The highest caste in India. Varnas of ancient India

INTRODUCTION

Dating back to the ancient Indian varnas and consecrated by Hinduism, the caste system has been the basis of the social structure of India since ancient times. Belonging to a particular caste was associated with the birth of a person and determined his status for his entire life.

The varno-caste system as a whole, precisely because of its rigid hierarchy, constituted the backbone of the social structure of India; unique in form, it not only turned out to be an effective alternative to a weak political administration (and perhaps vice versa: its uniqueness brought to life and determined the weakness of the state administration - why do you need a strong administrative system if there is no grassroots link, if the lower classes live on laws of self-regulating caste principles and communal norms?), but also successfully compensated for this weakness, although this kind of compensation did not contribute to the political stability of states in India.

VARNA, CASTES AND RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THEIR SYSTEM

Class - varna - caste - one of the unresolved problems of Oriental studies. In the study of these problems, not the last place should be given to legal categories, without taking into account which it is impossible to understand and explain the emergence of classes and forms of dependence in ancient India.

The Brahmins were the “highest”, “pure” Varna. They were called avadhya - inviolable. The formation of the varna of the priestly elite of the Brahmins was facilitated by their monopolization at a certain stage of historical development of the administration of religious ceremonies, knowledge of Vedic hymns. At the same time, the Brahmins, who performed priestly functions and knew the sacred teachings, occupied the most honorable place in society. According to official ideas, the Brahmin is the highest of people. His occupation is the study of sacred books, participation in court and administration, the development of laws and regulations. Everything he sees belongs to him, he can "demand whatever he wants" (at least within the limits of the law). Observation of the change of seasons, river floods and other phenomena, observation, so necessary for the management of socio-economic life, was another function of the natives of this varna.

Against the background of general social mobility caused by the development of feudal relations, the position of the highest varna of the Brahmins underwent relatively few changes. The position of the Brahmins was determined by the increased role of Hinduism in connection with the feudalization of society, openly sanctifying social inequality, the power and privileges of the few and the lack of rights of the majority of people.

The second varna is the varna of kshatriyas, warriors, military and secular aristocracy, from its midst came kings, military leaders, dignitaries. According to the varna system, kshatriyas had to collect taxes from peasants and duties from merchants, traders and artisans.

A special military elite, the Kshatriyas, began to take shape in the process of conquest by the Aryans of the river valleys of Northern India. This category initially included only the Aryans, but in the process of assimilation of the conquered tribes, this varna was sometimes replenished with local leaders and heads of tribal groups, which, in particular, is indicated by the existence in ancient India of a special category of “vratya - kshatriyas” - i.e. kshatriyas by vow, not by birth. Here, therefore, both external and internal processes of the beginning decomposition of tribal society among the conquered and the conquerors closely interacted.

At the same time, tribal leaders and some foreign rulers were assimilated into Brahmin society as second-class kshatriyas, and in the post-Gupta era they were called Rajputs, and the place of a Rajput in their hierarchy depended on which tribe he came from.

In the Mauryan period, the kshatriyas, who concentrated military, political and economic power in their hands, began to refer mainly to those who belonged directly to the royal family and to the category of privileged mercenary warriors.

The isolation of the Kshatriyas among their fellow tribesmen - Vaishyas-commoners was facilitated by the idea that the Kshatriyas are the sovereign administrators of the wealth acquired by war, including slave prisoners of war.

The name of the third varna - vaishya - comes from the word vish - people, tribe, settlement. This is the bulk of the working people, farmers, peasants, artisans and merchants - a true demos. Landless hired workers, representatives of the “untouchable” castes, worked on the farms of wealthy community members, who basically created a surplus product appropriated by various categories of exploiters, slaves. Vaishya most often, as a full-fledged communal landowner, could himself be an exploiter

The fourth varna was the Shudras. Among them are impoverished peasants who left the community, strangers, freed slaves, but slave labor did not play a significant role in the decisive sectors of the economy of Ancient India. Shudra could have a family, his children inherited property, the path to enrichment was not closed to him by any prohibition. And yet he is not free.

Shudra can be bought and sold. Even when released by his master, he is not released from the duty of service, "for they are born for him." He is the one "whose property can be taken away by the owner." In the eyes of the law, a sudra is impious, communication with him must be avoided, he is punished more severely, religious rites are forbidden to him. So, in the dharmasutras, the Shudras are excluded from participating in sacrifices, which become the prerogative of the highest varnas, they did not go through the rite of initiation - the "second birth", to which only free members of the community, called "twice born" - dvijati, were entitled.

In dharmashastras, in some cases, distinctions are made between slaves and sudras, between slaves and persons in the service, in others - these distinctions are absent. The word dasa (dasya) in the Laws of Manu means both a slave and a person in service. This was due to the fact that slavery in ancient India was one of the forms of dependence, but far from the only one. Numerous transitional social forms, intermediate social conditions (from the free, but deprived of the poorest strata of the population to slaves) were widely represented here.

The processes of assimilation by the Aryans of numerous aboriginal tribes apparently played a significant role in the formation of the social stratum of the Shudras. These processes were undoubtedly influenced by social differentiation, the strengthening of property inequality within Aryan society itself. The poorest part of the population of the Aryan community also fell into the category of Shudras, those members who worked off their debts were in the service. In the Dharma Sutras, the Sudras are often contrasted with the Aryans. So, for example, Apastamba in one of his prescriptions speaks of the unworthy behavior of an Aryan if he cohabits with a Shudra woman, in another - if he cohabits with a non-Aryan woman, or with a woman of the black race. At the same time, some samhitas still mention rich shudras (these references disappear in the sutras), they talk about sin against the shudra and arya, there are praises for the shudras, as well as for the brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas. The inconsistency of the dharmashastra testimonies regarding the position of the Shudras and their social and legal status is a consequence of the heterogeneity of the Shudra varna. In the process of its becoming, a rich shudra could be a representative of a conquered tribe, while a shudra, attached to the religious rituals of the Aryans, is an impoverished Aryan. The further progressive development of ancient Indian society, the strengthening of property differentiation, leads to a certain leveling of the position of the Shudras - to the impoverishment of some and the loss of others of the religious and legal differences characteristic of the Aryans. Both of these ways of the formation of the Shudra varna led in antiquity to the emergence of slavish dependence.

