Test of the artistic culture of the medieval East. MHK test "artistic culture of China"

The ancient East is the birthplace of the first civilizations. It is safe to say that the history of mankind begins in the East. It was here, as a result of the Neolithic revolution, that a transition to a settled way of life took place and the prerequisites for the formation of the first urban civilizations arose.

The four centers of culture of the Ancient East were centers of attraction, drawing neighboring territories into the orbit of their cultural influence. Thus, Sumer and Egypt influenced the development of the entire Middle Eastern community and the countries of the Mediterranean. India, which gave the world the world's first world religion - Buddhism, was the exporter of philosophical thought to all surrounding territories. China became the center of the Far Eastern civilization, having a decisive influence on the development of Korea, Vietnam and Japan.

What unites the first four centers of world culture, which appear on a very vast territory at about the same time and independently of each other? Firstly, Sumer, Egypt, India and China are river civilizations, that is, the great rivers (Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus and Ganges, as well as the Yellow River) and their fertile valleys played an important role in their formation. However, the rivers not only provided favorable climatic conditions that contributed to the development of agriculture, they were fraught with considerable dangers (spills, changes in the channel, etc.), putting a person before the challenge of the great water element.

Indeed, in order to successfully exist in such conditions, society was forced not only to unite, but also to submit to a single leadership, as a result of which the first proto-state and state structures arose.

It was during the exercise of rigid central power that the possibilities of large-scale construction appeared, primarily irrigation facilities, dams and dams. In addition, as a result of the creation of power structures with a system of coercion

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monumental construction began to develop (palaces, temples, ritual burial structures), which led to the emergence of fortified cities and the phenomenon of urbanization. This moment can be considered the beginning of the countdown of the existence of civilization.

So, the first cultures can be characterized as urban river cultures. The next important feature of the civilizations of the Ancient East is the emergence of writing in this region. It is written sources, along with archaeological material, that provide researchers with information about the life of the first civilizations, about their religious and mythological ideas and features of economic, political and social life. The cuneiform script of Mesopotamia and Egyptian hieroglyphs have been deciphered thanks to the found bilinguals, that is, translations of ancient texts into a language known to scientists, but the writing of the ancient Indian civilization is still a mystery.

Let us turn to specific historical material to describe the above-mentioned cultural features of the Ancient East.

China. Favorable natural and climatic conditions of the Yellow River valley contributed to the fact that already in the third millennium BC. e. here begins to develop a "river" culture based on irrigation agriculture.

The first discovered Neolithic community in China was the Yangshao culture in the basin of the middle reaches of the Yellow River. It got its name from a village in the Henan province located near the site of the first finds. The main archaeological material of this culture is ceramic vessels (painted and monochrome), among which one can single out both everyday utensils and vessels of a ritual nature. Ceramics Yangshao strikes with a variety of shapes, patterns and ornaments.

The second Neolithic culture of China - Longshan - also belongs to the third millennium BC. e. It originated in the province of Shandong, but then spread to a wider area, including the Huang He Valley, where it was superimposed on the earlier Yangshao culture.

Archaeological finds indicate that it was Longshan that created the prerequisites for the formation of Chinese statehood. It is here, in addition to the ceramics already familiar to us, that the scapular bones of various animals are found,

which were used for divination. They will play an important role in the history of the next period, known as Shang-Yin.

One extremely important feature of Chinese civilization should be mentioned - its amazing continuity of cultural traditions. Despite the change of eras and dynasties, the main civilizational landmarks were borrowed from generation to generation. This explains the stability and traditional character of Chinese society.

In addition, China is characterized by careful recording of events in written sources. The Chinese chronicle has an exact start time - this is the reign of five perfectly wise emperors, which also refers to the third millennium BC. e. And although the reality of this period of Chinese history is not confirmed by archaeological material, its study poses an important problem for researchers to correlate historical reality with the chronicle history of China.

The fact is that the first emperors are replaced, according to the chronicle, by the Xia dynasty, which until recently also belonged to the field of mythology. However, the excavations of the Erlitou community caused a number of disputes among scientists, since this culture coincides with the description of the Xia dynasty in a number of characteristics.

Of course, we are not talking about their identification, Erlitou is still considered a transitional link between Neolithic cultures and ancient states, but this makes us take a closer look at the myths of China, which really provide a lot of valuable information for the reconstruction of ancient events.

For example, in the mythology of China, one can find a curious story about the "lords of the cardinal points." It is associated with the idea of ​​the world as a strict scheme, where space consists of a center and four sides. Such a five-term model is typical for the worldview of the Chinese; a wide variety of characteristics fit into it. For example, five elements (wood, fire, metal, water and earth), five colors (yellow, green, red, white, black), etc. were associated with the cardinal points. According to the legend, the “lord of the center” Huangdi imposed tribute all other lands, but the "lord of the south" refused to obey him. Then Huang-di gathered a huge army and went on a punitive expedition to the south. The battle was long, both sides used tactical and magical tricks, but the victory remained with the "lord of the center". If you try to decipher this myth, you can see in it the process of unification

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a number of lands under the rule of the most powerful ruler, who could pass both peacefully and militarily. So the myth becomes a source of information about the equipment of the army, combat techniques, the role of military advisers, etc.

The Shang-Yin dynasty is considered the first historical state formation in China (Shang is the self-name of the people, and Yin is the name of the capital of the state. These terms are often used as synonyms). It is interesting that initially this dynasty was also considered legendary, but archaeological discoveries allowed it to receive the status of the ancestor of Chinese civilization.

