medieval city with its own normative elements, different from blood-related ties. This was the reason for the growth of achievement-universal principles that formed the basis for the growth of modern economic institutions and the formation of the bourgeoisie.

The third "bridge" - Roman state-legal heritage. The fragmented feudal state formations with their own laws, rights, etc. are being replaced by a state with a single authority and a single law.

During these processes, modern social institutionsthe main features of which, according to A. G. Efendiev, are divided into two groups.

The first group includes the following signs:

1) unconditional dominance in all major spheres of public life of achievement regulation: in the economy - money and the market, in politics - democratic institutions, which are characterized by a competitive achievement mechanism (election, multi-party system, etc.), universalism of the law, equality of all before him;

2) the development of an educational institution, the purpose of which is to spread competence and professionalism (this becomes the basic prerequisite for the development of other institutions of an achievement type).

The second group of features is the differentiation and autonomization of institutions. They appear:

*in the separation of the economy from the family and the state, in the formation of specific regulatory regulators of economic life that ensure efficient economic activity;

* in accelerating the process of emergence of new social institutions (permanent differentiation and specialization);

* in strengthening the autonomy of social institutions;

*in the growing interdependence of spheres of public life.

Thanks to the above properties of modern social institutions, society's ability to adapt to any external and internal changes increases, its efficiency, stability and sustainability increase, integrity increases.

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND METHODS OF COLLECTING INFORMATION IN SOCIOLOGY

Types and stages of sociological research

To know the phenomena and processes of the social world, it is necessary to obtain reliable information about them. In sociology, the source of such information is a sociological study, a complex of methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, interconnected by a single goal. - obtain reliable data for their subsequent use in solving theoretical or practical problems.

Research requires professional knowledge and skills. The result of a violation of the rules for conducting a study is usually the receipt of unreliable data.

Types of sociological research:

1. By tasks

* Reconnaissance / aerobatic

*Descriptive

*analytical

2. By frequency

*Single

*repeated: panel, trend, monitoring

3. By scale

*international

*nationwide

*Regional

*Industry

*local

4. By goals

* theoretical

* practical (applied).

The former are focused on developing a theory, identifying trends and patterns of the studied phenomena, social systems, and analyzing social contradictions that arise in society and require detection and resolution. The second relate to the study of specific social problems related to the solution of practical problems, the regulation of certain social processes. In reality, sociological research is usually of a mixed nature and acts as theoretical and applied research.

According to the tasks, intelligence, descriptive and analytical studies are distinguished.

intelligence research solves very limited tasks. It covers, as a rule, small surveyed populations and is based on a simplified program, a toolkit compressed in terms of volume. Typically, intelligence research is used for a preliminary examination of some little-studied phenomenon or process of social life. If the research checks the reliability of the instrumentation, then it is called aerobatic.

Descriptive research more difficult than reconnaissance. It allows you to create a relatively holistic view of the phenomenon under study, its structural elements and is carried out according to a fully developed program.

Target analytical sociological research - in-depth study of the phenomenon, when it is required to describe not only its structure, but also the causes and factors of its occurrence, changes, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the object, its functional relationships, dynamics. Preparation of an analytical study requires considerable time, carefully developed programs and tools.

Depending on whether social phenomena are studied in statics or dynamics, one-time and repeated sociological studies differ in frequency.

Sociological research, which allows conducting surveys taking into account the time factor, analyzing data “in time”, is often called longitudinal.

One-time study provides information about the state and characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study.

Data on the change in the object under study are extracted from the results of several studies conducted at certain intervals. Such studies are called repeated. In fact, they are a way of conducting a comparative sociological analysis, which is aimed at identifying the dynamics of change (development) of an object. Depending on the goals put forward, the repeated collection of information can take place in two, three or more stages.

Repeated studies allow you to analyze data in a time perspective and are divided into trend, cohort, panel, monitoring.

trend surveys closest to single, "slice" surveys. Some authors refer to them as regular surveys, that is, surveys conducted at more or less regular intervals. In a trend survey, the same population is studied at different points in time, and each time the sample is rebuilt.

A special direction is cohort studies, the grounds for which are somewhat arbitrary. If in trend studies the selection is made each time from the general population (all voters, all families, etc.), then in the study of “cohorts” (lat. in order to track changes in her behavior, attitudes, etc.

The most perfect embodiment of the idea of ​​introducing a time perspective into the research plan is panel examination, i.e., multiple examination of the same sample from the general population with a certain time interval according to a single program and methodology. This reusable sample is called a panel. The choice of a panel survey design in the case of pilot or exploratory studies is not justified.

Monitoring in sociology, these are usually repeated studies of public opinion on various public issues (monitoring of public opinion).

Another reason for distinguishing types of sociological research is their scale. Here it is necessary to name international, national (on a national scale), regional, sectoral, local research.

Stages of sociological research It is customary to distinguish five stages of sociological research:

1. preparatory (development of the research program);

2. field research (collection of primary social information);

3. processing of received data;

4. analysis and generalization of the received information;

5. drawing up a report on the results of the study.

What is a "social institution"? What are the functions of social institutions?

Specific formations that ensure the relative stability of social ties and relations within the framework of the social organization of society are social institutions. The term "institution" itself is used in sociology in different meanings.

Firstly, it is understood as a set of certain persons, institutions, provided with certain material resources and performing a specific social function.

Secondly, from a substantive point of view, an "institution" is a certain set of standards, norms of behavior of individuals and groups in specific situations.