The ancient Indian state arose as a slave-owning state, however, there is no clear opposition between free and slaves in law. Castes obscure the classes. This is expressed in the fact that collections of laws speak much more clearly about the relations between castes than between classes, since it is the division of society into castes that is proclaimed by ancient Indian legislation as the main division of people that has existed from eternity, and it is precisely the presentation of the rights and duties of castes that is the main content of ancient Indian collections of laws.

A sudra should not accumulate wealth, even if he has the opportunity to do so, since a sudra, acquiring wealth, oppresses the brahmins - this can be read in the Laws of Manu. A sudra guest was allowed to give food only if he was doing some work in the host's house.

The heterogeneity of the Shudra varna is evidenced by the fact that as the caste division intensified, outcast, “untouchable” castes, performing the most humiliating work, began to be attributed to the Shudras. The Laws of Manu mentions faces "contemptible even to the outcast." The "untouchable" castes were discriminated against both as Shudras and as "untouchables". The "untouchables" were forbidden to visit Hindu temples, common reservoirs, cremation sites, shops that were visited by members of other castes.

Kshatriyas and Brahmins began to distinguish themselves from the general population on the basis that they own cattle, grain, money, and also slaves, but there were also poor Brahmins and Kshatriyas who did not differ in status from poor Vaishyas. As the higher varnas - Brahmins and Kshatriyas - consolidated, a special order of regular deductions from agricultural products developed. The tax went to the content of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. People who were part of the three highest varnas were ritually separated from those who were part of the fourth varna.

The possibility of mixed marriages was limited. Dharmashastras establish clear religious and legal boundaries between Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, based on numerous religious and ritual restrictions, prohibitions, and prescriptions. For each varna, its own dharma, the law of the way of life, was formulated. State administration remained under the jurisdiction of the first two varnas. Entire chapters of dharmashastras are devoted to strict regulation of people's behavior, their communication with each other, with representatives of the so-called "untouchable" castes, standing outside the varnas of Indian society, rituals of "cleansing" from "pollution" in such communication. The severity of punishment for committing certain crimes is determined in dharmashastras in strict accordance with belonging to one or another varna.

The twice-born were given the right to study the Vedas, while the fourth estate, the Shudras, were deprived of this right. The fate of these latter was the service of the three highest varnas, as slaves or hired workers.

Strengthening property differentiation in the second half of the 1st millennium BC more and more often began to manifest itself in the discrepancy between the varna status and the place actually occupied by a person in society. In the Laws of Manu, one can find mention of brahmins herding cattle, brahmin artisans, actors, servants, who are prescribed to be treated "as sudras."

People of lower varnas cannot testify against people of higher varnas. The testimonies of "slaves, relatives and children" are "unreliable", and therefore it is better not to resort to them. In case of disagreement between an excellent and a good witness, the testimony of an excellent one, etc., should prevail.

Later, due to the decline in the role of free community members in public life, the Vaishyas began to differ little from the Shudras, and the dividing line began to pass between the nobility - Brahmins and Kshatriyas, on the one hand, and the common people - Vaishyas and Shudras - on the other.

According to the Laws of Manu, Vaishyas and Shudras should not be allowed to deviate from their prescribed functions, otherwise chaos would reign in the world. Hence, in the ancient texts, the natural conclusion was made that the kshatriyas cannot prosper without the support of the brahmins, and the brahmins cannot prosper without the support of the kshatriyas. Only in alliance with each other can they succeed and rule the world.

Thus, within each varna, social inequality developed, a division into exploited and exploiters, but caste, communal, large-family boundaries, sealed by law, religion, held back their merging into a single class community. This created a special diversity of the estate-class social structure of Ancient India.

The weakening of the varna isolation of the entire system as a whole and attempts to strengthen the varna partitions in the later dharmashastras were the result of a restructuring of the estate-class division of early medieval society in India. In this restructuring, a new developing social form, the caste, occupied not the last place. In one of the later chapters of the "Laws of Manu" 61 castes are mentioned, and in the "Brahmavaivarta Purana" - more than a hundred. According to some authors, all these were mainly tribes turned into castes.

The problem of the emergence of castes is also one of the debatable problems of Oriental studies. At present, it can be considered established that varna as a social institution is of much earlier origin than the caste.

The heterogeneity of the castes greatly complicates the clarification of the question of their origin. Castes are also ethnic groups (for example, backward tribes included in the “untouchables”), and clans of conquering warriors (Rajput tribes), and professional groups, and religious sects, communities. Regardless of their original origin, castes, as feudal relations developed, "lined up" in the hierarchy of Hindu society in accordance with their position in the socio-economic structure of feudal society. The last, the lowest group of "untouchable" castes, included farmers and servants of the community, deprived of any property rights, who were in a semi-slavish, semi-serf dependence on full-fledged community members. The “untouchable”, most likely a non-communist, becomes the main object of exploitation. In domestic literature, L. B. Alaev convincingly proved that the rent-paying community member himself was often a petty feudal exploiter, that land plots were cultivated by “untouchables”, non-communal members and non-communal peasantry. Untouchability arises along with the caste division of society, as the relations of exploitation expand as a result of the violent suppression of the uprisings of the Shudras - slaves, the subjugation of backward tribes, etc. It also contains numerous instructions on the most humiliating religious, ritual, everyday restrictions applied to them.

