United Mexican States Wikipedia. Mexico. State device. Legal system. Civil law. Criminal law. Judicial system
Mexico ( official name United Mexican States) - a state in North America, the northernmost country Latin America. The public administration of Mexico completely repeats public administration USA. The capital of Mexico is Mexico City.
The official currency of Mexico is the Mexican peso. It can be obtained at any exchange office or ATM.
Thus, the battle plan included four operations that were to be carried out simultaneously. General Twiggs, one of the veterans of the American army, said that the most dangerous of these four operations was the Cerro Gordo attack. If the tilt of the king, which was very fast and covered with thick brush, had not been sheltered from cannon fire, it would have been necessary to expect it to be completely destroyed. However, in the absence of a cannon, the musket could wreak havoc among the American ranks. The nature of the uneven and cracked terrain riveted the efforts of enemy shooters.
Official language Spanish is spoken by 96% of the population. The remaining 4% speak Indian languages. English language It is distributed only in the capital, and not everyone speaks it. Therefore, when going to Mexico (especially to small cities), I advise you to take care of the language in advance and learn a few phrases on duty that will allow you not to be hungry on the trip.
Colonel Harney was again charged with driving the Americans to the fire, and it was at the head of them that, despite his gigantic size, he arrived unwounded on the plateau. The Mexican gunners were killed in pieces they didn't have time to unload. They fought as if on landing, that is, with a knife and a saber in hand. Officers and soldiers struggled to cope with the problem and were confused. The Mexican General Vasquez was killed, and many of his soldiers died like him in their posts; the rest rushed to one of the king's steepest slopes and retreated towards the road.
Tourists should pay special attention to safety in this country. The central states are considered the least dangerous. The most dangerous states where I would not advise you to go are the northern ones bordering the USA - Tijuana, Loredo, Ciudad Juarez. The criminogenic situation in the country began to increase since 2006, when conflicts between unofficial drug trafficking organizations intensified. This process was dubbed by the press as the “drug war in Mexico”. When traveling in Mexico, it is not recommended to use unofficial taxis, going out for a walk to put on expensive jewelry. Also, tourists are advised to move only along the most visited central streets and return to the hotel after midnight. The local population is quite friendly to tourists. But the dark streets are to be feared.
The Americans, masters of the enemy's battles, whose coins were full of earth with this cruelty characteristic of the Mexicans, turned these guns into the hands of the fugitives, and soon the glaciers were littered with the dead. The three other operations entrusted to Worth, Shields, and Pillow were not carried out with the same happiness. General Worth, at the head of his brigade, crossed the ground obstacles that defended the left of the enemy, called the defenders of the redoubt, raised to a height near Cerro Gordo. This challenge, coinciding with the occupation of the latter by Twiggs, General Pinzon thought it prudent to obey Worth's orders.
The nature of Mexico is very diverse. In one country you will find volcanoes, snow-capped mountain peaks, tropical resorts with white sand and blue oceans, waterfalls, caves filled with stalactites and stalagnites, and much more. Of particular interest are underground decks - cenotes. This is a paradise for divers. Cenotes are found only on the Yucatan Island. There are more than 6,000 of them here. Some cenotes are equipped for bathing tourists, others have not been studied at all. The water in the cenotes is crystal clear. The most popular of them are Ik-Kil (located 3 km from Chichen Itza), Iks-Kanche, Sachi cenotes, Shkeken (6.5 km from Valladoltda).
General Shields, charged with carrying Vega's battery, was received by murderous fire and fell at the head of his division. Without the capture of Cerro Gordo, who decided that Vega and his men would lay down their arms, the loss of the Americans would have been much greater. Finally, General Pillow's brigade was even more brutalized than Shields. The Mexican battery, suddenly exposed, carried off almost a whole regiment. After retreating, Pillow was about to make another attack when the success of three other operations came to spare him this dangerous effort.
The Mexicans, defeated on all other counts, placed their weapons before the Pillow, as before the shields, Worth and Twiggs. From that time the battle was over, complete victory opened the way to Mexico for the Americans. As for Santa Anna herself, it would be surprising that we should not have called it a story about this hot case. It must be said that Santa Anna left the battlefield at the beginning of the action. As for Ampudia, his lieutenant, as soon as the capture of Cerro Gordo was discovered, he was seen with such impetuous vigor that he lost his wind-blown hat in the direction of Jalapa.
