What does the liberal side of domestic policy mean? Liberals

In 2012, through the efforts of the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (VTsIOM), a survey was conducted in which Russians were asked to explain who a liberal is. More than half of the participants in this test (more precisely, 56%) found it difficult to disclose this term. It is unlikely that this situation has changed radically in a few years, and therefore let’s look at what principles liberalism professes and what this socio-political and philosophical movement actually consists of.

Who is a liberal?

In the most general terms, we can say that a person who is an adherent of this trend welcomes and approves of the idea of limited intervention by government bodies in the The basis of this system is based on a private enterprise economy, which, in turn, is organized on market principles.

Answering the question of who a liberal is, many experts argue that he is someone who considers political, personal and economic freedom to be the highest priority in the life of the state and society. For supporters of this ideology, the freedoms and rights of each person are a kind of legal basis on which, in their opinion, the economic and social order should be built. Now let's look at who a liberal democrat is. This is a person who, while defending freedom, is an opponent of authoritarianism. according to Western political scientists, this is an ideal that many developed countries strive for. However, this term can be discussed not only from a political point of view. In its original meaning, this word called all freethinkers and freethinkers. Sometimes these included those who in society were prone to excessive indulgence.

Modern liberals

As an independent worldview, the ideological movement in question arose at the end of the 17th century. The basis for its development was the works of such famous authors as J. Locke, A. Smith and J. Mill. At that time, it was believed that freedom of enterprise and non-interference of the state in private life would inevitably lead to prosperity and improved well-being of society. However, as it turned out later, the classical model of liberalism did not justify itself. Free competition, uncontrolled by the state, led to the emergence of monopolies that inflated prices. Interested lobby groups have emerged in politics. All this made legal equality impossible and significantly narrowed the opportunities for everyone who wanted to start a business. In the 80-90s. In the 19th century, the ideas of liberalism began to experience a serious crisis. As a result of long-term theoretical searches, at the beginning of the 20th century, a new concept was developed, called neoliberalism or social liberalism. Its supporters advocate protecting the individual from the negative consequences and abuses of the market system. In classical liberalism, the state was something of a “night watchman.” Modern liberals recognized that this was a mistake and included in their program ideas such as:

Russian liberals

In polytypic discussions of the modern Russian Federation, this trend causes a lot of controversy. For some, liberals are conformists playing along with the West, while for others they are a panacea that can save the country from the undivided power of the state. This discrepancy is to a large extent due to the fact that several varieties of this ideology are operating simultaneously on Russian territory. The most notable of them are liberal fundamentalism (represented by Alexey Venediktov, editor-in-chief of the Echo Moscow station), neoliberalism (represented by social liberalism (Yabloko party) and legal liberalism (Republican Party and PARNAS party).

Liberals– representatives of an ideological and socio-political movement that unites supporters of representative government and individual freedom, and in economics – freedom of enterprise.

general information

Liberalism originated in Western Europe during the era of the struggle against absolutism and the domination of the Catholic Church (16th–18th centuries). The foundation of the ideology was laid during the period of the European Enlightenment (J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, Voltaire). Physiocratic economists formulated the popular slogan “don’t interfere with action,” which expressed the idea of state non-interference in the economy. The rationale for this principle was given by the English economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo. In the 18th–19th centuries. the social environment of liberals was predominantly bourgeois strata. Radical liberals associated with democracy played an important role in the American Revolution (embodied in the US Constitution of 1787). 19th–20th centuries The main provisions of liberalism were formed: civil society, individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, democratic political institutions, freedom of private enterprise and trade.

Principles of liberalism

The essential features of liberalism are determined by the etymology of the word itself (Latin Liberaly - free).

The main principles of liberalism in the political sphere are:

personal freedom, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, recognition of the right of all people to self-realization. It should be noted that in the ideology of liberalism, individual freedom coincides with political freedom and “natural rights” of man, the most important of which are the right to life, liberty and private property;
restriction of the scope of state activities; protection of private life – primarily from the arbitrariness of the state; “the curbing of the state through a constitution that guarantees individual freedom of action within the limits of the law;
the principle of political pluralism, freedom of thought, speech, and belief.
delimitation of the spheres of activity of the state and civil society, non-interference of the former in the affairs of the latter;
in the economic sphere - freedom of individual and group entrepreneurial activity, self-regulation of the economy according to the laws of competition and free market, non-interference of the state in the economic sphere, inviolability of private property;
in the spiritual sphere – freedom of conscience, i.e. the right of citizens to profess (or not to profess) any religion, the right to formulate their moral duties, etc.

Success and development of the direction

In its completed classical form, liberalism established itself in the government of Great Britain, the USA, France and a number of other European states in the second half of the 19th century. But already at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. a decline in the influence of liberal ideology is revealed, which developed into a crisis that lasted until the 30s of the 20th century, which was associated with the new socio-political realities of this period.

On the one hand, free competition left without state control led to the self-liquidation of the market economy as a result of the concentration of production and the formation of monopolies, ruined small and medium-sized enterprises, on the other hand, unlimited property rights caused a powerful labor movement, economic and political upheavals, especially evident in the late 20s. x - early 30s. XX century All this forced us to reconsider a number of liberal attitudes and value guidelines.

Thus, within the framework of classical liberalism, neoliberalism is formed, the origin of which many scientists associate with the activities of American President F. D. Roosevelt (1933–1945). The rethink affected primarily the economic and social role of the state. The new form of liberalism is based on the ideas of the English economist D. Keynes.

Neoliberalism

As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. Certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of “social liberalism” was developed - neoliberalism.

The neoliberal program was based on ideas such as:

consensus between managers and managed;
the need for mass participation in the political process;
democratization of the procedure for making political decisions (the principle of “political justice”);
limited government regulation of economic and social spheres;
state restrictions on the activities of monopolies;
guarantees of certain (limited) social rights (the right to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).

In addition, neoliberalism involves protecting the individual from the abuses and negative consequences of the market system. The core values of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological movements. It is attractive because it serves as the ideological basis for the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.