This double hierarchy is reflected in Hindu law. Belonging to a varna still determines the sum of the rights and obligations of an individual in society and the state. The caste hierarchy was associated mainly with the norms of marriage and family law. The "untouchable" castes were actually outside the scope of Hindu law. The norms of this law affected them only to the extent that they limited their legal capacity.

Ancient India, with its economic and national fragmentation, with its closed communities isolated from each other, is characterized by social amorphism, impersonality, "non-manifestation" of an ordinary person, the unconditional power of a community, a caste over a person, which was so deep and constant that it was part of the usual human psychology, and therefore was not always even realized by him.

CONCLUSIONS

Having studied the system of varnas and castes on the basis of legal monuments, which give a vivid picture of the prevailing in ancient Indian society, one can summarize and draw some generalizing conclusions.

Inequality, fixed by law, was characteristic of many peoples of antiquity, but such a complete one, as in India, was, perhaps, nowhere. It was the best way in the historical conditions of that time to legitimize the class domination of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas.

The process of such a specific social stratification of ancient Indian society began in the depths of disparate tribal communities. As a result of the decomposition of tribal relations, stronger and more influential clans emerged, which concentrated in their hands the public functions of administration, military protection, and priestly duties. This led to the development of social and property inequality, slavery, to the transformation of the tribal elite into a tribal aristocracy. Contributed to the development of social inequality and war, during which relations of dependence, subordination arose between individual tribes and communities.

At a certain stage in the development of ancient Indian society, as the process of division of labor and inequality deepened, a new, caste division began to take shape. Separate groups of people with the hereditary nature of their activities, formed according to professional, tribal, religious and other characteristics, became castes. Caste division in India exists at the present time, along with the traditional division into four varnas.

This civilizational feature of Ancient India is associated with a number of historical reasons, the most important of which were the varno-caste system and the strength of the community organization. A rigid varno-caste system with a once and for all definite place of a person in it, with caste conformism, strict adherence, observance of religious and moral principles of human behavior was a kind of alternative to the coercive nature of state power. Undoubtedly, this was facilitated by the isolation, autonomy of the Indian community with its subsistence economy, with patriarchal patronage inter-caste relationships of the agricultural part of the community with its artisans, servants, called "jajmani" ..

With the final formation of the slave-owning state, the division of all free people into four varnas was declared to be the eternally existing order and consecrated by religion. Thus, the varna borders do not lose their significance, moreover, the protection of these borders passes to the state power.

LIST OF LITERATURE USED IN WRITING THE SUMMARY

The literature was taken from the website of the Russian Internet University for the Humanities, at www.vusnet.ru

1. Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East.

2. Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. T.1.

India's caste system continues to attract interest. Castes in India are indeed a curious social phenomenon, however, a tourist who travels to India is unlikely to encounter it, there are many Indoman travelers who live there for months, but they are not interested in castes because they are not necessary for life.

The caste system is not exotic, it is part of the complex organization of Indian society, a multifaceted phenomenon that has been studied by Indologists and ethnographers for more than a century, dozens of thick books have been written about it, so I will publish here only 10 interesting facts about Indian castes - about the most popular questions and misconceptions.

1. What is an Indian caste?
The Indian caste is such a complex phenomenon that it is simply not possible to give an exhaustively complete definition!
Castes can only be described through a series of features, but there will still be exceptions.

Caste in India is a system of social stratification, a separate social group, connected by the origin and legal status of its members. Castes in India are built on the principles of: 1) common religion (this rule is always respected); 2) one profession, usually hereditary; 3) members of castes marry only among themselves, as a rule; 4) caste members generally do not eat with strangers, except in other Hindu castes of a significantly higher social position than their own; 5) members of castes can be determined by who they can take water and food, processed and raw.

2. There are 4 castes in India
In India, there are not 4, but about 3 thousand castes at all, they can be called differently in different parts of the country, and people with the same profession can have different castes in different states. For a complete list of castes by state, see http://socialjustice...

The fact that nameless people on tourist and other near-Indian sites call 4 castes is not a caste at all, these are 4 varnas - chaturvarnya in Sanskrit - an ancient social system.

4 varnas (वर्ना) is an ancient Indian system of estates. Varna of brahmins (more correctly, a brahmin) historically are clergymen, doctors, teachers. Varna kshatriyas (in ancient times it was called rajanya) are rulers and warriors. Varna vaishyas are farmers and merchants, and varna shudras are workers and landless peasants who work for others.
Varna is a color (in Sanskrit again), and each Indian varna has its own color: the Brahmins have white, the Kshatriyas have red, the Vaishyas have yellow, the Shudras have black, and earlier, when all representatives of the varnas wore a sacred thread - he was just the color of their varna.

Varnas correlate with castes, but in very different ways, sometimes there is no direct connection, and since we have already delved into science, it must be said that Indian castes, unlike varnas, are called jati - जाति.
More about Indian castes in modern India http://indonet.ru/St...

3. Caste of the Untouchables
The untouchables are not a caste. In the days of ancient India, everyone who was not part of the 4 varnas automatically found themselves "overboard" of Indian society, these strangers were avoided, they were not allowed to live in villages, which is why they were called untouchables. Subsequently, these untouchable strangers began to be used in the most dirty, low-paid and shameful work, and formed their own social and professional groups, that is, castes of untouchables, there are several of them, as a rule, this is associated either with dirty work, or with the killing of living beings or death, so that all hunters and fishermen, as well as grave-diggers and tanners, are untouchables.

