Horizontal social mobility. Social mobility - examples

Vertical mobility

From a quantitative point of view, P. Sorokin believes, one should distinguish between the intensity and universality of vertical mobility. Intensity is understood as vertical social distance or the number of layers - economic, professional or political - that an individual passes through in his upward or downward movement over a certain period of time. By the universality of vertical mobility, P. Sorokin means individuals who have changed their social position in the vertical direction over a certain period of time. The absolute number of such individuals gives, according to P. Sorokin, the absolute universality of vertical mobility in the structure of the country's population, and the proportion of such individuals to the entire population gives the relative universality of vertical mobility. By combining the intensity and relative universality of vertical mobility in a certain social sphere (for example, in the economy), one can obtain, according to P. Sorokin, an aggregate indicator of vertical economic mobility of a particular society. The same can be said about the set of indicators of political and professional vertical mobility.

General principles of vertical mobility

P. Sorokin reduces the general principles of vertical mobility to the following.

1. There has never existed a society whose social strata were absolutely closed or in which there was no vertical mobility in its three main aspects - economic, political and professional.
2. There has never been a society in which vertical social mobility would be absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum to another would be carried out without any resistance. This means that within an organized and stratified society there is a kind of “sieve” that “sifts” individuals and allows some to rise to the top, leaving others at the bottom, and vice versa.
3. The intensity and universality of vertical social mobility change from society to society and from one period of time to another, that is, they have an oscillatory nature. The history of social organisms reveals rhythms of comparatively mobile and stationary periods.
4. The intensity and universality of vertical mobility - economic, political and professional - fluctuates within the same society at different periods of its history.
5. In the three main forms of vertical mobility there is no constant direction either towards strengthening or towards weakening its intensity and universality. This situation is true for the history of any country, for the history of large social organisms and for the entire history of mankind. In this case, we can only talk about “non-directional” oscillations.
6. Based on the degree of movement, it is fair to distinguish between mobile and stationary types of societies. Although democratic societies are often more mobile than autocratic ones, there are nevertheless exceptions to this rule.

Mobility mechanisms

Since vertical mobility is observed in any society, and between layers there must be certain paths along which individuals move up or down from one layer to another, it is necessary, according to P. Sorokin, to consider these existing channels of social circulation. P. Sorokin considers the following to be the most important: the army, the church, the school, political, economic and professional organizations.

The army as a channel of social circulation plays a particularly important role in wartime, due to which many individuals climbed high on the social ladder, starting military service from the lower social strata (Napoleon, Cromwell, Washington, etc.). In peacetime, the army continues to play the role of a channel for vertical circulation, but in these periods, P. Sorokin postulates, its role is much weaker than in wartime.

The church, as a channel of vertical social circulation, successfully performs this function only when, according to P. Sorokin, its social significance increases. For example, the Christian Church moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society (for example, out of 144 popes, 28 were of simple origin, 27 came from the middle classes). While being a channel for upward movement, the church (like the army) was also a means for downward movement (for example, heretics).

Institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what specific form they take, in all centuries and in all societies have been, according to P. Sorokin, means of vertical social circulation. Many social spheres and a number of professions are practically closed to a person without an appropriate diploma, therefore the social advancement of many eminent people of our time was carried out thanks to the “school mechanism”.

Political organizations, from the government to political parties, also play the role of a social “elevator” in vertical circulation. Historically, a large number of people born into the ranks of servants, peasants, or artisans rose to prominent public positions through bureaucratic and government service or political activity. If it were not for this channel, many outstanding politicians and statesmen, says P. Sorokin, would hardly have been able to achieve a high social position.

Professional organizations (scientific, literary, etc.), according to P. Sorokin, also play a significant role in the vertical movement of individuals, since entry into these organizations is relatively free for everyone who has discovered the appropriate abilities, regardless of their social origin. Many scientists, lawyers, writers, doctors, sculptors of simple origin rose socially thanks to this channel.

The accumulation of wealth is one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement, says P. Sorokin. A successful entrepreneur is the largest aristocrat of a modern democratic society. If a person is rich, then he is at the top of the social pyramid, regardless of his origin, and often his source of income.