Forms

Classical liberalism

Liberalism is the most widespread ideological movement that formed at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. as the ideology of the bourgeois class. John Locke (1632–1704), an English philosopher, is considered the founder of classical liberalism. He was the first to clearly separate such concepts as personality, society, state, and distinguished the legislative and executive powers. Locke's political theory, set out in “Two Treatises on Government,” is directed against patriarchal absolutism and views the socio-political process as the development of human society from a state of nature to civil society and self-government.

The main purpose of government from his point of view is to protect the rights of citizens to life, liberty and property, and in order to secure natural rights, equality and freedom, people agree to establish a state. Locke formulated the idea of the rule of law, arguing that in a state absolutely any organ must obey the law. In his opinion, the legislative power in the state must be separated from the executive (including judicial and foreign relations), and the government itself must also strictly obey the law.

Social liberalism and conservative liberalism

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. representatives of liberal movements began to feel a crisis in the ideas of classical liberalism associated with the aggravation of social contradictions and the spread of socialist ideas. Under these conditions, new trends in liberalism emerged - “social liberalism” and “conservative liberalism.” In “social liberalism” the main ideas were that the state acquired social functions and was given responsibility for providing for the most disadvantaged sections of society. “Conservative liberalism,” on the contrary, rejected any social activity of the state. Under the influence of the further development of social processes, the internal evolution of liberalism took place, and in the 30s of the 20th century, neoliberalism was born. Researchers associate the beginning of neoliberalism with the “New Deal” of the American president.

Political liberalism

Political liberalism is the belief that individuals are the foundation of law and society and that public institutions exist to help empower individuals with real power without kowtowing to elites. This belief in political philosophy and political science is called “methodological individualism.” It is based on the idea that each person knows best what is best for him. The English Magna Carta (1215) provides an example of a political document that extends some individual rights further than the prerogative of the monarch. The key point is the social contract, according to which laws are made with the consent of society for its benefit and protection of social norms, and every citizen is subject to these laws. Particular emphasis is placed on the rule of law, in particular, liberalism assumes that the state has sufficient power to enforce it. Modern political liberalism also includes the condition of universal suffrage, regardless of sex, race or property; Liberal democracy is considered the most preferable system. Political liberalism means a movement for liberal democracy and against absolutism or authoritarianism.

Economic liberalism

Economic liberalism advocates individual rights to property and freedom of contract. The motto of this form of liberalism is “free private enterprise.” Preference is given to capitalism based on the principle of laissez-faire, which means the abolition of government subsidies and legal barriers to trade. Economic liberals believe that the market does not need government regulation. Some of them are ready to allow government oversight of monopolies and cartels, others argue that market monopolization arises only as a consequence of government action. Economic liberalism argues that the prices of goods and services should be determined by the free choices of individuals, i.e., market forces. Some accept the presence of market forces even in areas where the state traditionally maintains a monopoly, such as security or justice. Economic liberalism views economic inequality, which arises from unequal bargaining power, as a natural result of competition in the absence of coercion. Currently, this form is most expressed in libertarianism; other varieties are minarchism and anarcho-capitalism. Thus, economic liberalism is for private property and against government regulation.

Cultural liberalism

Cultural liberalism focuses on individual rights related to consciousness and lifestyle, including issues such as sexual, religious, academic freedom, and protection from government interference in personal life. As John Stuart Mill said in his essay “On Liberty”: “The only object which justifies the interference of men, individually or collectively, in the activities of other men, is self-defense. It is permissible to exercise power over a member of a civilized society against his will only for the purpose of preventing harm to others.” Cultural liberalism, to varying degrees, objects to government regulation of such areas as literature and the arts, as well as such issues as academia, gambling, prostitution, the age of consent for sexual relations, abortion, the use of contraception, euthanasia, alcohol and other drugs. The Netherlands is probably the country with the highest level of cultural liberalism today, which, however, does not prevent the country from proclaiming a policy of multiculturalism.

Third generation liberalism

Third generation liberalism was a consequence of the post-war struggle of third world countries against colonialism. Today it is more associated with certain aspirations than with legal norms. Its goal is to fight against the concentration of power, material resources and technology in a group of developed countries. Activists of this movement emphasize the collective right of society to peace, to self-determination, to economic development and to access to the commonwealth (natural resources, scientific knowledge, cultural monuments). These rights belong to the “third generation” and are reflected in Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Defenders of collective international human rights also pay close attention to issues of international environmental and humanitarian assistance.

Bottom line

In all of the above forms of liberalism, it is assumed that there must be a balance between the responsibilities of government and individuals and that the function of the state should be limited to those tasks that cannot be adequately performed by the private sector. All forms of liberalism aim to provide legislative protection for human dignity and personal autonomy, and all argue that the removal of restrictions on individual activity improves society. Modern liberalism in most developed countries is a mixture of all these forms. In third world countries, “third generation liberalism” – the movement for a healthy living environment and against colonialism – often comes to the fore. The basis of liberalism as a political and legal doctrine is the idea of the absolute value and self-sufficiency of the individual. According to the liberal concept, it is not society that precedes and socializes individuals, but independent individuals who, in accordance with their own will and reason, create society itself - all social institutions, including political and legal institutions.

Liberalism in modern Russia

Liberalism is widespread to one degree or another in all modern developed countries. However, in modern Russia the term has acquired a significant negative connotation, since liberalism is often understood as the destructive economic and political reforms carried out under the rule of Gorbachev and Yeltsin, a high level of chaos and corruption, covered up by an orientation towards Western countries. In this interpretation, liberalism is widely criticized due to fears of further destruction of the country and loss of its independence. Modern liberalization often leads to a decrease in social protection, and “price liberalization” is a euphemism for “increasing prices.”