There is a story in the myths about how the last Xia emperor was overthrown by the ruler Yin. The power of the once strong Xia clan was waning, the rulers were less and less interested in state affairs, preferring to spend their leisure time in idle entertainment. The last ruler, Tse-wang, was especially successful in this, the people hated him, suffering from the consequences of his recklessness.

In the east, meanwhile, a new state was rising - Shang, whose ruler, Tang-wang, sympathized with the subjects of Tse-wang. After a series of celestial signs, the Shang ruler led an army to the Xia capital. Not without divine help and thanks to the support of the inhabitants, he managed to win and overthrow the cruel Tse-wang.

But in addition to legends, the history of the Shan state is represented by a number of archaeological data. At the beginning of the XX century. The palace of the Shang ruler near Anyang was excavated. It was a rectangular building of very impressive dimensions (30 m long and 9 m wide), built on an artificial earthen platform. In addition, temple buildings, tombs, houses, and even paved roads have been discovered.

But the most interesting finds were divination bones, which would have been no different from those found earlier in the Lunyan culture, if not for the inscriptions, which are the oldest examples of Chinese writing. The divination technique itself was based on the prediction of future events by the pattern of cracks that formed on the flat surface of the bone as a result of its heating in the fire. The inscription, as a rule, was a question and the content of the received prediction, in addition, the date of divination, the names of the people who conducted it, and even subsequent events could be indicated, which is the richest material for research.

Since the Shang Dynasty, history has been reconstructed not only from archaeological finds, but also from written sources. The writing of the Chinese civilization is unique because it has developed gradually over thousands of years, having evolved from pictograms and ideograms of oracle bones to modern hieroglyphics. We again see confirmation of the amazing traditionalism of Chinese society, which developed its written language over the millennia without subjecting it to a radical transformation. From the inscriptions on the bones, they switched to writing hieroglyphs on bamboo tablets, then the first silk books appeared, and finally in the 2nd century. BC e. paper was invented, but hieroglyphics over the years never turned into alphabetical writing. For comparison, the hieroglyphs of Egypt remained the property of an early stage of civilization, giving way over time to a more practical letter system.

What else can characterize the Shang-Yin culture? First, during this period, a transition was made to bronze casting production, which made it possible to improve tools and make agriculture more efficient. Secondly, statehood is being formed, fortified cities are being built, which differ from the Neolithic settlements. At the head of the city is the ruler - van, which performs several important functions: in addition to the main military function, he controls the administration of sacrifices and fortune-telling, he is also the organizer of large-scale production and construction (including urban planning), in addition, he is the guarantor of the welfare of the people, as he is responsible for food supply in case of crop failure or drought.

Thirdly, the religious ideas of the Chinese are being formed, which were expressed in the deification of the forces of nature. Ebo, who was considered the supreme deity, was especially revered. The cult of ancestors, which originated in the Neolithic era, also continues to develop. The ritual of burial was also associated with it - according to it, various objects were placed in the grave that the deceased might need in the afterlife.

Excavations of the tombs in Anyang allow us to conclude that there was a significant property stratification of the society of this period. In the burials of rich people and the ruling elite, bronze and ceramic products of fine workmanship are found, as well as the remains of people and animals that were supposed to accompany the deceased; the walls of the tomb were often covered

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carved or painted, while in simpler burials only rough clay utensils were placed.

The power of the Shan state faded over time, which was not slow to take advantage of the neighboring tribes. The nomadic Zhou people were located along the western borders of the state of Yin. Gradually, the nomads switched to a settled way of life and even successfully borrowed many of the achievements of the culture of their neighbors. In mythology, the conquest of Shang territory by the Zhou is also seen as the result of the decline of central power, which was concentrated in the hands of an ambitious, cruel and greedy Wang, who was eventually overthrown by a more worthy representative of the Zhou dynasty.

However, the central government is rapidly declining. In the VII-V centuries. BC e. On the territory of China, there were about 200 kingdoms, which were mostly small city-states. All of them had a certain autonomy, although they recognized the authority of the supreme van.

It was at this time that the concept of sacred supreme power was spreading, according to which the van was recognized as the “son of Heaven”, his earthly incarnation. The divine origin of the power of the van was supplemented by the doctrine of the "will of Heaven" (tian-ming), according to which Heaven granted power only to a worthy person; accordingly, with the loss of qualities important for the ruler, such a mandate for power could be lost. It was from this position that the change of dynasties in Chinese history was explained. If one dynasty declines, the more worthy one gets the moral right and the blessing of Heaven to overthrow it.

The sacred concept of power appeared precisely at that period of history, when real military power was no longer enough to keep the vast territory of the Chinese state under control. It was necessary to give a new justification for the powers of the ruler on the basis of shared beliefs in a higher reality.

The concept of the "son of Heaven" was developed in parallel with another important Chinese self-image. All kingdoms considered themselves "middle", located in the center of the universe, and therefore possessing superiority over the barbarians occupying the periphery of the world. Indeed, if the sky for the Chinese was in the form of a circle, and the earth was a square, then when projecting one onto the other, a certain central area is obtained, the middle, consecrated by the grace of Heaven, and four corners to which divine protection does not apply. Formed and ethnic

Chinese self-consciousness, also based on a sense of cultural superiority over the "barbarians of the four corners of the world" surrounding them.