At the same time, it is not correct to assume that every untouchable is uneducated and poor, this is not true. In India, even before gaining independence and the adoption of a number of legislative measures to prevent discrimination against the lower castes and tribes, there were untouchables who were able to achieve outstanding success in society, an example of this is India's most famous untouchable - an outstanding Indian political and public figure, a fighter for human rights and the author of the constitution of India is Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar, who received his law degree in England. And quite recently, not just a Dalit, but also a Hijra became the mayor of a city in India http://indonet.ru/fo. ..

4. When did the Indian castes appear?
Normatively, that is, legislatively, the cast-jati system in India was fixed in the Laws of Manu, which date back to the 2nd century BC.
The varna system is much older, there is no exact dating. I wrote more about the history of the issue in the article Castes of India, from varnas to the present http://indonet.ru/ar ...

5. Castes in India are abolished
Castes in India are not abolished or banned, as is often said.
On the contrary, all castes in India are recalculated and listed in the appendix to the Indian constitution, which is called the Table of Castes. In addition, after the census, changes are made to this table, as a rule, additions, the point is not that new castes appear, but that they are fixed in accordance with the data indicated about themselves by the census participants.
Only discrimination based on caste is prohibited, it is written in article 15 of the Indian Constitution, see the test at http://lawmin.nic.in ...

6. Every Indian has a caste
No, this is also not true.
Indian society is very heterogeneous in its structure, and apart from the division into castes, there are several others.
There are caste and non-caste Indians, for example, representatives of Indian tribes (Aborigines, Adivasis), with rare exceptions, do not have castes. And the proportion of non-caste Indians is quite large, see http://censusindia.g for census results. ..
In addition, for some misconduct (crimes), a person can be expelled from the caste and thus deprive him of his status and position in society.

7. Castes are only in India
No, this is a delusion. There are castes in other countries, for example, in Nepal and Sri Lanka, since these countries developed in the bosom of the same huge Indian civilization, as well as in Bali. But there are castes in other cultures, for example, in Tibet, and the Tibetan castes do not correlate with the Indian ones at all, since the class structure of Tibetan society was formed independently from India.
For the castes of Nepal, see Ethnic Mosaic of Nepal http://indonet.ru/St ...

8. Only Indians have castes.
No, now it is not so, you need to delve into history.
Historically, when the vast majority of the population of India professed Hinduism, all Hindus belonged to some kind of caste, with the exception of the pariahs expelled from the caste and the indigenous, tribal peoples of India, who did not profess Hinduism and were not part of the Indian society. Then other religions began to spread in India - Buddhism, Jainism, India was invaded by other peoples, and representatives of other religions and peoples began to adopt from the Hindus their class system of varnas and the system of professional castes - jati. Now there are castes in Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Christianity, but they are different from the Hindu castes.
It is curious that in northern India, in the modern states of Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir, the Buddhist caste system is not of Indian, but of Tibetan origin.
It is even more curious that even Europeans - Christian missionaries-preachers - were drawn into the system of Indian castes: those who preached the teachings of Christ to noble Brahmins ended up in the Christian "Brahmin" caste, and those who communicated with the untouchable fishermen became Christian untouchables.

9. You need to know the caste of the Indian with whom you communicate and behave accordingly.
This is a common misconception, replicated by tourist sites, it is not known for what, it is not based on anything.
It is impossible to determine which caste an Indian belongs to only by his appearance, by his occupation - often too. One acquaintance worked as a waiter, although he came from a noble Rajput family (that is, he is a kshatriya). I managed to identify a familiar Nepalese waiter by his behavior as an aristocrat, since we had known each other for a long time, I asked and he confirmed that this was true, and the guy did not work because of a lack of money at all.
My old friend started his career at the age of 9 as a handyman, cleaning up rubbish in a shop... do you think he is a sudra? no, he is a brahmin (brahmin) from a poor family and 8 children in a row ... 1 more brahmin friend sells in a shop, he is the only son, you have to earn money ...

Another acquaintance of mine is so religious and bright that one would think that he is the real, ideal Brahmin. But no, he is just a shudra, and he was proud of this, and those who know what seva means will understand why.
And even if an Indian says what caste he is, although such a question is considered indecent, it will still not give anything to a tourist, a person who does not know India cannot understand what and why is arranged in this amazing country. So you should not be puzzled by the caste issue, because sometimes it is difficult for India to even determine the gender of the interlocutor, and this is probably more important :)

10. Caste discrimination
India is a democratic country and, in addition to the prohibition of caste discrimination, has introduced benefits for members of the lower castes and tribes, for example, there are quotas for admission to higher educational institutions, for positions in state and municipal bodies.
The problem of discrimination against people from the lower castes, Dalits and tribal people in India is quite serious, casteism is still the basis of the life of hundreds of millions of Indians outside of large cities, it is there that the caste structure and all the prohibitions arising from it, for example, in some temples Indian Shudras are not allowed in India, it is there that almost all caste crimes take place, for example, quite a typical crime http://indonet.ru/bl ...

If you are seriously interested in the caste system in India, I can recommend, in addition to the articles section http://indonet.ru/ca ... on this site and publications in the Hindunet, to read books by major European Indologists of the 20th century:
1. Academic 4-volume work by R.V. Russell "The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India"
2. Louis Dumont's monograph "Homo hierarchicus. Experience in describing the caste system"
In addition, in recent years, a number of books on this topic have been published in India, unfortunately I did not hold them in my hands.
If you are not ready to read non-fiction - read the novel "The God of Small Things" by a very popular modern Indian writer Arundhati Roy, it can be found in RuNet.