Radical liberals in Russia are usually considered to be admirers of the West (“creative class”), including in their ranks very specific individuals (Valeria Novodvorskaya, Pavel Shekhtman, etc.) who hate Russia and the USSR as such, for example, comparing them with Nazi Germany, and Stalin and Putin - with Hitler, deifying the USA. Well-known resources of this kind: Echo of Moscow, The New Times, Ej, etc. The opposition, which held mass protests against the Russian government in 2011–2012, identified itself as liberal. due to disagreement with the nomination and election of Putin for a third term. But it is interesting that at the same time, Russian President Vladimir Putin, for example, called himself a liberal, liberal reforms were proclaimed by Dmitry Medvedev when he was president of Russia.

from lat. liber - free) - bourgeois. ideological and social-political movement that united supporters of the bourgeois parliament. building and bourgeois free L. was widespread among the bourgeoisie during the pre-monopoly period. capitalism. Then L. represented a more or less integral system of views, according to which social harmony and progress of mankind are achievable only on the basis of private property by ensuring sufficient freedom of the individual in the economy and in all other human spheres. activity (for the common good allegedly spontaneously develops as a result of the implementation by individuals of their personal goals), and capitalist. the structure is natural and eternal. The real content of literature, specific to each stage of the development of capitalism, was manifested in the activities of the social strata uniting under the banner of capitalism (the “middle classes” - the industrial-commercial bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia associated with them, the bourgeois nobility, a certain part of the large, including part of the monopolistic bourgeoisie) and has undergone a complex evolution with extreme diversity of concrete history. (in particular, national) forms. In a modified form (in relation to the conditions of imperialism and the general crisis of capitalism), the ideas of L. are still used by defenders of capitalism. L. arose in the conditions of the struggle of the young progressive bourgeoisie and the bourgeois nobility against feudalism as a weapon in the struggle against feudalism. oppression, arbitrariness of absolutism and spiritual oppression of Catholics. churches; During that period, L. was the bearer of ideals (belief in progress, in the triumph of reason, peace, freedom, equality) common to all antifeudal societies. camps, the implementation of which, however, was least of all possible on the basis of the specific program of L. (constitutional monarchy, liberation from feudal shackles only of large property). The spiritual fathers of Latvia were representatives of the moderate wing of enlightenment rationalists (Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and the Physiocrats; the formula of the latter, laissez-faire, laissez-passer - “don’t interfere with action,” became one of the most popular slogans of Latvia), the creators of the bourgeoisie. classic political savings (A. Smith, D. Ricardo). At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L. in the West. Europe stands out as a special socio-political. flow. Around 1816, the term “L.”, initially extremely vague, also became widespread. In France, during the Restoration period, B. Constant, Guizot, and others for the first time gave the character of more or less formalized political politics to L. and historical and philosophical doctrine. From the ideological heritage of the Enlightenment, they chose only those provisions that met the everyday needs of the bourgeoisie as the ruling class: deep faith in humanity. reason was replaced by admiration for limitations. bourgeois "common sense", the idea of people. sovereignty gave way to the demand for “personal freedom”; admitting the story legality of bourgeois revolutions, French liberals refused to recognize the legitimacy of the revolution. movements of the proletariat. In an atmosphere of deepening contradictions, and then aggravated in the 30s. 19th century (after the revolution of 1830 in France and the parliamentary reform of 1832 in England) antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the working class bourgeois-liberal. reforms carried out everywhere by appropriating lib. The bourgeoisie, the results of the struggle of the working masses and compromises with the monarchical-clerical reaction, are increasingly becoming anti-proletarian. character; L.'s slogans are increasingly becoming a means of camouflaging capitalist. operation. Europe The revolutions of 1848-49 remained unfinished, which means. degrees as a result of the betrayal of lib. bourgeoisie. But they helped clear the ground for the development of capitalism, and it was the bourgeoisie who reaped their fruits; 50-60s 19th century became the climax. period in the development of L. L. reaches its greatest flourishing in the classical period. industrial country capitalism - England, where its ideologists from the very beginning developed ch. arr. economical aspects of L. In the form of the so-called. utilitarianism - a doctrine developed by I. Bentham and a group of "philosophical radicals" (Bowring, Place, James and J. S. Mill), the prosperous middle classes received, along with a carefully thought-out program of bourgeois. reforms designed to create ideal conditions for free enterprise, ethical "justification" unlimited. pursuit of profit - even to the point of usury. In the 40s 19th century Manchester manufacturers, members of parliament Cobden and Bright, during the struggle against the Corn Laws, gave L. a classic. form of free trade. After the repeal of the Corn Laws, in the conditions of world trade and industry. the monopoly of England and the decline of Chartism, Latvia became the dominant form of bourgeois ideology. Liber. the party led by Palmerston and Gladstone gained dominance in politics. life in England. L. subordinates his ideological and political. influence means. part of the petty bourgeoisie and skilled workers united in trade unions. Political the dominance of liberals led to increased social contrasts. With all this, compared to the feud. arbitrariness and constraint, the victory of free enterprise, the establishment of the bourgeoisie. law and order have been historically progress. business, meet the needs of development produces. forces, contributed to the numerical and spiritual growth of the working class, opened up certain legal opportunities for its organization, for the spread of socialism. ideology and its connection with the labor movement. The later this country embarked on the path of bourgeois. transformation, the more developed the proletariat was in it by this time, the faster the cowardice and counter-revolutionary nature of the liberals were revealed. the bourgeoisie, its tendency to compromise with the reaction (for example, in Germany, Italy and a number of other countries). Having strengthened the bourgeoisie. parliamentarism and free competition, Latvia has historically exhausted itself as the dominant (or most influential) bourgeoisie. socio-political flow. His entire worldview came into clear contradiction with the real picture of capitalist development. society, because under imperialism “... some basic properties of capitalism began to turn into their opposite...” (Lenin V.I., Soch., vol. 22, p. 252). L. in the East arose in the 2nd half. 19 - beginning 20th centuries (China, Japan, India, Turkey) and from the very beginning, due to the connection of the local bourgeoisie with landownership, its progressive features were extremely limited; the liberals' demands concerned ch. arr. ext. state modernization apparatus, creation of modern army, navy, communications. In the last third 19 - beginning. 