A common script served as a link between the peoples of different kingdoms, which helped the mutual understanding of the Chinese with a variety of dialects. Literacy was a sign of education and actually opened the way to life for any member of society who mastered it. Indeed, one could get into the civil service only after successfully passing a series of exams. However, despite the seeming achievability, social mobility was not developed, since literacy was not cheap and separated the poor from the prestigious state career with a “wall of hieroglyphs”.

However, the most important events of this era took place in the cultural sphere. It is precisely at the time of the greatest political fragmentation that philosophical and scientific thought flourishes, not constrained by the rigid framework of the central government. It was believed that in China during the Zhangguo period, 100 schools competed, they held public disputes, exchanged views, the diversity of which was not lacking.

The most important schools of this time, which influenced all subsequent Chinese philosophy, are Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism and Legalism.

Confucianism arose at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. Its founder is the teacher Kun, or Confucius in Latin transcription. The basic ideas of ancient Confucianism subsequently underwent significant changes, giving rise to a reformed Confucianism, which was specially adapted to the needs of the state system.

The focus of Confucius himself was the doctrine of the ideal of the individual - the "noble man", who has five virtues (de): zhen(humanity), whether(decency, performing proper rites), And(justice), zhi(wisdom), syn(loyalty).

The early system of Confucianism appears more in an ethical than a political vein, although the concept of tian-ming (the will of Heaven) adopted from the early Zhou era is developed by Confucius.

If the ruler of the Celestial Empire lacks one or more of the above qualities, he loses the right to supreme power, that is, a coup d'état can be justified by the "will of Heaven". However, these are extreme measures, and the virtuous

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the ruler, on the contrary, deserves filial piety on the part of his subjects, since, within the framework of the idea of ​​the Celestial Empire as one big family, he is the father of all the inhabitants of the state.

The essence of the concept xiao(filial piety) boils down to the following: the younger ones must unquestioningly obey the elders, take care of them in old age and honor them after death through sacrifices.

In addition, in the teachings of Confucius, nostalgia for the bygone “golden age” constantly sounds, he recalls, not without sadness, the times when the rulers were wise (his ideal is the era of the reign of five perfectly wise emperors), officials are disinterested, and the people prospered. To restore the lost order, Confucius proposed to carry out a "correction of names" (zheng ming), which meant the placement of all people in their places in a strictly hierarchical order, which was expressed in the formula: "Let the father be the father, the son - the son, the official - the official, and the sovereign - the sovereign." That is, everyone has his own duties, corresponding to the position occupied in the social hierarchy.

Monuments of Confucian literature are of particular interest. The "Pentate Canonion" (Wu Ching) includes:

1. Chronicle of Chunqiu, which briefly records the events of the 8th-5th centuries. BC e., which took place in the state of Zhou, fragmented into small kingdoms. Confucius is credited with editing the chronicle and a partial commentary.

2. "Shu jing" (Book of History) - a collection of myths, legends and historical events that describe the history of China from the reign of the five wise emperors to the 8th century. BC e. Tradition ascribes to Confucius the compilation of this collection from materials personally selected by him.

3. "Shi jing" (Book of Songs) - the first literary and poetic collection, which included both samples of folk art and works of court musicians.

4. "Li ji" (Book of rituals) - a description of the norms of human behavior both in the family and in the service, which is a detailed prescription for each situation.

5. "I Ching" (Book of Changes) is one of the most amazing monuments of ancient Chinese literature. It is based on 64 divinatory hexagrams - these are special graphic symbols consisting of six features of two types located one above the other - whole and interrupted - in all possible combinations. We

remember that important issues have been solved with the help of divination in China since the Neolithic antiquity, the I Ching divination system still occupies an important place in the culture of Chinese society.

Another important monument of the Confucian school is the collection "Lun Yu", which includes the thoughts and aphorisms of Confucius himself, carefully collected by his students after the death of the teacher.

In extreme opposition to Confucianism was Taoism. The history of its origin is traced back to two treatises - "Tao de jing" (Canon of the Way and Virtue) and "Zhuangzi", which contain the central theoretical concepts of the school of Tao.

The first is attributed to the legendary sage Lao Tzu. However, scientists still do not agree on whether Lao Tzu was a real historical person or not, whether he lived during the time of Confucius or much later, and, finally, whether the authorship of the Tao De Ching belongs to one person or whether this treatise is the result of a compilation several independent texts.

The main category of Taoism, which received a detailed description in the treatise "Tao De Ching", is Tao (the Way), which is understood in two ways. On the one hand, it is inactive, at rest and inaccessible to perception, on the other hand, it is all-penetrating, acting and changing along with the world, that is, it contains the principles of transcendence and immanence. Tao is involved in the creation of the world, since it is from it that a unit arises, which, in turn, gives rise to the duality of yin and yang and all dual opposites, from which the whole variety of things is created.

The social ideal of Taoism was a return to the natural primitive state. Confucius also dreamed of a return to the "golden age", but he had in mind the reign of five wise emperors who possessed the necessary virtues, while the Taoists mean the "golden age" as a pre-state state of society, when there was no property social stratification, there was no power (which is associated among the Taoists mainly with extortion of subjects and cruel wars, therefore it is condemned, while in Confucius the emperor is the guarantor of the welfare of society, the father of the whole people).

The most important concept of Taoism is the theory of non-doing (wu-wei), or renunciation of any purposeful activity as contrary to the natural course of the Tao. Actions must be performed spontaneously, without unnecessary reasoning and motivation, which are a serious obstacle to harmony.