At the end of July, a 14-year-old untouchable died in a hospital ward in New Delhi, who had been held in sexual slavery by a neighbor for a month. The dying woman told the police that the kidnapper threatened her with a knife, forced her to drink juice mixed with acid, did not feed her, and, together with friends, raped her several times a day. As law enforcement officers found out, this was already the second kidnapping - the previous one was committed by the same person in December last year, but he was released on bail. According to local media, the court showed such leniency towards the criminal, since his victim was from Dalits (untouchables), which means that her life and freedom were worth nothing. Although discrimination based on caste is prohibited in India, Dalits are still the poorest, most disadvantaged and most uneducated part of society. Why this is so and how far the untouchables can rise up the social ladder - Lenta.ru explains.

How did the untouchables appear?

According to the most common version, these are the descendants of representatives of the tribes who lived in India before the Aryan invasion. In the traditional Aryan system of society, consisting of four varnas - Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants and artisans) and Shudras (hired workers) - Dalits were at the very bottom, below the Shudras, who were also descendants of the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India . At the same time, in India itself, a version that arose back in the 19th century is widespread, according to which the untouchables are the descendants of children expelled into the forests, born from the relationship of a Sudra man and a Brahmin woman.

In the ancient Indian literary monument "Rigveda" (compiled in 1700-1100 BC) it is said that the Brahmins came from the mouth of the ancestor Purusha, the Kshatriyas - from the hands, the Vaishyas - from the hips, the Shudras - from the feet. There is no place for the untouchables in this picture of the world. The varna system finally took shape in the interval between the 7th century BC. and II century AD.

It is believed that the untouchable can defile people from the highest varnas, so their houses and villages were built on the outskirts. The system of ritual restrictions among the untouchables is no less strict than that of the Brahmins, although the restrictions themselves are completely different. The untouchables were forbidden to enter restaurants and temples, wear umbrellas and shoes, walk in shirts and sunglasses, but they were allowed to eat meat - which strict vegetarian Brahmins could not afford.

Is that what they are called in India - "untouchables"?

Now this word is almost out of use, it is considered offensive. The most common name for the untouchables is dalits, "oppressed", or "oppressed". Previously, there was also the word "harijans" - "children of God", which Mahatma Gandhi tried to introduce into use. But it did not take root: the Dalits found it to be just as offensive as the "untouchables".

How many Dalits are there in India and how many castes do they have?

Approximately 170 million people - 16.6 percent of the total population. The question of the number of castes is very complicated, since the Indians themselves almost never use the word “castes”, preferring the more vague concept of “jati”, which includes not only castes in the usual sense, but also clans and communities, which are often difficult to classify as one or the other. another varna. In addition, the line between caste and podcast is often very vague. We can only say with certainty that we are talking about hundreds of jati.

Dalits still live in poverty? How is social status related to economic status?

In general, the lower castes are indeed much poorer. The bulk of the Indian poor are Dalits. The average literacy rate in the country is 75 percent, among Dalits - just over 30. Almost half of the children of Dalits, according to statistics, drop out of school because of the humiliation they are subjected to there. It is the Dalits who make up the bulk of the unemployed; and those who are employed tend to be paid less than those of the higher castes.

Although there are exceptions: in India, there are approximately 30 millionaire Dalits. Of course, against the backdrop of 170 million poor and beggars, this is a drop in the bucket, but they prove with their lives that you can succeed even as a Dalit. As a rule, these are really outstanding people: Ashok Khade from the Chamar (tanner) caste, the son of an illiterate poor shoemaker, worked as a dock worker during the day and read textbooks at night to get an engineering degree, and at the same time slept under the stairs on the street, since he did not enough money to rent a room. His company is now pursuing deals worth hundreds of millions of dollars. This is a typical Dalit success story, a kind of blue dream for millions of the underprivileged.

Have the untouchables ever tried to start a riot?

As far as we know, no. Before the colonization of India, this thought could hardly have occurred at all: at that time, expulsion from the caste was equated with physical death. After colonization, social boundaries began to gradually blur, and after India gained independence, the rebellion for Dalits lost its meaning - they were given all the conditions to achieve their goals through political means.

The extent to which submissiveness has become ingrained in the minds of Dalits can be illustrated by an example given by Russian researchers Felix and Evgenia Yurlov. The Bahujan Samaj Party, representing the interests of the lower castes, organized special training camps for Dalits, in which they learned to "overcome centuries of fear and fear in the face of high-caste Hindus." Among the exercises was, for example, the following: a stuffed high-caste Hindu with a mustache and a tilak (dot) on his forehead was installed. Dalit had to overcome his timidity and go up to the effigy, cut off his mustache with scissors and wipe off the tilak.

Is it possible to escape from the untouchables?

It is possible, although not easy. The easiest way is to change religion. A person who converts to Buddhism, Islam or Christianity technically falls out of the caste system. Dalits first began converting to Buddhism in significant numbers at the end of the 19th century. Mass conversions are associated with the name of the famous fighter for the rights of Dalits, Dr. Ambedkar, who converted to Buddhism along with half a million untouchables. The last such mass ceremony was held in Mumbai in 2007 - then at the same time 50 thousand people became Buddhists at once.

Dalits prefer to turn to Buddhism. Firstly, Indian nationalists treat this religion better than Islam and Christianity, since it is one of the traditional Indian religions. Secondly, among Muslims and Christians, over time, their own caste division was formed, albeit not as pronounced as among the Hindus.

Is it possible to change caste while remaining a Hindu?