20th centuries The old, “classical” light of the period of industrial capitalism is in decline, and light’s adaptation to new conditions begins. L. becomes, first of all, a means of distracting the masses from the revolutionaries. fighting with help is insignificant. concessions to workers. Such is the activity of Lloyd George in England, Giolitti in Italy, and W. Wilson in the USA. Experienced leaders of Latvia (in England, France, and a number of other countries) led the preparations for World War I, the military. offices, post-war redivision of the world, antis. intervention, suppression of revolution. movements, introducing into all this, as V.I. Lenin noted, techniques of social demagoguery and maneuvering developed over decades. Thus, in the conditions of the general crisis of capitalism, the role of one of the unique instruments of the dominant imperialist system was revealed. bourgeoisie. Certain aspects of L.'s practice on the social issue, especially as it relates to the working class, were adopted by right-wing socialists. As the political the influence of the working class of Latvia is gradually disappearing from history. scenes, its functions move to reformism. After the 1st World War and Great Britain. Oct. socialist Revolution, which opened a new era in the history of mankind, the crisis of L. sharply worsened and deepened. L. began to experience a painful reassessment of values (first of all, a crisis of faith in the salvageability and infallibility of bourgeois individualism from the point of view of the interests of the bourgeoisie itself). On the basis of L. Various concepts of the “third way” of social development arose, supposedly ensuring a combination of the interests of the individual and society, “freedom” and “order” on the basis of private property. Thus, in the period between the 1st and 2nd world wars, attempts based on Keynes’s theory to combine “regulation” of the economy with social legislation (pensions, benefits for the unemployed, etc.) became widespread; these attempts were presented by the bourgeoisie. propaganda as a way to avoid both fascism and communism. Although the anti-communism of liberals, as a rule, led either to capitulation to fascism or to a policy of appeasement, which was tragic. consequences, lib. the concepts of the period between the 1st and 2nd world wars are sometimes considered by monopolies as “too left”, “pro-communist”. Along with Keynesianism, after World War II, neoliberalism became widespread in Germany, England, France, the USA, and Italy. Its center is in Germany (Eiken, Rüstow, etc.). Neoliberals oppose “excessive” government intervention in the economy, arguing that with sufficient space for competition, a “social market economy” takes shape, which supposedly ensures general prosperity. Lit.: Lenin V.I., Liberalism and Democracy, Works, 4th ed., vol. 17; his, Two Utopias, ibid., vol. 18; him, On the liberal and Marxist concept of class struggle, ibid., vol. 19; Was ist liberal?, M?nch., 1910; Ruggiere G. de, Storia del liberalismo europeo, Mil., 1962; Samuel H., Liberalism, L., 1960 (Russian translation - Samuel G., Liberalism, M., 1906); Saunders J., The age of revolution. The rise and decline of liberalism in Europe since 1815, N. Y., 1949; The liberal tradition from Fox to Keynes, L., 1956. I. N. Nemanov. Smolensk Liberalism in Russia is bourgeois in its objective content, ideological, and then political. current, the social base of which was made up of landowners moving towards capitalism. management techniques, middle bourgeoisie, noble and bourgeoisie. intelligentsia. The origins of the first rudimentary ideas of noble art date back to the 60s. 18th century - beginning 19th century In the 40s 19th century began the process of formalizing L. as a special ideological and political. current and its dissociation from democracy. trends. Development of capitalism, class. the interests of the growing bourgeoisie inevitably gave rise to L. and his opposition to autocracy and serfdom. L.'s progressiveness was determined by the objective conditions of the need for bourgeois. transformation of societies. and state building Russia. Since the era of the first revolution. situation and the fall of serfdom in 1861 until February. Revolution of 1917 was a struggle between two sources. tendencies - liberal and democratic - on the fundamental question of the type of bourgeoisie. development of Russia. L., expressing the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, acted as a bearer of the reformist tendency and the landowner-bourgeoisie. evolution according to the Prussian type. Democracy, representing the interests of the peasantry, fought for the revolution. destruction of all feudal serfs. institutions and survivals. Political program and reformist tactics of Latvia, reflecting the desire of the bourgeoisie to eliminate class privileges, constitutional. transformation of absolutism, establishment of the legal system, advancement to power, at the same time testified to its political flabbiness, tendency to compromise with feudal forces. reactions, fear of revolution. L., maintaining the basic features of its ideology, program and tactics, evolved depending on two factors: the strength of the revolution. movements, degrees of bourgeois. the evolution of absolutism and the nature of governments. politics, acquiring certain features on each source. stage. Basic The trend in the evolution of L. was a steadily decreasing, historically and class-limited progressiveness and an invariably increasing anti-nationality and counter-revolutionism. Revolutionaries became the key points in the evolution of L. the situation at the turn of the 50s and 60s. 19th century, first Russian revolution 1905-07, Feb. revolution of 1917 and victory of October. revolution of 1917. The period of decomposition and crisis of feudal-serfdom. building (2nd half of the 18th century - mid-19th century), the first, noble period (1825-61) will liberate. movement became the time of the birth and formation of L. Ideas of progress. enlightenment, criticism of serfdom and autocracy, projects to limit absolutism in the 2nd half. 18th century (S. E. Desnitsky, A. Ya. Polenov, N. I. Novikov, F. V. Krechetov, etc.) expressed the urgent tasks of the bourgeoisie. transformation of Russia. In the era of Decembrism, liber. and democratic trends have evolved as shades release. movements in general are revolutionary. riverbed In the history genesis of L. and bourgeois. democracy era of Enlightenment 18th century. and Decembrism constitutes, therefore, a prehistory. In the 30-40s. 19th century, when the definition took shape. maturity of social relations capitalist. type, and the task of eliminating serfdom and bourgeoisie. transformations become radical and practical. question of all Russian society life, a demarcation between liberalism and democracy is outlined. The nascent L. found its expression in the views of the so-called. Westerners (K.D. Kavelin, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, P.V. Annenkov, etc.) and, in a unique form, certain Slavophiles. It still existed within the framework of the general anti-feud. camp opposing the reactionary serfs. ideology. However, already at this time the first differences between liberals and democrats were emerging and gradually intensifying. Aggravation of socio-political antagonisms in revolutionary conditions. situations at the turn of the 50s and 60s. 19th century led to the polarization of politics. forces, to the design of L., its ideology, program and tactics. In society the rise of this period is defined. Liber played a role. movement. In handwritten literature, projects, journalism (magazine "Domestic Notes", "Russian Bulletin", "Atheneum") ideologists of Leningrad (Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, I. K. Babst, A. M. Unkovsky etc.) put forward a program of reforms carried out by the government, while maintaining landownership and the monarchy (the release of peasants with land for ransom, the abolition of class privileges, openness, the creation of representative institutions). The process of Liberal's separation from democracy was reflected in the liberals' break with Kolokol and Sovremennik, and subsequently. fight against L. revolutionary. camps led by N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov. Reforms of the 60-70s 19th