Family and marriage (especially with a representative of a different social status), according to P. Sorokin, can also lead one of the partners either to social advancement or to social degradation.

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another). There is a distinction between individual mobility - the movement of one person independently of others, and group mobility - movement occurs collectively. In addition, geographic mobility is distinguished - moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a type of geographic mobility, the concept of migration is distinguished - moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to a city for permanent residence and changed profession). And it is similar to castes.

Vertical mobility

Vertical mobility is the advancement of a person up or down the career ladder.

§ Upward mobility - social rise, upward movement (For example: promotion).

§ Downward mobility - social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).

Generational mobility

Intergenerational mobility is a comparative change in social status among different generations (example: a worker's son becomes president).

Intragenerational mobility (social career) - a change in status within one generation (example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, then a plant director). Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, and population density. In general, men and the young are more mobile than women and the elderly. Overpopulated countries more often experience the consequences of emigration (relocation from one country to another due to economic, political, personal circumstances) than immigration (moving to a region for permanent or temporary residence of citizens from another region). Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

10) The concept of social control
Social control

Social control- a system of methods and strategies by which society directs the behavior of individuals. In the ordinary sense, social control comes down to a system of laws and sanctions with the help of which an individual coordinates his behavior with the expectations of others and his own expectations from the surrounding social world.

Sociology and psychology have always sought to reveal the mechanism of internal social control.

Types of Social Control

There are two types of social control processes:

§ processes that encourage individuals to internalize existing social norms, processes of socialization of family and school education, during which the requirements of society - social prescriptions - are internalized;

§ processes that organize the social experience of individuals, the lack of publicity in society, publicity is a form of social control over the behavior of the ruling strata and groups;

11) The main problems of the sociology of advertising
Home The problem of the sociology of advertising is the influence of advertising on the social system in societal perception and the influence of the social system on advertising in a specifically historical aspect. These are two aspects of the same process. The first aspect is associated with understanding how advertising images created to promote goods, services, ideas influence society itself, how advertising changes its cultural and moral foundations; Can advertising change the social atmosphere or cultural paradigms of a particular society, or is it designed to promote only what already exists in everyday life? All these questions, in their broader formulation - about the role of communicative institutions in public life, have been actively discussed since the beginning of the twentieth century, when the media began to rapidly invade public life. It cannot be said that these issues have now been resolved.

At the same time, one cannot help but emphasize another aspect of the problem of the relationship between society and advertising, namely the influence of social processes on the functioning of advertising as a public institution. Why, for example, under the conditions of the functioning of the Soviet social system, advertising as a public institution was practically absent, and the emergence of the rudiments of a market social mechanism led to the institutionalization of advertising? What happens to advertising in times of crisis in the social system? What content is filled with advertising space during periods of political instability?

That is, one of the main problems of the sociology of advertising is related to the study of mechanisms, patterns of functioning of advertising as a social institution, its influence on society and the reverse impact of society on advertising.

Second a block of problems, which is closely related to the first, arises in connection with the influence of advertising on individual institutions of society and the impact of these institutions on various types of advertising activities. For example, how advertising affects the family and how family life affects the methods and means of disseminating advertising information. Of undoubted interest are the problems of the influence of advertising on educational institutions of society. And, of course, advertisers are very interested in how changes in the educational sphere will affect the functioning of certain types of advertising practice: advertising on television, in the press, on radio, etc.

Particularly important in this regard is the problem of the influence of advertising on the media, since it is the media that are the main carriers of advertising. How, for example, will the emergence of interactive television affect changes in advertising practice? Or a functional merging of TV and computer?

The forecast for the development of the media as advertising media is very important, since it allows us to predict the development of the advertising market, the distribution and redistribution of financial flows between various subjects of the advertising industry.

Thus, predicting changes in social institutions and the impact of these changes on the forms, methods, and means of advertising distribution is one of the main problems of the sociology of advertising.

Third a block of problems is associated with the influence of advertising on certain social processes. As you know, society is a constantly developing social organism. The main vector of development is set by individual constant social processes. In particular, one of these essential processes is social mobility. Advertising significantly changes the perception of mobility in the public consciousness, moving this problem from the sphere of material production to the sphere of consumption.