Mexico is not only a country with beautiful nature. Do not forget that a huge heritage of the Indians is concentrated here. Going to Mexico, take a couple of days to visit the pyramids. There are several historical zones in the country in which entire pyramid complexes are located. One of these zones is located near the capital of Mexico City - Teotiucan. Here you will get acquainted with the majestic buildings of the Incas and plunge into mysterious city founded before our era. Mexico is home to the second largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramids of Cholula. In diameter, it forms almost 1.5 kilometers! It has been partially excavated. Almost the entire pyramid is covered with earth; on its top there is a Catholic church built by the Spaniards during the conquest of the country. Archaeologists decided not to dig out the pyramid completely, so as not to destroy the historical temple and part of the city that was already built on it. This creation is worth a look!
They rushed, but too late, in pursuit of Santa Anna. Six thousand Mexican prisoners were more of an embarrassment than an advantage to General Scott. They were released on parole, with the exception of General Vega, who petitioned, as a favor, to be allowed to remain in American captivity. He no doubt remembered the mysterious disappearance of General Morales after defending Vera Cruz and found his life more secure in General Scott's tent than within the walls of Mexico.
From this battle must be abandoned detailed review operations, the result of which is too predictable; we must confine ourselves to defining the new position made by this victory in the occupied country, and also in the conquering army. After the day of Cerro Gordo, the only possible war between the United States and Mexico is a guerrilla war. From now on, there are no longer, as it were, two armies at the stake: there are, on the one hand, victorious troops marching from city to city without encountering any serious obstacle on their way; On the other hand, there great country in dissolution, a government without stability, without influence, a general whose brilliant memories have made all the forces and who have lost this last prestige.
Temascal is another attraction in Mexico. These are Indian dry baths. They are small clay houses, round in shape. Inside, in the center of the house, there is usually a stone of volcanic origin, which gives steam. These baths are considered healing. Often they were visited by shamans during their rituals.
Citizenship that is extinguished, a people that succumbs to the defense of its freedoms, is always a painful sight. To be sure, the Mexican nation did not display in the presence of danger the virtues recognized by great nations; has no right to our sympathy? It is the leaders of this nation who, first of all, need to demand that the sad outcome of the war be taken into account. Placed at the head of a society that was waiting for it to be rescued from a firm and sensible direction, what did they do with the elements entrusted to them?
Five Mexican generals held the fate of their country in their hands: Arista, from the beginning of the war, in Matamoros, Palo Alto and Resaca; Requena and Ampudia, in Monterey; Santa Anna, Angostura and Cerro Gordo; Morales, in Vera Cruz. The latter's mysterious disappearance, his attitude during the entire siege of Vera Cruz, evaded him any idea of cowardice or treason. So stay Arista and Santa Anna. On any of these generals, the most serious suspicions arise, which it is unacceptable to convey silently if we want to receive them with a margin.
Holidays in Mexico
Bullfight (bullfight) . It is especially popular in the north of Mexico and in Veracruz. If you want to go to a bullfight, I advise you to visit the country between November and April.
What, indeed, can we remember the short campaign led by Arista, the campaign so infamously marked by the crossing of the San Rafael Ford, which ended so sadly in the days of Palo Alto and Resaca? Treason would have had more catastrophic consequences for Mexico than these: in less than two months, thirty thousand people were killed or scattered, the road to the capital was opened and smoothed out before the invaders! To blame these huge turns of imperialism or incredible machinations, we cannot ignore the intervention of the evil genius, which is dissipated in aimless operations, in sterile struggles, on all the wealth, all the living forces of the country.
mariachi performances - are all over the place all year round. Mariachis are small musical groups dressed in National costumes. They usually play traditional Mexican or country music. They can be found on city squares, on large avenues or in cafes. Often such groups are ordered for a wedding or birthday. If desired, they can order their favorite song for a fee. Mariachi can be found not only in Mexico, but also in other regions of Latin America.
Before the people who accuse the defeated Angostura and Cerro Gordo of betrayal before the Congress, which persists in seeing him as the savior of the Republic, before the army is still dispersed under it, are always fascinated by a prestige that justifies nothing, realize that opinion fluctuates; we also refuse to formulate overwhelming indictment and be borne by fallen glory.