There are two options here: the first is all sorts of semi-legal or illegal methods. For example, many surnames that indicate belonging to a particular caste differ by one or two letters. It is enough to slightly corrupt or charm a clerk in a government office - and, voila, you are already a member of another caste, and sometimes a varna. It is better, of course, to do such tricks either in the city, or in combination with moving to another area where there are not thousands of fellow villagers around who knew your grandfather.

The second option is the procedure "ghar vapasi", literally "welcome home". This program is implemented by radical Hindu organizations and aims to convert Indians of other religions to Hinduism. In this case, a person becomes, for example, a Christian, then sprinkles ashes on his head, announcing his desire to perform “ghar vapasi” - and that’s all, he is again a Hindu. If this trick is done outside of your native village, then you can always claim that you belong to a different caste.

Another question is why do all this. A caste certificate will not be asked when applying for a job or when entering a restaurant. In India, over the past century, the caste system has been breaking down under the influence of the processes of modernization and globalization. Attitude towards a stranger is built on the basis of his behavior. The only thing that can fail is the surname, which is most often associated with the caste (Gandhis - merchants, Deshpande - brahmins, Acharis - carpenters, Guptas - vaishyas, Singhas - kshatriyas). But now, when anyone can change their last name, everything has become much easier.

And change the varna without changing the caste?

There is a chance that your caste will undergo a Sanskritization process. In Russian, this is called “vertical mobility of castes”: if one or another caste adopts the traditions and customs of another, higher caste, there is a chance that sooner or later it will be recognized as a member of a higher varna. For example, the lower caste begins to practice vegetarianism, characteristic of the Brahmins, dress like Brahmins, wear a sacred thread on the wrist and generally position themselves as Brahmins, it is possible that sooner or later they will begin to be treated as Brahmins.

However, vertical mobility is characteristic mainly of castes of higher varnas. None of the Dalit castes has yet managed to cross the invisible line that separates them from the four varnas and even become Shudras. But times are changing.

In general, as a Hindu, you are not required to declare belonging to any caste. You can be a casteless Hindu - your right.

Why change caste at all?

It all depends on which way to change - up or down. An increase in caste status means that other people for whom the caste is significant will treat you with more respect. Downgrading your status, especially to the Dalit caste level, will give you a number of real advantages, so many higher castes try to enroll as Dalits.

The fact is that in modern India, the authorities are waging a merciless fight against caste discrimination. According to the constitution, any discrimination based on caste is prohibited, and you will even have to pay a fine for asking about caste when applying for a job.

But the country has a mechanism of positive discrimination. A number of castes and tribes are listed as "Scheduled Tribes and Castes" (SC/ST). Representatives of these castes have certain privileges, which are confirmed by caste certificates. For Dalits, places are reserved in the civil service and in parliament, their children are admitted free of charge (or for half the fee) to schools, places have been allocated for them in institutes. In short, there is a quota system for Dalits.

It's hard to say if this is good or bad. The author of these lines met Dalits who could give odds to any Brahmin in terms of intelligence and general development - quotas helped them rise from the bottom and get an education. On the other hand, one had to see Dalits going with the flow (first by quotas for the institute, then by the same quotas for the civil service), not interested in anything and not wanting to work. They cannot be fired, so their future is secured until old age and a good pension. Many in India criticize the quota system, many defend it.

So Dalits can be politicians?

How else can they. For example, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who was President of India from 1997 to 2002, was a Dalit. Another example is Mayawati Prabhu Das, also known as Mayawati Iron Lady, who served as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh for a total of eight years.

Is the number of Dalits the same in all states of India?

No, it varies, and quite significantly. Most Dalits live in the state of Uttar Pradesh (20.5 percent of all Dalits in India), followed by West Bengal (10.7 percent). At the same time, as a percentage of the total population, Punjab holds the lead with 31.9 percent, followed by Himachal Pradesh with 25.2 percent.

How can Dalits work?

Theoretically, anyone - from the president to the toilet cleaner. Many Dalits act in films and work as fashion models. In cities where caste lines are blurred, there are no restrictions at all; in villages where ancient traditions are strong, Dalits are still engaged in "impure" work: skinning dead animals, digging graves, prostitution, and so on.

If a child is born as a result of an inter-caste marriage, to which caste will he be assigned?

Traditionally in India, the child was recorded in the lowest caste. Now it is considered that the child inherits the caste of the father, with the exception of the state of Kerala, where, according to local law, the caste of the mother is inherited. This is theoretically possible in other states, but in each individual case it is decided through the courts.

A typical story that happened in 2012: then a Kshatriya man married a woman from the Nayak tribe. The boy was registered as a kshatriya, but then his mother, through the courts, ensured that the child was rewritten as a nayak so that he could take advantage of the bonuses provided to disadvantaged tribes.

If I, as a tourist in India, touch a Dalit, can I then shake hands with a Brahmin?

Foreigners in Hinduism are already considered unclean, because they are outside the caste system, therefore they can touch anyone and for whatever reason, without defiling themselves in any way. If a practicing brahmin decides to communicate with you, then he will still have to perform purification rituals, so whether you shook the Dalit's hand before or not is essentially indifferent.

Are Dalits Filming Intercaste Porn in India?

Of course they do. Moreover, judging by the number of views on specialized sites, it is very popular.

Divided people into four estates, called varnas. The first varna, the brahmins, destined to enlighten and rule mankind, he created from his head or mouth; the second, the kshatriyas (warriors), the protectors of society, from the hand; the third, the vaishyas, the feeders of the state, from the abdomen; the fourth, sudras, from the legs, dedicating it to the eternal destiny - to serve the highest varnas. Over time, the varnas subdivided into many podcasts and castes, called jati in India. The European name is caste.