No less important is the process of legitimation of power institutions of society. It is largely associated with political advertising, the ability of specialists in the field of political technologies, using the mechanisms and means of political marketing, to establish democratic institutions of society.

It is also important here to emphasize the need to analyze the influence of advertising on the process of integration and disintegration of the social system.

Fourth a block of problems can be described using the concepts of “mentality”, “national character”, “advertising and cultural stereotypes”, “domestic advertising”, “foreign advertising”. In other words, we are talking about the relationship between advertising influence and the culture of a particular society, the influence of culture on advertising and advertising on the culture of a particular society. In a practical sense, this means: what is the effectiveness of foreign advertising spots, of which there are quite a lot on domestic television? Are they rejected by the mass consciousness because they do not take into account the national culture and mentality of domestic consumers? What should be the advertising message designed for the so-called “new Russian” or a housewife who is not burdened with a tight wallet? In general, problems mentality and advertising, culture and advertising, national stereotypes and advertising constitute a significant block of issues included in the subject field of the sociology of advertising.

If we translate all the above questions from a fairly high philosophical level to an operational level related to the practical activities of a sociologist, then we can say that when studying advertising as a social institution, he is interested in: how advertising influences people's behavior, how advertising influences public sentiment, how advertising influences the integration of public life, how advertising influences social mobility, how advertising influences the legitimation of power, what system of symbols does advertising rely on, what mechanisms of influence does it use, with what efficiency.

12) The main problems of sociology and culture

13) The main problems of the sociology of education

Related information.

Social inequality and the social stratification caused by it are not constant. As mentioned above, they fluctuate, the stratification profile is constantly changing. These processes are associated with the movements of individuals and groups in social space - social mobility, which refers to the transition of individuals or groups from one social position to another.

One of the first researchers of social mobility, who introduced this term into sociology, was P. A. Sorokin. He devoted a special work to the processes of social mobility: “Social stratification and mobility.” He identifies two main types of social mobility – horizontal and vertical.

Under horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another located at the same social level (remarriage, change of job, etc.), while maintaining the previous social status.

Vertical social mobility – This is the movement of an individual from one social level to another, with a change in social status. Vertical mobility can be either upward, associated with an increase in status, or downward, involving a decrease in status.

Vertical and horizontal mobility are interconnected: the more intense the “horizontal” movement, even without a noticeable increase in social status, the more opportunities accumulate (connections, knowledge, experience, etc.) for subsequent ascent up the social ladder.

Mobility, both horizontal and vertical, can be individual, associated with a change in the social status and position in the social space of an individual, and group, involving the movement of entire groups. All types of mobility can occur voluntarily, when an individual purposefully changes his position in social space, and forcibly when movements and changes in status occur regardless of the will of people or even contrary to it. Typically, upward individual voluntary mobility is associated with volitional efforts and active efforts to improve social status. However, there is also downward voluntary mobility, conditioned by the individual’s personal decision to give up high status for the benefits that low status can provide. An example of such mobility in modern society is downshifting – a conscious and voluntary lowering of professional and economic status in order to increase the amount of free time that can be spent on hobbies, self-development, raising children, etc.

Individuals vary in the degree of accessibility to social mobility and the intensity of movement open And closed society. In open societies, mobility is available to most individuals and groups. The intensity of vertical mobility can be used to judge the democracy of a society - the intensity of vertical mobility is less in closed, non-democratic countries and vice versa. In real life there are neither absolutely open nor absolutely closed societies - there are always and everywhere both diverse channels And elevators mobility and filters, restricting access to them. Channels of social mobility usually coincide with the bases of stratification and are associated with changes in economic, political, professional status, and prestige. Social elevators make it possible to quickly change social status - its increase or decrease. The main social elevators include such types of activities and associated social institutions as business and political activity, education, church, and military service. The level of social justice in modern societies is judged by the availability of mobility channels and social elevators.

Social filters (P. A. Sorokin used the concept of “social sieve”) are institutions that limit access to upward vertical mobility in order to ensure that the most worthy members of society reach the highest levels of the social hierarchy. An example of a filter is an examination system designed to select the most prepared and professionally suitable individuals for training.