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Taoists opposed the deification of the sky, considering it only a part of nature, rejected the cult of ancestors and other religious cults, including sacrifices.

The second treatise - "Zhuang Tzu" - is attributed to the philosopher Zhuang Tzu, reliable information about whose life is practically not preserved. In the center of his attention is the development of the concept of Tao, which he understands as the basis of the world, the source of all things that are constantly changing in the cycle of the universe. His philosophical ideas are presented in the form of entertaining parables and dialogues, in which both real historical figures and mythical characters and fantastic creatures participate.

Another school that strongly opposed the Confucians during the Zhangguo period were mohists. The views of the founder of this school, Mo Di, are set forth in the treatise of the same name. The main orientation of mohists is practical use. The main thesis is the potential equality of all inhabitants of the Celestial Empire. They recognized the "will of Heaven", but considered it cognizable, which means that the fate of a person is not predetermined and depends on him. The Mohist school was very popular, as it reflected the interests of the lower strata of society and was set up to fight the ruling hereditary aristocracy and the Confucians who supported it. Mohists put forward the idea of ​​a comprehensive "uniting love", which would extend not only to close people - it is this kind of love that brings not personal benefit, but the mutual benefit of all members of the team.

Another school that originated in the era under consideration also opposed the Confucians - this is the school legalists, or supporters of the law. The Legists put forward the theory of a strong despotic state based on a single written law fa (hence the self-name of the school fa-jia). According to this concept, the only creator of the law is the sovereign, whose power is not limited by anyone, so the legalists opposed the hereditary aristocracy, which brings them closer to coins.

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. the ideas of the legists were in demand in the kingdom of Qin, which at that time was one of the contenders for hegemony in the region. Minister Shang Yang, who was one of the founders and theorists of legalism, decided to embody its principles in a series of reforms aimed primarily at strengthening the central government and limiting the rights of hereditary nobility.

Uniform legislation and legal proceedings were introduced. All hereditary titles have been abolished, from now on the rank can be

was obtained only thanks to personal merit, primarily military. It is these reforms that allow the Qin kingdom to outstrip its rivals in its development and lead successful wars of conquest aimed at uniting politically disparate territories into a single empire.

In 238 BC. e. Ying Zheng ascended the throne of Qin. His main task was to break the coalition of six large kingdoms that had gathered against the Qin kingdom. In 221, he conquered the last independent kingdom of Qi and assumed the title of Huangdi (emperor), ushering in a new dynasty in China's now imperial history.

The first empire, created by military means, did not manage to last long. However, Qin Shi Huang (the First Emperor of Qin) determined the contours of the future stronger Han empire through an active military policy. In addition to uniting the "middle kingdoms", the emperor set out on a campaign in a northern direction, having the task of defeating the eyunnu (Huns) tribes, who constantly raided the territory of China. Having inflicted a decisive defeat on the nomads and pushing them back behind the Huang He, the monarch ordered the construction of a wall that would protect the Celestial Empire from the barbarians.

Thus began the construction of the Great Wall of China - the largest architectural monument in China. Its construction and strengthening was carried out over the centuries. During the construction of sections of the wall, various materials were used, at an early stage they used mainly compacted loess with reeds and sand, plastered with clay, later the wall was lined with gray stone. The average height of the Great Wall of China is 5-10 m, its upper part is formed by a series of battlements with holes for loopholes, every 100-150 m there were watchtowers with a signal warning system about approaching danger.

After the active aggressive policy of Qin Shi Huang, the life of imperial China entered a peaceful course. The discovery of the Western world for the Celestial Empire happened thanks to the Chinese diplomat and traveler Zhang Jiang, who was tasked to find military allies against the Xiongnu, but was captured, and after his release went to travel around Central Asia. It turned out that to the west of the Middle Empire there are developed states, trade with which can be very profitable. The main direction of foreign

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From now on, China's policy was the desire to control trade routes for successful interaction with neighbors.

The trade road to the West was called the Great Silk Road. It went from the Han capital Chang'an to the northwest through the territory of Gansu province to Dunhuang, then through Kashgar to Fergana and Bactria, from where the path diverged: one direction led to India, the other through Parthia to the countries of the Mediterranean.

The main Han export was silk, which was valued in the West literally worth its weight in gold. The invention of sericulture in China is attributed to the wife of the Yellow Emperor, the mythological founder of the state, who was the first of the five wise emperors. According to archaeological excavations, this branch of production appeared already in the Neolithic era. Silk production technology has long been kept in the strictest confidence. China had a monopoly on breeding caterpillars of the silkworm butterfly until the 6th century, when two monks fraudulently took out several larvae in hollow staffs and delivered them to the court of the Byzantine emperor Justinian.

In addition to silk, trade caravans brought iron, silver, handicrafts and lacquer items from China. The history of lacquer production in China also has its roots in the Neolithic era. Even then, the unique property of varnish was noticed to give products strength and resistance to high temperatures. Lacquer tree sap was used in the production of a wide variety of products: from household and ritual utensils to combat equipment. Colored lacquer obtained by adding dyes to it was used in various painting and inlay techniques.

India. The ancient civilization of India originated in the Indus River valley, the alluvial soils of which were distinguished by fertility. This territory seems to be separated from the outside world by the largest mountain system - the Himalayas, but this barrier is not insurmountable. Since ancient times, conquerors and settlers have penetrated Indian lands from the northeast, trade routes passed here, and the cultural influence of other regions also spread. Finally, it was by this route that the nomadic tribes of the Indo-Aryans invaded India, whose religion determined the contours of the largest early civilization in South Asia for many years to come.