So, the four ancient castes of India, their rights and obligations according to the ancient law of Manu *, strictly enforced in.

(* Laws of Manu - an ancient Indian collection of prescriptions for religious, moral and social duty (dharma), today also called the "law of the Aryans" or the "code of honor of the Aryans").

Brahmins

Brahman "the son of the sun, a descendant of Brahma, a god among people" (the usual titles of this estate), according to the law of Menu, is the head of all created creatures; the whole universe is subject to him; other mortals owe the preservation of their lives to his intercession and prayers; his all-powerful curse can instantly destroy fearsome warlords with their numerous hordes, chariots and war elephants. Brahman can create new worlds; may even give birth to new gods. A Brahmin should be given more honor than a king.

The inviolability of the Brahmin and his life are protected by bloody laws. If a sudra dares to verbally insult a brahmana, then the law orders to drive a red-hot iron into his throat, ten inches deep; and if he takes it into his head to give some instruction to the Brahmin, the unfortunate one pours boiling oil over his mouth and ears. On the other hand, it is allowed for anyone to take a false oath or give false testimony before the court, if these actions can save the Brahmin from condemnation.

A Brahman cannot, under any condition, be executed or punished, either bodily or financially, although he would be convicted of the most outrageous crimes: the only punishment to which he is subject is removal from his fatherland, or expulsion from the caste.

The Brahmins are divided into laymen and spiritualists, and are subdivided according to their occupations into different classes. It is noteworthy that among the spiritual brahmins, the priests occupy the lower rung, and the higher rung are those who have devoted themselves only to the interpretation of sacred books. The worldly brahmins are the king's advisers, judges and other higher officials.

Only the brahmin is granted the right to interpret the sacred books, perform worship and predict the future; but he forfeits this last right if he makes a mistake three times in his predictions. Brahman can predominantly heal, for "illness is the punishment of the gods"; only a brahmin can be a judge, because the civil and penal laws of the Hindus are included in their sacred books.

The whole way of life of a Brahmin is built on the observance of a whole set of the strictest rules. For example, all brahmins are forbidden to accept gifts from persons unworthy (lower castes). Music, dancing, hunting and gambling are also forbidden to all Brahmins. But the use of wine and all kinds of intoxicating things, such as: onions, garlic, eggs, fish, any meat, except from animals slaughtered as a sacrifice to the gods, are forbidden only to the lower Brahmins.

A Brahman will defile himself if he sits at the same table even with the king, not to mention members of the lower castes or his own wives. He is obliged not to look at the sun at certain hours and to leave the house during the rain; he cannot step over the rope to which the cow is tied, and must pass by this sacred animal or idol, leaving it only to his right.

In case of need, a brahmin is allowed to beg from people of the three higher castes and engage in trade; but by no means can he serve anyone.

A Brahmin who wants to be awarded the honorary title of interpreter of laws and supreme guru prepares for this with various hardships. He renounces marriage, indulges in a thorough study of the Vedas in some monastery for 12 years, refraining from even talking in the last 5 and explaining himself only by signs; thus, he finally reaches the desired goal, and becomes a spiritual master.

The financial support of the Brahmin caste is also provided for by law. Generosity to the Brahmins is a religious virtue for all believers, and is the direct duty of the rulers. Upon the death of a rootless Brahmin, his property turns not into the treasury, but into the caste. Brahmin does not pay any taxes. Thunder would kill a king who dared to encroach on the person or property of a Brahmin; a poor brahmin is kept at public expense.

The life of a brahmin is divided into 4 stages.

First stage begins even before birth, when learned men are sent to the pregnant wife of a Brahmin for conversations, in order "thus to prepare the child for the perception of wisdom." At 12 days, the baby is given a name, at three years old, his head is shaved, leaving only a piece of hair called kudumi. A few years later, the child is placed in the arms of a spiritual mentor (guru). Education with this guru usually lasts from 7-8 to 15 years. During the entire period of education, which consists mainly of the study of the Vedas, the student is obliged to blindly obey his preceptor and all members of his family. He is often entrusted with the blackest domestic work, and he must perform them unquestioningly. The will of the guru replaces his law and conscience; his smile is the best reward. At this stage, the child is considered single-born.

Second phase begins after the ritual of initiation or rebirth, which the young man goes through after the end of the teaching. From this moment on, he is twice born. During this period, he marries, brings up his family and performs the duties of a brahmin.

The third period of the life of a brahmin - vanaprastra. Having reached the age of 40, a Brahmin enters the third period of his life, called vanaprastra. He must retire to desert places and become a hermit. Here he covers his nakedness with tree bark or the skin of a black antelope; cuts neither nails nor hair; sleeps on a stone or on the ground; must spend days and nights "without a house, without fire, in perfect silence, and eating only roots and fruits." The Brahman spends his days in prayer and mortification.

After spending 22 years in prayer and fasting in this way, the Brahmin enters the fourth department of life, called sannyas. Only then is he freed from all external rites. The old hermit goes deep into perfect contemplation. The soul of a Brahmin who has died in the state of sannyas immediately acquires merger with the deity (nirvana); and his body in a sitting position is lowered into a pit and sprinkled around with salt.

The color of the Brahmin's clothes depended on what spiritual order they were in. Sanyasis, monks who renounced the world wore orange clothes, family ones - white.

Kshatriyas

The second caste is made up of kshatriyas, warriors. According to the law of Menu, members of this caste could make sacrifices, and the study of the Vedas was made a special duty for princes and heroes; but later the Brahmins left them one permission to read or listen to the Vedas, without analyzing or interpreting them, and appropriated the right to explain the texts to themselves.