In addition, penetration into high-status social groups is usually limited by various filters, and the higher the status of the group, the more complex and difficult they are to penetrate. It is not enough to correspond to the level of the upper class in terms of income and wealth, in order to be a full member of it, you must lead an appropriate lifestyle, have an adequate cultural level, etc.

Upward social mobility exists in any society. Even in societies with a predominance of prescribed social status, inherited and sanctioned by tradition, such as Indian caste society or European class society, channels of mobility existed, although access to them was very limited and difficult. In the Indian caste system, which is rightly considered an example of the most closed society, researchers trace the channels of individual and collective vertical mobility. Individual vertical mobility was associated with leaving the caste system in general, i.e. with the adoption of another religion, such as Sikhism or Islam. And group vertical mobility was possible within the framework of the caste system, and was associated with a very complex process of raising the status of the entire caste through the theological justification of its higher religious charisma.

It should be remembered that in closed societies, restrictions on vertical mobility are manifested not only in the difficulty of increasing status, but also in the presence of institutions that reduce the risks of lowering it. These include community and clan solidarity and mutual assistance, as well as patron-client relationships that require patronage of subordinates in exchange for their loyalty and support.

Social mobility tends to fluctuate. Its intensity varies from society to society, and within the same society there are relatively dynamic and stable periods. Thus, in the history of Russia, periods of clearly expressed movements were the periods of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the reign of Peter I, and the October Revolution. During these periods throughout the country, the old government leadership was practically destroyed, and people from lower social strata occupied top management positions.

Significant characteristics of a closed (open) society are intragenerational mobility And intergenerational mobility. Intragenerational mobility shows changes in social status (both upward and downward) that occur within one generation. Intergenerational mobility demonstrates changes in the status of the next generation relative to the previous one (“children” relative to “fathers”). There is a widespread opinion that in closed societies with strong traditions and the predominance of prescribed statuses, “children” are more likely to reproduce the social positions, professions, and lifestyle of their “fathers,” and in open societies they choose their own path in life, often associated with a change in social status. In some social systems, following the path of one's parents and creating a professional dynasty is seen as a morally approved course of action. Thus, in Soviet society, in the presence of real opportunities for social mobility, open access to such elevators as education, a political (party) career for people from lower social groups, the creation of “working dynasties” was especially encouraged, reproducing professional affiliation from generation to generation and ensuring transfer of special professional skills. However, it should be noted that even in an open society, belonging to a high-status family already creates the prerequisites for reproducing this status in subsequent generations, and the low status of parents imposes certain restrictions on the possibilities of vertical mobility of children.

Social mobility manifests itself in different forms and, as a rule, is associated with economic mobility, those. fluctuations in the economic status of an individual or group. Vertical socio-economic mobility is associated with growth or decline in well-being, and its main channel is economic, entrepreneurial, and professional activity. In addition, other forms of mobility can also influence economic mobility; for example, an increase in power opportunities in the context of political mobility usually entails an improvement in the economic situation.

Historical periods accompanied by an increase in socio-economic mobility in society coincide with intense socio-economic changes, reforms, and revolutions. Thus, in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, during the reforms of Peter I, social mobility in general increased, and a rotation of elites occurred. For the Russian trade and economic class, the reforms were associated with fundamental changes in composition and structure, which entailed the loss of economic status (downward mobility) of a significant part of the former large entrepreneurs, and the rapid enrichment (vertical mobility) of others, who often came to large enterprises from small crafts ( for example, the Demidovs) or from other fields of activity. During the era of revolutionary changes at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a sharp downward mobility of almost the entire economic elite of Russian society, caused by the violent actions of the revolutionary authorities - expropriations, nationalization of industry and banks, mass confiscations of property, alienation of land, etc. At the same time, non-entrepreneurial, but belonging to the professional elite and therefore having a relatively high material status, groups of the population - generals, professors, technical and creative intelligentsia, etc. - lost their economic positions.