In the middle of the third millennium BC. e. on the fertile plain of the Punjab (Pyatirechye - an area where five

largest tributaries of the Indus River, now in Pakistan), an urban culture arose, familiar with irrigated agriculture (the Harappan culture, after the name of one of the largest excavated centers). It was discovered by archaeologists quite late (in the 1920s).

The civilization of the Indus Valley was recognized as independent and autochthonous. Its chronological framework is determined by 2300-1700. BC e. Archaeologists are studying numerous centers of this culture, the largest and most explored of which are the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Of particular interest is the city of Lothal on the southern border of the Harappan culture, which had access to the Arabian Sea and was probably a major seaport of that time.

The most interesting finds of the Indus civilization are skillfully carved seals, which, most likely, were symbols of property, and could also be used as amulets.

Based on the images on these seals, some conclusions can be drawn about the religious concepts of the representatives of this culture. In particular, we can talk about the cult of the mother goddess, which was associated with the deification of trees, as well as the male deity, depicted in the form of a bull, the imprints of which are found on many samples.

It is difficult to say anything more specific about the early cults, since the writing that was already known in this era still remains undeciphered.

Many of the found seals have short inscriptions - no more than 20 characters. Attempts to compare this writing system with the Sumerian were unsuccessful, so the writing of the Indian seals remains one of the main mysteries of the Harappan civilization.

Excavations of cities allow us to judge the level of material culture of this time. Cities were built according to a single plan. The citadel was located in the western part, which was an artificial earthen platform surrounded by a wall. The citadel housed public buildings. Below was the city itself. The main streets intersect at right angles, dividing the city into even rectangles - this indicates that the construction was carried out according to a predetermined plan. Residential buildings faced the streets with blank facades, and the courtyard occupied most of the inner part of the house. The city had a sewerage system and water supply. Of the large buildings,

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epoch, one can note the palace or meeting hall in Mo-henjo-Daro, the bath, which most likely had a ritual purpose, and grain barns.

Stone construction in India has not been carried out for a long time. It only began during the reign of King Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty. Prior to that, they built from baked bricks or simply from clay. Later, wooden buildings became widespread.

By the end of the XVIII century. BC e. the Harappan culture ceased to exist. It can be said for sure that she did not die as a result of a sudden catastrophe (although at first a version was put forward that she was destroyed by the invasion of the Indo-Aryans, but these events do not coincide in time). It gradually fell into decay, its barbarization and dilapidation took place.

A few centuries later, Aryan tribes began to penetrate into the territory of India from Afghanistan through the Punjab region, eventually settling in the valley of the second major river, the Ganges. The process of settling India by alien peoples came in waves and lasted for centuries.

The main source for studying this period is the Vedas - the oldest monument of religious literature in India. From the texts of the Vedas, compiled by priests and containing sacrificial formulas and hymns, one can obtain information about the way of life of the Aryan tribes. These texts, before they were written down, were passed down in oral tradition from generation to generation for a long time.

There are four known Vedas. The first and earliest, the Rig Veda, contains laudatory hymns in honor of the gods. Samaveda is a collection of ritual chants, mostly repeating the themes of the Rig Veda. The Yajurveda is the Veda of sacrificial formulas. Atharva Veda is the latest of the Vedas.

The division of the Vedas is not accidental; it corresponds to the division of priestly functions during the ritual of sacrifice. At the time of the ceremony, the Rigveda expert called on the deity, reciting the hymns dedicated to him, the Samaveda expert accompanied the rite with chants, the Yajurveda expert accompanied him with formulas and incantations.

In the most ancient part of the literary corpus - Rigve-de - the Punjab region is mainly mentioned, the name of the Ganges River is practically not found. Probably, at the time of the formation of the Rigveda, the nomads had not yet reached the Ganges valley and had not switched to settled life.

Already in the early Vedic period, there was a division of society into certain groups, which was associated not only with property stratification, but primarily with the status of a member of a particular group. However, the rigid varna system received its final form in the late Vedic period, after the transition of the Aryans to a settled way of life.

At the top of the hierarchy were priests, or brahmins, who were responsible for the preservation of cultural traditions and rituals. They had considerable real power, since the Aryan society was imbued with religiosity.

The second most influential and prestigious varna were the kshatriyas, or military kings. These are contenders for the supreme power, which, however, was not yet strong. Power in the community could be elective, that is, a kshatriya could not pass it on by inheritance, or his power was limited to a meeting of elders who took part in resolving all important issues. The privilege of the Varna Kshatriyas was the collection of rent-tax from the community members, which gradually turned from a voluntary donation into a mandatory contribution. During the transition to a settled way of life, a kshatriya received the right to distribute land.

Varna of Vaishyas, or farmers, included all other members of the Aryan community. It is believed that it was the Vaishyas who were the main productive force, but their position was privileged by birth. The fact is that the first three varnas included directly the Aryans, whose high status was confirmed by the rite of initiation, that is, each person in childhood received initiation within his varna, after which he had the right to learn a profession and become a householder. The one who passed such a rite was called twice-born, as opposed to the fourth layer of Indian society, which was called the Varna Shudra.