century, fear of people. revolution, hostility to revolutionaries. democrats (approval of the arrests of Chernyshevsky, N.A. Serno-Solovyevich and others in 1862), the explosion of chauvinism in connection with the Polish liberation. The uprising of 1863-64 determined Latvia's turn towards reaction, which made it possible for tsarism to weaken the anti-government forces. camp and repel the revolutionaries. onslaught 2nd revolutionary situation at the end 70 - beginning 80s 19th century became a new stage in the development of L., which as before remained within the framework of the legal opposition to the autocracy, capable only of a constitution. “impulses” and a fruitless targeted campaign (see Zemstvo movement). In the addresses of zemstvos and mountains. institutions, in the speeches of lib. The press ("Golos", "Rumour", "Order", "Zemstvo", "Bulletin of Europe", etc.) put forward half-hearted measures both in the field of agriculture. relations (resettlement of peasants, reduction of redemption payments, transformation of the tax system, etc.), and on the issue of state. system (reform of the State Council, involvement of representatives from zemstvos in legislative and advisory activities), which did not affect the foundations of autocracy. L.'s program and tactics created favorable preconditions for maneuvering the government, ultimately making it easier in the beginning. 80s victory of reaction. On the second, bourgeois-democratic. stage will be released. movement of L. finally took shape and took shape in a definition. camp that took the position of monarchist. center in the political grouping. strength At this time, and the further, the more strongly, the reactionary nature of L. manifested itself “... in comparison with the revolutionary element of bourgeois democracy. .." (Lenin V.I., Soch., vol. 10, p. 431), his inability for independent progressive historical action. With Russia’s entry into the era of imperialism, the strengthening of the economic power of the bourgeoisie and the beginning of the flying stage of the revolutionary movement, with the transformation of the working class into the center of gravity of democratic forces and the formation of the Social Democratic Party, a process of intensification of the Liberal Party, a gradual political and organizational consolidation of its groups, and an intensification of the struggle for influence on the peasantry takes place. , from the 40s of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, did not create his own organizations, although he had the material resources and personnel for this. At the beginning of the 20th century, in the context of revolutionary upsurge, aggravation of the class struggle of the proletariat and the peasantry, the formation of political organizations of Leningrad began. Back in 1899 in Moscow, the “Conversation” circle united about 50 zemstvo leaders of various directions and attracted representatives of the intelligentsia (P. N. Milyukov, P. B. Struve) to publish a number of collections on socio-political problems.In 1901 and 1902, congresses of zemstvo leaders were held, in 1902 the zemstvo people were in alliance with the bourgeoisie. intelligentsia founded a journal in Stuttgart. "Liberation" ed. Struve. In the summer and autumn of 1903, the Union of Liberation and the Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists were created. In the program documents of Latvia, the idea of “people's representation” was carried out within the framework of the constitutional monarchy. building and increasing peasant plots while maintaining landownership. L., fearing the growing popular revolution, sought to gain hegemony in the liberation movement, demagogically acting as a bearer of national interests, and tried to switch the development of events to a reformist path. First Russian the revolution of 1905-07 became a turning point in the evolution of Liberia. It “...remarkably quickly exposed liberalism and showed in practice its counter-revolutionary nature” (ibid., vol. 13, p. 100). L. in the conditions of the ascending development of the revolution from January. until Dec. 1905 and the growing disorganization of the industry showed. political activity, tried to maneuver between tsarism and revolution. people, transfer development to the constitution. way to bargain for reforms beneficial to the bourgeoisie. This is the meaning of the appeal to the people of the July (1905) Zemstvo-City Congress, the decision of September. congress, L.'s tactics in relation to the Bulygin Duma, by Oct. strike of 1905. After the manifesto of October 17. 1905 the top of the bourgeoisie united into the "Union of October 17", and the "Union of Liberation" and the "Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists" created the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets) - main. party L. Counter-revolution. character L. openly manifested itself in relation to Dec. armed uprising of 1905. Revolutionary L. contrasted the methods of struggle with the parliamentary, peaceful methods of “organic” work in the Duma. In the inter-revolutionary L. period played an important role in the June Third system as a chapter. opposition parties that promote the constitution. illusions and reforms, his loyal parl. tactics facilitated the implementation of Stolypin's Bonapartist agrarian movement. and Duma politics. L. acted as an active force in politics. and ideological. reaction, which was expressed in Sat. "Milestones" (1909). L. was not able to fight for the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution, but the incompleteness of capitalist. evolution retained a base for its opposition. speeches against serf owners, absolutism. On the eve and during the First World War, L. preached the ideas of the bourgeoisie. nationalism and pan-Slavism, ideologically substantiating imperialism. Russian interests bourgeoisie, participated in the mobilization of all forces for the needs of the imperialist. war. Defeat of the tsarist troops, households. devastation, growth of revolution. movements, disorganization of the government, unable to wage a war to victory, and the increasing influence of the court camarilla forced L. to take the path of opposition to the autocracy and take the initiative to create in August. 1915 in the 4th Duma of the so-called. "progressive bloc". Victory Feb. The revolution of 1917 marked the beginning of the last stage in the history of L. Liber. parties seized power and became governments. parties striving for the autocracy of the bourgeoisie, for the continuation of the war, for the defeat of the Soviets and the Bolshevik Party. The Cadet Party united around itself all the forces of the bourgeois-landlord-general counter-revolution, which was especially clearly manifested in the Kornilov rebellion (see Kornilovshchina). Oct. the revolution led L. to ideological and political. collapse. The bourgeoisie, that is. part of lib. intelligentsia, responded with sabotage and counter-revolution. speeches for the establishment of Sov. authorities. During the civil years war of L., united with other forces of counter-revolution, with the help of international intervention. imperialism, tried to destroy the Sov. power. Many leaders of Latvia (Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, etc.) took an active part in the White Guard. pr-vah, and after civil. wars became the ideologists and organizers of the antis. struggle in emigration. Liberal-bourgeois. party open participation in the armed forces. fight against the Sov. The authorities placed themselves outside the framework of the Soviet Union. legality and owls democracy. A peculiar manifestation of the ideology of Latvia in the conditions of the first years of NEP was the so-called. Smenovekhov movement, which sought to restore capitalism “from within” the Soviets. building, based on its internal. rebirth. L. throughout its history was not in program-tactical. in a single and homogeneous movement. In its channel with the ser. 19th century before the beginning 20th century there were various movements that reflected the interests of certain layers of the bourgeoisie. In 