From the above examples, it is obvious that economic mobility can be carried out as follows:

individually, when individuals change their economic position regardless of the position of the group or society as a whole. Here the most important social “elevators” are the creation of economic organizations, i.e. entrepreneurial activity, professional development, and social mobility associated with the transition to a group with a higher material status. For example, during the period of post-Soviet economic reforms in Russia in the 90s. XX century the transition of officers or scientists to management meant an increase in well-being;
in group form, in connection with the increase in the material well-being of the group as a whole. In Russia in the 1990s. many social groups that were considered economically wealthy during the Soviet period—officers, scientific and technical intelligentsia, etc.—lost their former high salaries and experienced sharp downward economic mobility without changes in social, professional, and political status. A number of other groups, by contrast, have increased their material well-being without actual changes in other aspects of their status. These are, first of all, civil servants, lawyers, some categories of creative intelligentsia, managers, accountants, etc.

Both forms of economic mobility intensify during periods of reforms and transformations, but are also possible during quiet periods.

As we have already noted, there are no absolutely closed societies, and there are opportunities for vertical economic mobility even in totalitarian societies, but they may be associated with restrictions on economic stratification in general: an increase in well-being is possible due, for example, to obtaining a highly paid profession, but this increase will be small relative to other professional groups. The ban on entrepreneurial activity, of course, significantly limits both the absolute and relative opportunities for vertical economic mobility in Soviet-type societies. However, downward mobility in the form of loss of sources of livelihood, housing, etc. here is limited due to the presence of social guarantees and a general equalization policy. Democratic societies with developed economic freedoms provide opportunities for enrichment through entrepreneurial activity, but place the burden of risk and responsibility for decisions made on the individual himself. Therefore, there is also a danger of downward mobility, associated with the risks of economic fluctuations. This can be both individual losses and group downward mobility. For example, the 1998 default in Russia (as well as in the UK and a number of countries in Southeast Asia) led not only to the ruin of individual entrepreneurs, but also to a temporary decrease in the material level (downward mobility) of entire professional groups.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

COURSE WORK

on the topic: “Vertical and horizontal social mobility”

Introduction

1. Concept, essence and nature of social mobility

2. Main types and types of social mobility

2.1 Horizontal social mobility

2.1 Vertical social mobility

3. Factors influencing horizontal and vertical mobility

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Modern Russian society is developing and changing especially quickly due to the fact that the reforms of the 1990s, along with a sharp aggravation of social problems, rapid growth of social inequality and painful transformations of the social structure, opened up new economic, technological and social opportunities for the country.

Along with changes in the socio-economic system, factors associated with changes in the social identity of people, their value orientations, consumer behavior, and the material and symbolic world are beginning to play an increasing role in the development of society.

The state of the social structure of society and its social stratification most fully reflects the social mobility of the population, which characterizes the directions and current mechanisms for changing the social status of individuals. People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in one's status is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. social horizontal mobility society

The relevance of the topic of research into the nature of social mobility is determined by the strengthening role of social mobility in modern society. Social mobility is an integral part of culture in any modern democratic society. Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. Moreover, any social movement does not occur unhindered, but by overcoming more or less significant barriers. Social mobility is an integral and necessary process in society, which is significantly influenced by constantly emerging new circumstances of social life, factors of social differentiation and integration. Their influence on the social structure of society and on social mobility has not yet been studied and constitutes a research problem. Currently, there is a need for a thorough study of the processes of social mobility, as well as factors influencing the dynamics of social mobility.

The purpose of this work is to study the nature of social mobility of the population and consider the main types and types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical.

The following tasks were set during the study:

Find out the nature and essence of social mobility;

Identify and analyze the types and forms of social mobility;

Identify problems of transition from one status group to another.

1. Concept, essence and nature of social mobility

The problem of socio-economic division of society, as a scientific problem, was studied by ancient Greek philosophers. Analysis of classes is found already in Plato’s “Laws” and “State”, as well as in Aristotle’s “Politics”. The reasoning of Plato and Aristotle had a significant influence on the development of the theory of stratification as a component of socio-political philosophy. Within the framework of the school of social stratification, the theory of social mobility is born, the founder of which is considered to be Pitirim Sorokin. His first major work on this problem was published in 1927. This work, entitled “Social Mobility,” belongs to the sociological classics, and its most important provisions have long been included in numerous textbooks on the social sciences.