Kshatriyas should give alms, but not accept them, avoid vices and sensual pleasures, live simply, "as befits a warrior." The law says that "the priestly caste cannot exist without the warrior caste, nor can the last without the first, and that the tranquility of the whole world depends on the consent of both, on the union of knowledge and the sword."

With few exceptions, all kings, princes, generals and first rulers belong to the second caste; the judicial part and the management of education were from ancient times in the hands of the Brahmins (Brahmins). Kshatriyas are allowed to consume any meat except beef. This caste was formerly divided into three parts: all the ruling and non-possessing princes (rays) and their children (rayanutras) belonged to the upper class.

Kshatriyas wore red clothes.

Vaishya

The third caste is the Vaishyas. Previously, they also participated, both in sacrifices and in the right to read the Vedas, but later, through the efforts of the brahmins, they lost these advantages. Although the Vaishyas were much lower than the Kshatriyas, they still occupied an honorable place in society. They were supposed to be engaged in trade, arable farming and cattle breeding. The property rights of a vaishya were respected and his fields were considered inviolable. He had the right, consecrated by religion, to put money into growth.

The highest castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas - used all three scarves, senar, every caste - their own, and were called twice-born, as opposed to once-born - Shudras.

Shudra

The duty of a sudra, Menu says briefly, is to serve the three higher castes. It is best for a sudra to serve a brahmin, for his sake a kshatriya, and finally a vaishya. In such a single case, if he does not find an opportunity to enter the service, he is allowed to engage in a useful craft. The soul of a shudra, who has served a brahmin with zeal and honesty all his life, is reborn into a person of the highest caste upon resettlement.

A sudra is forbidden even to look at the Vedas. A Brahmin has no right not only to interpret the Vedas to a Shudra, but is also obliged to read them silently in the presence of the latter. A brahmin who allows himself to interpret the law to a sudra, or explain to him the ways of repentance, will be punished in hell Asamarite.

A sudra must eat the leftovers of his masters and wear their rags. He is forbidden to acquire anything, "so that he does not take it into his head to become proud of the temptation of the sacred Brahmins." If a sudra verbally insults a veishya or a kshatriya, then his tongue is cut out; if he dares to sit down beside the Brahmin, or take his place, then a red-hot iron is applied to the more guilty part of the body. The name of a sudra, says Menou's law, is a swear word, and the penalty for killing him does not exceed the amount that is paid for the death of an unimportant domestic animal, such as a dog or cat. Killing a cow is considered a much more reprehensible act: killing a sudra is a misdemeanor; killing a cow is a sin!

Bondage is the natural position of a sudra, and the master cannot release him by giving him leave; "for, says the law: who but death can free a sudra from the state of nature?"

It is rather difficult for us Europeans to understand such an alien world, and we, involuntarily, want to bring everything under our own concepts, and this is what misleads us. So, for example, according to the concepts of the Hindus, the Shudras constitute a class of people, designated by nature for service in general, but at the same time they are not considered slaves, they do not constitute the property of private individuals.

The attitude of the masters towards the Shudras, despite the given examples of an inhuman view of them, from a religious point of view, was determined by civil law, especially the measure and method of punishments, which in everything coincided with the patriarchal punishments allowed by folk custom in the relationship of a father to his son or an older brother to junior, husband to wife, and guru to disciple.

Impure castes

As almost everywhere a woman was subjected to discrimination and all kinds of restrictions, so in India the severity of the separation of castes weighs much more on a woman than on a man. A man, upon entering into a second marriage, is allowed to choose a wife from a lower caste, except for a sudra. So, for example, a Brahmin can marry a woman of the second and even the third caste; the children of this mixed marriage will occupy an intermediate degree between the castes of the father and mother. A woman, by marrying a man of a lower caste, commits a crime: she defiles herself and all her offspring. Shudras can marry only among themselves.

The mixing of any of the castes with the Sudras gives rise to impure castes, of which the most contemptible is that which comes from the mixing of the Sudras with the Brahmin. The members of this caste are called Chandalas, and must be executioners or flayers; the touch of a chandala entails expulsion from the caste.

Untouchables

Below the impure castes there is still a miserable kind of pariahs. Together with the Chandalas they engage in the lowest works. The pariahs skin the carrion, work it out, and eat the meat; but they abstain from cow meat. Their touch defiles not only a person, but also objects. They have their own special wells; near the cities they are assigned a special quarter, surrounded by a moat and slingshots. In villages, they also have no right to show themselves, but must hide in forests, caves and swamps.

A Brahmin, defiled by the shadow of a pariah, must bathe in the sacred waters of the Ganges, for only they are able to wash away such a stain of shame.

Even lower than the Pariah are the Pulai, who live on the Malabar coast. Slaves of the Nairs, they are forced to take refuge in damp dungeons, and do not dare to raise their eyes to the noble Hindu. Seeing a Brahmin or Nair from afar, the pulais emit a loud roar to warn the masters of their proximity, and while the "masters" are waiting on the road, they must hide in a cave, in a thicket of the forest, or climb a tall tree. Whoever did not have time to hide, the Nairs cut down like an unclean reptile. Pulayi live in terrible slovenliness, eating carrion and any meat except cow.

But even the pulai can rest for a moment from the general contempt that overwhelms him; there are human beings even more miserable, lower than him: they are pariars, lower because, sharing all the humiliation of the pulai, they allow themselves to eat cow meat too! Muslims, who also do not respect the integrity of fat Indian cows and acquaint them with the location of their kitchen, all of them, in his opinion, morally, completely coincide with the contemptible pariar.