1905 the process of partitioning began. design of various areas of L. Some desks. The groups that arose in 1905 (the Party of Legal Order, the Progressive Economic Party, etc.) did not exist for long, and the factions of Latvia were soon distributed among the Octobrists, Progressives, and Cadets. The histories of these parties, primarily the Cadet party, collectively constitute the history of Russian history. L. in the period 1905-17, With all inter-parties. and intrapart. disagreements (Miliukov’s criticism of the authors of “Vekhi” for self-exposure dangerous for L., Maklakov’s accusation of Miliukov in flirting with democracy and the discussion between them on tactical issues, etc.) all parties and movements of L. were united by fear of the revolution. victory of the people, the desire for a compromise with the absolutist-feudal regime. reaction, active participation in the fight against democracy. and socialist revolution. If there is a specific characteristics of these same creatures. features were characteristic of L. in the national. district The scope and maturity of L. were determined by the level of socio-political. development of national district. In con. 19 - beginning 20th centuries in Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and a number of other regions, liberal-nationalist ones took shape. parties and groupings of the local bourgeoisie (National Democratic Party in Poland, Ukrainian Democratic Party, Belarusian Community, Jadidism in Central Asia, Musavatists in Transcaucasia, etc.). They were in opposition to tsarism and sought to achieve self-government and equal rights with the Russians. bourgeoisie. In the conditions of imperialism and deployment, national liberation. struggle of the peoples bourgeois-nationalist. L. is losing progress. traits. His dual policy boiled down to attempts to achieve concessions from tsarism and with the help of nationalists. demagogy to distract workers from socio-political. struggle, to split their alliance with the Russians. proletariat. After Oct. liberal-nationalist revolution. parties are included in the common front of counter-revolution and are actively fighting against the Soviets. authorities. Its main principles were manifested in the ideology, program, tactics and organization of politics in Russia. features and characteristics: a relatively late separation from democracy and a rapid turn to counter-revolution, that is. the proportion of the noble element, activities within the legal opposition and the later formation of parties. groups, fear of revolution, tendency to compromise with feudal forces. reactions. These features of L. had their origins in the weakness and non-revolutionary nature of the Russians. bourgeoisie, in relation to strength and survivability of feudal remains. antiquity. They intensified with the growth of class. struggle, with the uprising of the proletariat, which pushed aside L. and became the hegemon of all democracies. strength Revolutionary democracy exposed L. and his conciliatory policy. This line is at the flyover stage. will release. The movement was continued and enriched by the Bolshevik Party. V.I. Lenin gave scientific. analysis of sources evolution of L., its ideology, program and tactics, revealing the commonality of the most significant features of L. of different periods. Assessment of L., his social and political role was one of the most important points of disagreement between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Lenin's doctrine of the hegemony of the proletariat in the bourgeoisie. revolution and the struggle of Bolshevism for its implementation undermined the influence of L. and his opportunist. allies in the labor movement - the Mensheviks. The Bolshevik struggle against Latvia was a necessary condition for the revolution. and democratic educating the working masses, preparing them for the struggle at hand. proletariat for a new, democratic and socialist Russia. L. tried to concepts to justify your program and tactics. Liber. historiography (Milyukov, Struve, P. G. Vinogradov, etc.), based on reactionary-idealistic. theories, depicted political. the history of Russia as the history of the consistent development of the reformist activities of the autocracy and the growing progressiveness of Latvia, while ignoring the decisive role of the class. struggle. Lenin's criticism of lib. historiography played a big role in exposing the ideology of L. Oct. The revolution of 1917 meant not only the collapse of the ideology, program and tactics of Latvia, but also revealed the complete inconsistency of its historical and political. doctrines. Lit.: Lenin V.I., Persecutors of Zemstvo and Annibals of Liberalism, Works, 4th ed., vol. 5; his, Two tactics of social democracy in democracy. revolutions, ibid., vol. 9; his, Experience of classification of Russian. political parties, ibid., vol. 11; him, Regarding the anniversary, in the same place, vol. 17; his, “Peasant reform” and the proletarian cross. revolution, ibid.; him, In Memory of Herzen, in the same place, vol. 18; him, Politich. parties in Russia, ibid.; his, On the liberal and Marxist concept of class. struggle, ibid., vol. 19. See also Reference volume, part 1, p. 307-11. Belokonsky I., Zemstvo and the Constitution, M., 1910; Bogucharsky V., From the history of politics. struggle in the 70s. and 80s XIX century The People's Will Party, its origin, fate and death, M., 1912; Veselovsky B., History of the zemstvo for forty years, vol. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1911; Glinsky B:, The struggle for the constitution. 1612-1862, St. Petersburg, 1908; Jordan N., Constitution. movement of the 60s, St. Petersburg, 1906; his, Zemsky liberalism, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1906; Karyshev N., Zemstvo petitions. 1865-1884, M.. 1900; Kornilov A., Society. movement under Alexander II, M., 1909; his, Course of Russian History of the 19th century, 2nd ed., part 3, M., 1918; Lemke M., Essays will free. movements of the "sixties", St. Petersburg, 1908; Martov Yu., Society. and mental trends in Russia, 1870-1905, L.-M., 1924; Plekhanov G., The unsuccessful history of the Narodnaya Volya party, Soch., vol. 24; Svatikov S., Society. movement in Russia, Rostov n/D., 1905; Yakushkin V., State. government and government projects reforms in Russia, St. Petersburg, 1906. Berlin P., Rus. bourgeoisie in old and new times, M., 1922; Druzhinin N., Decembrist Nikita Muravyov, M., 1933; him, Mosk. nobility and reform of 1861, "IAN USSR. Series of History and Philosophy", 1948, vol. 5, K" 1; Nechkina M.V., Decembrist Movement, vol. 1-2, M., 1955; Rosenthal V. N., Ideological centers of the liberal movement in Russia on the eve of the revolutionary situation, in the collection: Revolutionary situation in Russia in 1859-1861, M., 1963; Sladkevich N., Opposition movement of the nobility during the years of the revolutionary situation, there zhe, M., 1962; Usakina T., Herzen’s article “Very dangerous!!!” and the controversy around “accusatory literature” in journalism 1857-1861, M., 1960; Fedosov I., Revolutionary movement in Russia in second quarter of the 19th century, M., 1958; Kheifets M., The second revolutionary situation in Russia, M., 1963; Zayonchkovsky P., Abolition of serfdom in Russia, M., 1954; Kozmin V., From the history of Russian . illegal press. Newspaper "Common Deal", in the book: Ist. sb., vol. 3, Leningrad, 1934; Levin Sh., Social movement in Russia in the 60-70s of the 19th century, M ., 1958; Essays on the history of historical science in the USSR, vol. 1, M., 1955, chapter 8; vol. 2, M., 1960, chapters 2-3; vol. 3, M., 1963, chapter 1, 4, 5; Pokrovsky M. N., Essays on the history of the revolutionary. movements in Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries, 2nd ed., M., 1927; Chermensky E., Bourgeoisie and tsarism in the revolution of 1905-1907, M.-L., 1939; him, Feb. bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1917 in Russia, M., 1959. See also lit. to the articles “Legal Marxism”, “Zemstvo Movement”, “Constitutional Democratic Party “Progressive Bloc””, etc. M. I. Kheifets. Moscow.