P. Sorokin identified three forms at the basis of social stratification: economic stratification, political and professional differentiation. Sorokin's attention to the hierarchy of professional groups was revealing. Soon after him, a number of researchers took up the problems of social stratification of social mobility.

Let's look at what social mobility is. Each person moves in social space, in the society in which he lives. Sometimes these movements are easily felt and identified, for example, when an individual moves from one place to another, a transition from one religion to another, a change in marital status. This changes the position of the individual in society and speaks of his movement in social space.

However, there are movements of an individual that are difficult to determine not only to the people around him, but also to himself. For example, it is difficult to determine a change in an individual’s position due to an increase in prestige, an increase or decrease in opportunities to use power, or a change in income. At the same time, such changes in a person’s position ultimately affect his behavior, the system of relationships in the group, needs, attitudes, interests and orientations.

In this regard, it is important to determine how the processes of movement of individuals in social space, which are called mobility processes, are carried out.

There are barriers between strata and classes that prevent the free transition of individuals from one status group to another. One of the most important barriers arises from the fact that social classes have subcultures that prepare the children of each class to participate in the class subculture in which they are socialized.

All social movements of an individual or social group are included in the process of mobility. According to P. Sorokin’s definition, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.”

When an individual moves from one social plane to another, the problem of entering a new subculture of a group with a higher status often arises, as well as the related problem of interactions with representatives of the new social environment. To overcome the cultural barrier and communication barrier, there are several methods that, one way or another, individuals resort to in the process of social mobility.

1. Lifestyle changes. For example, it is not enough to simply earn and spend a lot of money in the case when an individual has equaled the income of representatives of a higher social stratum. To assimilate a new status level, he needs to accept a new material standard corresponding to this level. At the same time, a change in the material way of life is only one of the moments of familiarization with a new status and in itself, without changing other components of culture, means little.

2. Development of typical status behavior. A person will not be accepted into a higher social class stratum until he has mastered the behavioral patterns of this stratum enough to follow them without any effort. Samples of clothing, verbal expressions, leisure time, manner of communication - all this is subject to revision and should become a habitual and the only possible type of behavior.

3. Change in social environment. This method is based on establishing contacts with individuals and associations of the status layer into which the mobile individual is socialized.

4. Marrying a representative of a higher status stratum. At all times, such a marriage has served as the best means of overcoming barriers to social mobility. Firstly, it can greatly contribute to the manifestation of talents if it provides material well-being. Secondly, it provides the individual with the opportunity to quickly rise, often bypassing several status levels. Thirdly, marriage with a representative or representative of a higher status largely resolves the problems of the social environment and the rapid assimilation of cultural patterns of a higher status layer.

Social mobility of society is a contradictory process. Even if society allows individuals to relatively freely bypass the barriers between social classes and strata, this does not mean that every individual with talents and motivation can painlessly and easily move along the steps of the ladder of social ascent. Mobility is always difficult for all individuals, as they have to adapt to a new subculture, establish new connections and deal with the fear of losing their new status. At the same time, an open path to the top, a large number of achieved statuses, is the only way for the development of society, because otherwise social tensions and conflicts arise.

To characterize mobility processes, indicators of the speed and intensity of social mobility are used. They are commonly used to quantify mobility processes.

The speed of mobility is understood as “the vertical social distance or the number of strata - economic, professional or political - that an individual passes through in his upward or downward movement in a certain period of time.” For example, within three years after graduating from institute and starting work in his specialty, a certain individual manages to take the position of head of a department, and his colleague, who graduated from institute with him, becomes the position of senior engineer. It is obvious that the speed of mobility is higher for the first individual, since during the specified period of time he has overcome more status levels.

The intensity of mobility refers to the number of individuals changing social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals of any social community gives the absolute intensity of mobility, and their share in the total number of this social community shows relative mobility. For example, if we take into account the number of individuals under the age of 30 who are divorced and move into other families, then we will be talking about the absolute intensity of horizontal mobility in this age category. If we consider the ratio of the number of people who moved to other families to the number of all individuals under the age of 30, then we are talking about relative social mobility in the horizontal direction.