When we talk about social institutions, we mean in general a certain organization of social activity and social relations, including both standards, norms of behavior, and corresponding organizations, institutions that “regulate” these norms of behavior. For example, if we talk about law as a social institution, we mean both the system of legal norms that determine the legal behavior of citizens, and the system of legal institutions (court, police) that regulate legal norms and legal relations.

Social institutions- these are forms of joint activity of people, historically established stable, or relatively stable types and forms of social practice, with the help of which social life is organized, the stability of ties and relations is ensured within the framework of the social organization of society. Various social groups enter into social relations among themselves, which are regulated in a certain way. The regulation of these and other social relations is carried out within the framework of the relevant social institutions: the state (political relations), the labor collective (social and economic), the family, the education system, etc.

Each social institution has a specific goal of activity and, in accordance with it, performs certain functions, providing members of society with the opportunity to satisfy the corresponding social needs. As a result of this, social relations are stabilized, consistency is introduced into the actions of members of society. The functioning of social institutions, the performance of certain roles by people within their framework are determined by the presence of social norms in the internal structure of each social institution. It is these norms that determine the standard of people's behavior, on their basis the quality and direction of their activities are assessed, sanctions are determined against those who are characterized by deviant behavior.

Social institutions perform the following functions:

consolidation and reproduction of social relations in a certain area;

integration and cohesion of society;

regulation and social control;

communication and inclusion of people in activities.

Robert Merton introduced into sociology the distinction between explicit and latent (hidden) functions of social institutions. The explicit functions of the institution are declared, officially recognized and controlled by society.

Latent Functions- these are "not their own" functions, performed by the institution covertly or accidentally (when, for example, the education system performs the functions of political socialization that are not characteristic of it). When the discrepancy between explicit and latent functions is great, a double standard of social relations arises, threatening the stability of society. An even more dangerous situation is when, along with the official institutional system, so-called "shadow" institutions are formed, which take on the function of regulating the most important public relations (for example, criminal structures). Any social transformations are carried out through a change in the institutional system of society, the formation of new "rules of the game". First of all, those social institutions that determine the social type of society (institutions of property, institutions of power, institutions of education) are subject to change.

A social institution is a relatively stable and long-term form of social practice that is authorized and supported by social norms and through which social life is organized and the stability of social relations is ensured. Emile Durkheim called social institutions "factories for the reproduction of social relations."

Social institutions organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, setting patterns of people's behavior in various spheres of public life. For example, such a social institution as a school includes the roles of teacher and student, and the family includes the roles of parents and children. There are certain role-playing relationships between them. These relations are regulated by a set of specific norms and regulations. Some of the most important norms are enshrined in law, others are supported by traditions, customs, and public opinion.

Any social institution includes a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical, which ensure the observance of the relevant values ​​and norms, the reproduction of the corresponding role relations.

Thus, social institutions streamline, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character, and ensure standard behavior of people in socially typical situations. When this or that activity of people is ordered in the described way, they speak of its institutionalization. Thus, institutionalization is the transformation of people's spontaneous behavior into an organized one ("fight without rules" into "play by the rules").

Practically all spheres and forms of social relations, even conflicts, are institutionalized. However, in any society there is a certain amount of behavior that is not subject to institutional regulation. Usually there are five main complexes of social institutions. These are the institutions of kinship associated with marriage, family and the socialization of children and youth; political institutions associated with relations of power and access to it; economic institutions and institutions of stratification that determine the distribution of members of society in various status positions; cultural institutions associated with religious, scientific and artistic activities.

Historically, the institutional system has changed from institutions based on kinship and ascriptive attributes characteristic of traditional society to institutions based on formal relationships and statuses of achievement. In our time, the most important institutions of education and science are becoming, providing high social status.

Institutionalization means normative and organizational strengthening, streamlining social ties. When an institution appears, new social communities are formed, engaged in specialized activities, social norms are produced that regulate this activity, and new institutions and organizations ensure the protection of certain interests. For example, education becomes a social institution when a new society appears, professional activities for training and education in a mass school, in accordance with special norms.

Institutions can become obsolete and hinder the development of innovation processes. For example, the qualitative renewal of society in our country required overcoming the influence of the old political structures of a totalitarian society, old norms and laws.

As a result of institutionalization, such phenomena as formalization, standardization of goals, depersonalization, deindividualization may appear. Social institutions develop through overcoming the contradictions between the new needs of society and outdated institutional forms.

The specificity of social institutions, of course, is mainly determined by the type of society in which they operate. However, there is also continuity in the development of various institutions. For example, the institution of the family in the transition from one state of society to another may change some functions, but its essence remains unchanged. During periods of "normal" development of society, social institutions remain fairly stable and stable. When there is a mismatch between the actions of various social institutions, their inability to reflect public interests, to establish the functioning of social ties, this indicates a crisis situation in society. It is solved either by a social revolution and a complete replacement of social institutions, or by their reconstruction.

There are different types of social institutions:

economic, which are engaged in the production, distribution and exchange of material goods, the organization of labor, money circulation, and the like;

social, which organize voluntary associations, the life of collectives that regulate all aspects of the social behavior of people in relation to each other;

political, related to the performance of the functions of power;

cultural and educational, affirming, developing the continuity of the culture of society and passing it on to the next generations;

Religious, which organize people's attitude to religion.

All institutions are linked together in an integrated (combined) system, in which alone they can guarantee a uniform, normal process of collective life and fulfill their tasks. That is why all the listed institutions (economic, social, cultural and others) are generally referred to as social institutions. The most fundamental of them are: property, state, family, production teams, science, mass media system, upbringing and education systems, law and others.