LIBERAL

(Latin liberalis, from liber - civilly free). A free thinker who stands for a free form of government.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

LIBERAL

lat. liberalis, from liber, civilly free. A free thinker who stands for a free form of government.

Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .

LIBERAL

free, free-thinking, agreeing with liberalism.

A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .

Liberal

1) related to liberalism, characteristic of it;

2) showing liberalism 3.

New dictionary of foreign words. - by EdwART,, 2009 .

Liberal

relating to a liberal, liberalism, characteristic of them.

Large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing House "IDDK", 2007 .

Liberal

oh, oh, flax, flax ( fr. liberal lat. līberālis free).
1. full f. Related to liberalism. Liberal Party.
2. Manifesting liberalism. L. approach to knowledge assessment.
Liberal- the same as liberalism.

Explanatory dictionary of foreign words by L. P. Krysin. - M: Russian language, 1998 .

Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what “LIBERAL” is in other dictionaries:

Cm … Synonym dictionary

liberal- oh, oh. libéral, e adj. 1. Rel. to liberal and liberalism (political movement), expressing liberalism. BAS 1. The main ... parties in France are: Royalists Constitutional, Ministerial, Liberal, opponents of the hereditary line, ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

LIBERAL, liberal, liberal; liberal, liberal, liberal. 1. adj. to liberalism; imbued with liberalism. Liberal speeches. Liberal reforms. Liberal chatter. 2. only full. The names of some political organizations and... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

LIBERAL, oh, oh; flax, flax. 1. full Relating to liberalism (1 value). Liberal Party. L. activist. 2. Showing liberalism (in 2 meanings). L. approach to what n. | noun liberality, and, women. (to 2 digits). Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

liberal- terribly liberal... Dictionary of Russian Idioms

liberal- oh, oh; flax, flax 1) full. f. Relating to liberalism. Liberal Party. Liberal newspaper. 2) Showing liberalism. Liberal approach to knowledge assessment. 3) outdated Imbued with liberalism. The secretary was liberal, even radical... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

I adj. 1. ratio with noun liberalism I, liberalization, associated with them 2. Carrying out liberalization. II adj. 1. Showing excessive tolerance, harmful condescension, connivance. 2. Characteristic of liberalism [liberalism II 2.],… … Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova

Liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal,... ... Forms of words

Conservative intolerant reactionary routine... Dictionary of antonyms

Books

Liberal conservatism. History and modernity. The book contains a comprehensive analysis of the processes of genesis, formation and evolution of Russian liberal conservatism as a system of ideas and policies, organization and tactics; his…
Liberal redistribution of the Russian agricultural sector. Book 3. Market domestication of the Russian peasant, V. I. Staroverov, A. N. Zakharov. The series of books under the general title Liberal redistribution of the agro-sphere of Russia highlights the social, economic and political contradictions of modern times generated by the voluntarism of perestroika...

Several years ago, the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion conducted a survey of the population, the main question of which was: “What is liberalism, and who is a liberal?” Most of the participants were confused by this question. 56% could not give a comprehensive answer. The survey was conducted in 2012; most likely, today the situation is unlikely to have changed for the better. Therefore, now in this article we will briefly consider the concept of liberalism and all its main aspects for the education of the Russian audience.