There is often a need to consider the process of mobility from the point of view of the relationship between its speed and intensity. In this case, the aggregate mobility index for a given social community is used. In this way, it is possible, for example, to compare one society with another in order to find out in which of them or in which period mobility is higher in all respects.

2. Main types and types of social mobility

There are two main types of social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and its two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes, which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility implies that children reach a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents, i.e. this is a change in the social status of people, especially young people, in various spheres of public life compared to the status of their parents. Intergenerational mobility is an important factor in social change and an expression of individuals' social activity.

Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, unlike, for example, his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise, such mobility is called a social career.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second, in the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor.

There is a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. For example, a distinction is made between individual mobility, when movements down, up or horizontally occur for each person independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to a new class.

In addition to these types, there are two more types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Let's take a closer look at them.

2.1 Horizontal social mobility

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another, lying at the same level. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs or his social status. Examples of horizontal mobility include movements from one citizenship to another, from an Orthodox religious group to a Catholic one, from one labor collective to another, etc.

Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the upright position.

A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.

If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographical mobility. If he moved to a permanent place of residence and got a job, then this is migration.

Consequently, horizontal mobility can be territorial, religious, professional, political (when only the political orientation of the individual changes). Horizontal mobility is described by nominal parameters and can only exist with a certain degree of heterogeneity in society.

P. Sorokin only says about horizontal mobility that it means the transition of people from one social group to another without changing their social status. But if we proceed from the principle that all differences in the world of people, without exception, have some kind of unequal significance, it will be necessary to recognize that horizontal social mobility should also be characterized by a change in social position, only not ascending or descending, but progressive or retreating (regressive) . Thus, horizontal mobility can be considered any process that leads to the formation or change of class social structures - in contrast to the starting ones, which are formed and changed as a result of vertical social mobility.

Today, horizontal mobility is gaining momentum in society, especially among residents of large cities. It becomes a rule for young people to change jobs every 3-5 years. At the same time, most sociologists welcome this, believing that this approach allows a person not to be “conserved” in one place and an unchanged range of tasks. Secondly, a considerable part of workers prefer to master related specialties or even radically change their field of activity.

A change of place of residence - and this is also a type of horizontal mobility - often complements a change of place of work, even if the new job is located in the same city - there are people who prefer to rent an apartment closer to them rather than spend two and a half hours a day on the road.

The meaning of vertical mobility is completely transparent - many people want to improve their situation. A much more interesting question is what drives horizontal social mobility.

First of all, it becomes noticeable that in recent years the so-called social elevators have stopped working: that is, the number of opportunities to jump to a higher social level in one fell swoop is decreasing. Isolated cases are possible, but for most this move is closed. And horizontal mobility is, in principle, available to almost everyone.

Horizontal mobility allows you to significantly expand your horizons; it does not force you to significantly change your habits or lifestyle.

2.2 Vertical social mobility

The most important process is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that facilitate the transition of an individual or social object from one social layer to another. Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another.

Depending on the direction of movement, upward mobility, or social ascent, and downward mobility, or social descent, are distinguished. Thus, promotion, rank and demotion respectively show these types of vertical social mobility. Both types manifest themselves in economic, political and professional mobility, which represents another option for structuring social mobility. Vertical upward mobility can be shown in this case as a person acquiring property, being elected as a deputy, or obtaining a higher position.

Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, and youth must displace other individuals who do not have these qualities from higher statuses. Depending on this, a distinction is made between upward and downward social mobility, or social ascent and social decline.

Upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms:

1) as an individual rise, or infiltration of individuals from their lower layer into a higher one;

2) and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in the highest layer next to the existing groups of this layer or instead of them.

Let's consider the mechanism of infiltration in vertical mobility.

In order to understand how the process of ascension occurs, it is important to study how an individual can overcome barriers and boundaries between groups and rise upward, that is, increase his social status. This desire to achieve a higher status is due to the achievement motive, which every individual has to one degree or another and is associated with his need to achieve success and avoid failure in the social aspect.