It should not be thought that the Shudras had the lowest social position. They really came from local tribes, so they differed from the Aryans even in appearance, but they voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and therefore were included in the system of social division, which was already quite a lot. The same tribes that were conquered by force did not have any status in society, therefore they were in the position of slaves.

Gradually, with the development of society, the varna of Vaishyas and Shudras is drawing closer, the reason for which was both the loss of Aryan privileges by Vaishyas, who were increasingly turning into ordinary peasants and artisans, and an increase in the status

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Shudras, already assimilated to such an extent that their origin was not blamed on them.

Interestingly, such social divisions never caused revolt or discontent in Indian society, unlike neighboring China, which was shaken from time to time by peasant unrest. The stability of the varna system was ensured by the law of karma, which was formulated at the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. According to the ideas of the Indians about the afterlife, with the death of a person, his existence did not stop, and after a certain time he returned to the world in new conditions. This has been called the circle of samsara, or the endless succession of incarnations of each individual. Moreover, it was possible to be reborn not only into a human being, but also into a demon, an insect, and at best - into a deity.

On what did such a transformation depend? From the person himself, more precisely, from the sum of good and evil deeds that he did in a past life (this is what is called karma). The law of karma is impersonal, it cannot be circumvented or violated, even with the help of any personified deity, therefore, its future well-being depends only on a person. But this law has another important consequence, according to which the low social position in real life is the fault of the person himself, which means that rebellions against the supreme power will not only not change the situation, but will also burden the person with new karmic negativity. Therefore, all that remained for the representatives of the lower strata of Indian society was to follow their own path, trying to improve their situation at least in the next life.

Religious ideas have undergone certain changes over time. Abundant sacrifices to the deities, characterized by a quantitative factor (the larger the sacrifice, the greater the mercy and help from the deity), are replaced by ritual offerings, magic and symbolic relationships with the celestials come to the fore. The successful implementation of magical activities directly depends on the holiness of the Brahmin performing the ritual. And holiness can be gained through asceticism and asceticism. A new ideal arises - a hermit who retired from the world to obtain the grace of the deities through the performance of religious feats.

Gradually, the texts of the ancient Veda themselves become more and more difficult for the understanding of the Brahmins, therefore, a commentary tradition arises, as a result of which, in 800-600 years.

BC e. there was a commentary corpus to the Vedas, called the "Brahmans". Following this, Aranyakas (Forest Books) were compiled, which contained guides for forest hermits. It was these texts that became the source of the literature of the Upanishads - the first philosophical texts of Ancient India. The earliest Upanishads are usually attributed to the VIII-VII centuries. BC e., according to various sources, there are from 150 to 235 in total.

The late Vedic period is characterized by the construction of cities in the Ganges valley, at this time the first state formations are formed, crafts and trade develop. The historical events of this time are partly reflected in the folk epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, which describe prosperous kingdoms and cities, as well as fierce wars between them.

It should be noted that ancient India is characterized by loose and weak political formations. The kingdoms were rather unstable, one dynasty succeeded another, and territories often passed under the control of one or the other warring party.

Meanwhile, in the social sphere of society, in the absence of a rigid central government, a crisis was brewing. The Brahmin priests increasingly complicated the ritual, the payment for it became exorbitant for many members of society, who thus turned out to be, as it were, excluded from religious life. Buddhism, a new religion that arose at the turn of the 4th-5th centuries, became the answer to such contradictions. BC e.

The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama from the Shakya family. His father was the ruler of the small kingdom of Kapilavastu (now it is the territory of Nepal, not far from the border with India). According to legend, the mother of the future Buddha, Queen Maya, had a prophetic dream about a white elephant entering her womb. The interpreters considered this a sign of a great future for her child and predicted two different paths for him: he could become a wise ruler or a great teacher.

The boy's father, King Shuddhodana, dreamed of a brilliant political career for his son. He decided to isolate the prince from all the sorrows of the world, which could prompt him to sad reflections. He surrounded him with the most beautiful things and people, and Siddhartha lived until the age of 29 in luxury without worries and despondency.

However, Shuddhodana's plans were not destined to come true, the prince was eager to find out what kind of life goes beyond the walls of the beautiful

5. Culture over time

Culture of the Ancient East

foot palace. Sneaking out into the city, the prince met a man with leprosy, an old man, and finally a funeral procession. Surprised by an unprecedented sight, he asked his driver about the reason for the suffering of these people. It turned out that no one in the world has yet managed to avoid such a fate: all people get sick, grow old and die. Siddhartha was extremely saddened by this answer, he decided to try to find the truth about the nature of human suffering.

The meeting with the monk helped him get on the path, he left the palace and went to travel around India in search of new knowledge. Having succeeded in meditation and concentration, he realized that this path does not give liberation from suffering. Then he decided to indulge in severe asceticism, but this path did not lead to the desired result. Then the prince sat down under the bodhi tree, swearing an oath that he would not leave this place until he comprehended the cause of suffering. 49 he spent nine days under the sacred fig tree, plunging into deep meditation, after which enlightenment descended on him and he became the Buddha, or the Awakened One. He spent the rest of his life wandering around India, preaching the truth that had been revealed to him.

In his first sermon at Sarnath Deer Park near Benares, the Buddha told five disciples about the "four noble truths" and the "eight-step noble path" that allows one to reach nirvana, thereby getting rid of the endless circle of rebirths. According to the first noble truth, our life is suffering, the second truth says that the cause of suffering is human desires (whether they are desires for material goods, bodily pleasures or spiritual communication). The third truth affirms the possibility of eliminating the cause of suffering, and the fourth points to the path of liberation followed by the Buddha himself.