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About the concept

There are several definitions that describe the concept of this ideology. Liberalism is:

political movement or ideology that unites fans of democracy and parliamentarism;
a worldview that is characteristic of industrialists who defend their rights of a political nature, as well as entrepreneurial freedom;
a theory incorporating philosophical and political ideas that appeared in Western Europe in the 18th century;
the first meaning of the concept was freethinking;
tolerance and tolerance of unacceptable behavior.

All these definitions can be safely attributed to liberalism, but the main thing is that this term denotes an ideology that affects the structure and states. WITH In Latin, liberalism is translated as freedom. Are all the functions and aspects of this movement really built on freedom?

Freedom or restriction

The liberal movement includes such key concepts as public good, individual freedom and equality of people within the framework of policy and . What liberal values does this ideology promote?

The common good. If the state protects the rights and freedom of the individual, and also protects the people from various threats and monitors compliance with the laws, then such a structure of society can be called reasonable.
Equality. Many people shout that all people are equal, although it is obvious that this is absolutely not the case. We differ from each other in various aspects: intelligence, social status, physical characteristics, nationality, and so on. But liberals mean equality of human opportunity. If a person wants to achieve something in life, no one has the right to interfere with this on the basis of race, social status or other factors . The principle is that if you put in the effort, you will achieve more.
Natural rights. British thinkers Locke and Hobbes came up with the idea that a person has three rights from birth: to life, to property and to happiness. It will not be difficult for many to interpret this: no one has the right to take a person’s life (only the state for certain offenses), property is considered as a personal right to own something, and the right to happiness is that same freedom of choice.

Important! What is liberalization? There is also a concept that means the expansion of civil liberties and rights within the framework of economic, political, cultural and social life, and this is also a process when the economy gets rid of the influence of the state.

Principles of liberal ideology:

there is nothing more valuable than human life;
all people in this world are equal;
everyone has their inalienable rights;
the individual and his needs are more valuable than society as a whole;
the state arises by common consent;
people form laws and state values independently;
the state is responsible to the individual, and the individual, in turn, is responsible to the state;
power must be divided, the principle of organizing life in the state on the basis of the constitution;
only in fair elections can a government be elected;
humanistic ideals.

These principles of liberalism formulated in the 18th century English philosophers and thinkers. Many of them never came to fruition. Most of them are similar to the utopia that humanity so passionately strives for, but cannot achieve.

Important! Liberal ideology could be a lifeline for many countries, but there will always be some pitfalls that hinder development.

Founders of the ideology

What is liberalism? At that time, each thinker understood it in his own way. This ideology absorbed completely different ideas and opinions of thinkers of that time.

It is clear that some of the concepts may contradict each other, but the essence remains the same.

The founders of liberalism English scientists J. Locke and T. Hobbes (18th century) can be considered, along with the French writer of the Enlightenment era Charles Montesquieu, who was the first to think and express his opinion about human freedom in all spheres of his activity.

Locke gave birth to legal liberalism and stated that only in a society in which all citizens are free can there be stability.

The original theory of liberalism

The followers of classical liberalism gave greater preference and paid more attention to the “individual freedom” of man. The concept of this concept is expressed in the fact that the individual should not submit to either society or social orders. Independence and equality- these are the main stages on which the entire liberal ideology stood. The word “freedom” then meant the absence of various prohibitions, limits or vetoes on the implementation of actions by an individual, taking into account the generally accepted rules and laws of the state. That is, that freedom that would not go against established dogmas.

As the founders of the liberal movement believed, the government should guarantee equality between all its citizens, but people had to take care of their financial situation and status on their own. Limiting the scope of government power was what liberalism in turn tried to achieve. According to theory, the only thing the state had to provide for its citizens was security and order protection. That is, the liberals tried to influence the reduction of all its functions to a minimum. The existence of society and power could only be subject to their general subordination to laws within the state.

The fact that classical liberalism would still exist became clear when a terrible economic crisis arose in the United States in 1929. Its consequences were tens of thousands of bankrupt banks, the death of many people from hunger and other horrors of the economic decline of the state.

Economic liberalism

The main concept of this movement was the idea of equality between economic laws and natural ones. Government interference in these laws was prohibited. Adam Smith is the founder of this movement and its basic principles:

self-interest is needed to spur economic development;
government regulation and the existence of monopolies harm the economy;
economic growth must be promoted quietly. That is, the government should not interfere in the process of the emergence of new institutions. Businesses and suppliers operating in the interests of profit and within the market system are quietly guided by the "invisible hand." All this is the key to competently meeting the needs of society.

Neoliberalism

This direction was formed in the 19th century and implies a new trend in, which consists of complete non-interference by the government in trade relations between its subjects.

The main principles of neoliberalism are constitutionalism and equality between all members of society in the country.

Signs of this trend: the government should promote self-regulation of the economy in the market, and the process of financial redistribution should primarily take into account the low-income segments of the population.

Neoliberalism does not oppose government regulation of the economy, while classical liberalism denies this. But the regulatory process should include only the free market and the competitiveness of subjects to ensure economic growth along with social justice. The main idea of neoliberalism – support for foreign trade policy and internal trade to increase the gross income of the state, that is, protectionism.

All political concepts and philosophical movements have their own characteristics, and neoliberalism is no exception:

the need for government intervention in the economy. The market must be protected from the possible emergence of monopolies, and a competitive environment and freedom ensured;
protection of principles and justice. All citizens must be involved in political processes to maintain the necessary democratic “weather”;
government should maintain existence various economic programs, associated with financial support for social groups with low incomes.

Briefly about liberalism

Why is the concept of liberalism distorted in Russia?

Conclusion

Now the question is: “What is liberalism?” will no longer cause dissonance among respondents. After all, the understanding of freedom and equality is simply presented under other terms, which have their own principles and concepts that affect different spheres of the state structure, but remain unchanged in one thing - only then will the state prosper when it ceases to limit its citizens in many ways.