The actualization of this motive ultimately gives rise to the force with which the individual strives to achieve a higher social position or to maintain his current position and not slide down. The realization of the power of achievement depends on many reasons, in particular on the situation in society.

In order to achieve a higher status, an individual located in a group with lower statuses must overcome barriers between groups or strata. An individual striving to get into a higher status group has a certain energy aimed at overcoming these barriers and spent on crossing the distance between the statuses of higher and lower groups. The energy of an individual striving for a higher status is expressed in the strength with which he tries to overcome barriers to a higher stratum. Successful passage of the barrier is possible only if the force with which the individual strives to achieve a high status is greater than the repulsive force. By measuring the force with which an individual strives to penetrate the upper layer, it is possible to predict with a certain probability that he will get there. The probabilistic nature of infiltration is due to the fact that when assessing the process, one should take into account the constantly changing situation, which consists of many factors, including the personal relationships of individuals.

Similarly, downward mobility exists in the form of:

1) pushing individuals from high social statuses to lower ones;

2) and lowering the social status of an entire group.

An example of the second form of downward mobility can be the decline in the social status of a group of engineers, which once occupied very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power, according to the figurative expression of P. Sorokin, “the first case of decline resembles the fall of a man from a ship; the second is a ship that sank with all on board.”

3. Factors influencing horizontal and vertical mobility

Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, and population density. In general, young people are more mobile than older people, and men are more mobile than women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Even if every son of a rich man follows in his father's footsteps, there will be voids at the top of the pyramid that will be filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for occupying certain social positions in different classes is different.

Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. In contrast, farmers and agricultural workers in the United States have 50% more children than they need to replace themselves. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should occur in modern society.

High and low fertility in different classes has the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility. Strata, as countries, can be undersalted or overpopulated.

Conclusion

Having considered the essence, nature and types of social mobility, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Social mobility is a change by an individual or a group of people in the place occupied in the social structure, or movement from one social stratum to another. The nature of social mobility is directly related to the subculture in which a person was born and raised. For advancement from one layer to another or from one social class to another, “differences in starting opportunities” matter.

2. In modern sociology, there are various ways to quantitatively measure social mobility, mobility indices, coefficients of connection between mobility and gender, level of education, nationality, etc. This is one of the main areas of studying the social structure of society and comparative analysis of different countries.

3. All social movements of an individual or group are accompanied by overcoming serious barriers, and to overcome these barriers there are a number of techniques and ways of adapting to a new social space (lifestyle changes, development of typical status behavior, changes in social behavior, etc.).

4. There are several options for social mobility, but the main ones are considered to be horizontal and vertical social mobility. Horizontal mobility involves the movement of an individual from one social group to another, with both groups being at approximately the same level. Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another. Moreover, moving up in the corresponding status hierarchy represents upward mobility, and downward mobility represents downward mobility. Lliterature

1. Babosov E.M. General sociology: Textbook for universities. - M. NORM, 2008. - 560 p.

2. Grigoriev S.I. Fundamentals of modern sociology: Textbook. - M.: Yurist, 2002. - 370 p.

3. Efimova O.Yu. Factors ensuring social mobility of youth // Collection of scientific articles, Publishing house N. Novg. state university., 2005. - 152 p.

4. Kulikov L.M. Fundamentals of sociology and political science: Textbook. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2002. - 336 p.

5. Marshak A.L. Sociology: Textbook. - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2002. - 380 p.

6. Sorokin P.A. Social mobility, its forms and fluctuations / Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: Reader for universities. M.: Academic project; Ekaterinburg: Business book, 2002.- 825 p.

7. Sociology. Textbook for universities / Ed. A.I. Kravchenko, V.M. Anurina. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003. - 435 p.

8. Sociology. Textbook / ed. V.N. Lavrinenko. - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2002. - 344 p.

9. Toshchenko Zh.T. Sociology: Textbook for universities. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. - 640 p.

10. Frolov S.S. Sociology. Textbook for higher educational institutions. - M.: Nauka, 2006. - 420 p.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Horizontal social mobility. Social mobility - examples

Vertical mobility

General principles of vertical mobility

Mobility mechanisms

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar documents