This path consists of eight stages, corresponding to the main categories of Buddhist morality:

1. Correct views (they are opposed to misconceptions that generate suffering).

2. Right determination, which should help the adept to renounce worldly attachments, as well as evil thoughts and intentions.

3. Correct speech, which does not allow lying, slander or rudeness.

4. Correct behavior - this concept includes following the principle of ahimsa, that is, not causing harm to living beings.

you, the rejection of evil deeds and compassion for all life on earth.

5. Correct life, which prescribes to use only an honest source of income to maintain their livelihoods.

6. The right effort to be made to eradicate old habits that hinder progress on the path.

7. The right direction of thought, or the state of constant vigilance.

8. Right Concentration is a deep meditation that can be achieved only by going through the first seven stages of the path.

Buddhism spread among the broad masses of the people, in addition, it was also supported among the aristocracy, which saw in the new teaching a means of combating the Brahmin priesthood. Under King Ashoka, Buddhism was declared the state religion. Ashoka is the most famous representative of the Mauryan dynasty, which managed to unite the kingdoms of Northern India into a single state entity.

Having come to power in 272 BC. e., Ashoka continued the active aggressive policy of his predecessors, however, after defeating the small kingdom of Kalinga, which put up desperate resistance to his troops, the ruler repented that he had caused so many deaths, and converted to Buddhism, adopting the principle of ahimsa. He also abolished animal sacrifices and replaced traditional hunting with pilgrimages to holy Buddhist sites. The king ordered the installation of special columns throughout the state, on which the moral norms of Buddhism were fixed.

In addition to strengthening the position of Buddhism, the reign of Ashoka coincided with the flowering of Indian architecture, which was associated with the use of stone in construction. Stupas were one of the main types of Buddhist religious monuments. They were reliquaries and were built in places associated with the activities of the Buddha or his companions. The stupa symbolizes nirvana, it is customary to erect its hemispherical shape to the burial mounds, however, according to legend, this shape was suggested by the teacher himself, who, in response to a question from students about the shape of the burial, turned his begging cup onto a spread cloak.

The earliest and best-known monument is the stupa at Sanchi, dated to the reign of Ashoka, although it was enlarged and changed in later years.

5. Culture over time

Traditional culture

rebuilt, and also surrounded by a stone fence with four gates - torans, oriented to the cardinal points. These stone gates date back to earlier wooden forms of construction, they are completely covered with carvings, the plots for which are both legends about the life of Buddha and genre scenes depicting the life of ordinary people.

Buddhist art in India has developed over the centuries. An iconographic image of the Buddha was developed, and schools of sculpture arose. The written Buddhist canon Tri-pitaka finally took shape by the 1st century BC. BC e. and was recorded in Sri Lanka. At the turn of the century, Buddhism went beyond India and began a triumphal procession in neighboring countries and regions. It spread over a vast territory, finding adherents in Confucian China, from which, in a somewhat revised form, it came to Korea and Japan, and in Central Asia, and in mountainous Tibet, and in the countries of Southeast Asia.

MHK grade 10

1. What Not is a world religion?

a) Islam b) Buddhism c) Confucianism

2. World religion that originated in India - ...

a) Taoism b) paganism c) Buddhism

3. What is the name of the state of enlightenment, detachment from earthly

passions, the achievement of a higher order absolute in Buddhism?

a) stupa b) yakshini c) nirvana

4. What country is called the Middle Kingdom?

a) India b) China c) Japan

5. What country is called the Land of the Rising Sun?

a) India b) China c) Japan

6. The civilization of India has

a) more than 5 thousand years

b) more than 6 thousand years

c) more than 7 thousand years

7. In Indian culture, all rituals, teachings, scientific knowledge, folklore,

mythology collected in ...

a) in the Bible

b) in the Vedas

c) in the Quran

8. Translated from Arabic, "Quran" means

a) reading together

b) reading together

c) reading aloud

9. How is the word "Islam" literally translated?

a) obedience

b) greatness

c) teaching

10. The only god of Muslims

a) Buddha

b) Vishnu

c) Allah

11. What Not was center of attention of medieval masters of China and

Japan?

a) nature

b) religious and philosophical currents

c) historical events

12. Match the names of countries and their distinctive features

13. Match the names of the gods with their image and essence

cosmic order; embodied in the form

beautiful young man, refined and kind.

2) Vishnu

b) The king of destructive and at the same time

creative energy - appears

dancing, while his hands (from 2 to 10)

writhe in the rhythm of the cosmic cycle

life.

3) Shiva

c) God of life-giving light; portrayed since 4

heads facing the 4 cardinal directions,

and 4 hands.

14. Buddhist monasteries were built

a) in the center of noisy cities

b) along the edges of the carriageways

c) on the tops of mountains, in hard-to-reach places

15. The main art form in China

a) architecture

b) painting

to the theatre

16. What country is it in golden pavilion ?

a) China b) Japan c) India

17. What is mortar ?

a) burial mound

b) a place for prostration

c) cave temple for prayer

18. What is the purpose of taj mahal ?

a) a madrasah b) a mausoleum c) a mosque

19. Pagoda is ...

a) a memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of famous

of people

b) a medieval Chinese monastery

c) a medieval Chinese house

20. For what purpose did the ancient Chinese build the Chinese Wall?

a) wind protection

b) architectural decoration

c) protection from nomadic raids

21. The main form of religious and residential buildings in China and Japan

was …

a) pavilion

b) pagoda

c) a monastery

22. The main purpose of Japanese gardens is ...

a) contemplation of nature, philosophical seclusion

b) place of entertainment

c) meeting place

23. Netsuke is ...

a) Japanese engraving

b) miniature Japanese sculpture

c) type of Japanese jewelry technology

24. Which of the following Not refers to the peculiarities of Chinese

landscape painting?

a) symbolism

b) painting from nature

c) monochrome

25. Chinese landscape painting "shan shui" means

a) mountain birds

b) bird-fish

c) mountains-waters

26. The phenomenon of artistic culture, philosophy, religious knowledge

in Japan - …

a) tea ceremony

b) garden

c) palace complexes

27. In what culture is it common Kufic script ?

a) Chinese b) Arabic c) Indian

28. Choose the main value of Arabic calligraphy

a) speed and quantity of writing

b) quality, "cleanliness of writing"

c) literacy

29. The Indians claim that this instrument is the goddess of eloquence,

patronizing science and art gave the human voice

a) sitar

b) harp

c) wine

30. One of the most significant phenomena in the visual arts

is engraving ukiyo-e . It embodied bright and original

features of national art ...

a) China

b) Japan

in India

31. "Music for the eyes" is called ...

a) oriental ornament

b) Arabic calligraphy

c) handwritten Arabic books

Answer the questions in words

32. What is the second name of Islam?

33. What is the name of the main holy book of Muslims?

34. The holy city of Muslims, facing which Muslims pray

worldwide, - …

35. In which country are saris worn?

36. What religion forbids depicting living beings?

37. Choose the odd one in the row: porcelain, compass, gunpowder, fractions, paper.

38. Add the names of historical monuments

a) Terracotta...

b) Forbidden ... in Beijing

c) … Sky in Beijing

Test on the topic "Artistic culture of the countries of the East" MHK grade 10

ANSWERS

MHC test. Grade 10. Culture of the East. Middle Ages.

1 option.

1. The main place in the Japanese house is:

3.tokonoma.

2. The world's largest Buddha is located in the city:

3. Yellow color in painting and architecture in China means:

1. peasant;

2.tangerine;

3.emperor.

4. Translated from Arabic, "Quran" means:

1.reading together;

2.reading together;

3.reading aloud.

5. The civilization of India has more than:

1.5 thousand years;

2.6 thousand years;

3.7 thousand years.

6. During this period, caves, temples, niches were built in China as places of worship:

1.qin;

2. Wei;

3.tan.

7. What is the basis of Chinese cultural stability:

1. religion;

2.writing;

8. Rounded, flowing arabesques are called:

9. In Indian culture, all rituals, teachings, scientific knowledge, folklore, mythology are collected in:

1. in the Bible;

2. in the Vedas;

3.in the Quran.

10. Japan made a cultural breakthrough in the era:

11. What kind of temples were not present in India:

2. mastabas;

3. torana.

12. Cross out the excess and explain why you did it:

1. Avicenna;

2. Aristotle; 3. Al-Biruni.

13. Indian Culture Meaning:

MHC test. Grade 10. Culture of the East. Middle Ages.

Option 2.

1. Clear, rectangular arabesques in Muslim art are called:

2. The miniature sculpture of Japan is called:

3.kakemono.

3. One of the centers of Muslim culture is:

2. Cordova;

3. Damascus.

4. Translated from Sanskrit, this word means "knowledge":

2. Rigveda;

5. The beginning of the caste system in India was put by God:

2. Parvati;

6. An image in China on cut silk is called:

7. One of the favorite subjects of Japanese artists is:

3. Fujiyama.

8. The culture of the Stone Age in Japan, when it developed within the communities themselves, is:

9. Under what king did Buddhism become the state religion in India:

1. under Ashoka;

2. under Gautama;

3. under Tamerlane.

10. The main architectural monument in China is:

2.reliquaries;

11. Chinese landscape painting "shan shui" means:

1. birds-mountains;

2. fish birds;

3.mountain-water.

12. To get to the Muslim paradise, you need to go through the bridge of the saint:

1. Michael;

2.Jabrail;

Test. Artistic culture China.

In Chinese art, a person

A. "the measure of all things"

B. a small particle of nature

WhatNot was center of attention of medieval masters of China?

A. nature

B. religious and philosophical currents

B. historical events

Chinese architects built monasteries

A. in the center of bustling cities

B. along the edges of carriageways

V. on the tops of mountains, in hard-to-reach places

Main art form in China

A. architecture

B. painting

What is the name of the memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of famous people?

B. pagoda

V. mosque

The appearance of the pagoda

A. is simple, it almost does not use decorative decoration

B. contains many sculptural images of saints.

The imperial garden houses a collection

A. rare trees and shrubs

B. stones of the most bizarre shapes

Chinese painting is represented by genres:

A. Landscape

B. Portrait

V.Still life

Why did the ancient Chinese build the Wall of China?

A. wind protection

B. architectural decoration

B. protection from raids of nomadic tribes

The main form of religious and residential buildings in China and Japan was…

A. pavilion

B. pagoda

V. monastery

Features of Chinese landscape painting include

A. symbolism

B. painting from life

B. monochrome

Add the names of historical monuments

A. Terracotta ___________

B. _________ Heaven in Beijing