A sad alternative for an unfortunate nation that has not yet found among its children a hand faithful enough or strong enough to support it, or out of voice to pity it! The Americans are only a few leagues away from Mexico. Will everything end with an agreement that they will dictate to the government, which is now sitting in the capital of the republic? If, as can be doubted, the provinces coveted by the American Union fall into the hands of the Yankees, the period of adjustment will not be as bloody and disastrous as the period of conquest?
The day of the Dead - perhaps the most extraordinary, but at the same time the brightest and most widely celebrated holiday in the country. It is celebrated on the first two days of November. On this day, Mexicans remember all the dead. According to legend, on this day the souls of the dead visit the house. To receive them properly, people decorate the house with photographs of the dead, flowers, candles. On this day, you can find skeleton statues, sugar skulls in stores. This is a joyful holiday, often accompanied by carnivals.
In any case, the benefits perceived by the Union are great enough to warrant patient new sacrifices. The vast territory that she would have paid with a little gold and blood would sooner or later enter this mighty republic, which now holds in its hands the destinies of part of the New World. Without deluding ourselves with useless hypotheses about the new phases that the struggle between the United States and Mexico may enter, we subscribe to the facts that are evident from this report.
Are the plans of the Americans, as their campaign plan shows, threatening the interests of Europe? Are there elements of order and stability in the Mexican nation that can be used to prevent these projects? We must neither diminish nor exaggerate the claims that the Americans now hold in arms. In our opinion, Americans do not now need to decide on a right that would only lead to the occupation of the territory in dispute or to the completion of a conquest that would cost them more than it is useful for the time being.
Carnivals - V different regions Mexico they pass in different time starting from February to March. People dress up in different costumes, put on masks, which, according to legend, should scare away bad spirits, and march through the streets of the city, while dancing.
In the vast booty, which, so to speak, has turned into their hands, they have already marked and limited their share. If they display this excellent motto on their flag: To Montezuma's palace, only to make changes to their real projects with a bold military walk. If we recall the attitude of the American generals in the first period of the war, we cannot doubt the double intention of the Mexican victors. General Taylor represented the liberator and colonialist even more than in the army.
The insinuations of the press sought to propagate sympathies and principles favorable to the cause of the American Union. The troops of the occupying army were scattered, and the inhabitants of the country, captured by a foreign army, were accustomed to a six-month delay, and if they did not obey the most elementary rules strategy, the principles of every good colonization were accompanied by strict fidelity.
Mexican Cuisine
Mexicans are a very fiery people. They usually use hot spices, chili peppers or sauces in their dishes. If you are not a fan of spicy, you should immediately say “no picanto” when buying food. Even if the dish is declared as ordinary in its spiciness, it will definitely be with chili peppers. Pepper is everywhere: in soups, in corn, in cereals. Mexican cuisine and drinks are very diverse and very different from what our stomachs are used to. It's worth trying a little of everything.
This first part of the war, in which the attitude of the Union armies seemed a mystery to Europe, was in fact more important to American ambitions than the campaign in Mexico. The areas where the armies of the United States had so carefully made their way for their settlers were soon settled and conquered. The creation of Americans in the state of Chihuahua, so rich in copper mines, must be accepted as a fait accompli; in the state of Sonora, who recommend their many placers and gold mines; in California, and therefore in the mountain regions of Zacatecas, Durango and Bolanos, an inexhaustible source of those precious metals which give Europe movement and life.
National dishes of Mexico:
tortilla - a thin, usually corn tortilla, which in Mexico is eaten instead of bread. Meat is often wrapped in it (it turns out another dish - burrito ) or vegetables.
Quesadilla - tortilla with melted cheese.
Fajita - grilled beef with slices of tomatoes, peppers and onions.
The absolute mistress of these mines, therefore America will hold the reins of European credit in her hands; America will confiscate all its income for its own benefit and replace paper money with metallic wealth, which can then be reduced. The annexation of Texas was only a prelude to this gigantic conquest, over the scale of which it was too long in contempt. England alone is alarmed by her future export trade in Mexico, by the fate of the sixty-five mining enterprises in which she paid 10 million dollars.
Arraccheru - beef meat with rice or beans.
Tamale - cornmeal pies stuffed with meat, cheese, pepper, wrapped in corn leaves.
corn on the cob - sold everywhere. Corn comes in three varieties: yellow, white and black. Usually, corn is boiled and rubbed with salt, lime, mayonnaise, pepper or sprinkled with cheese at the request of the buyer. It turns out very tasty!
Pounds sterling, and finally on the Mexican debt, whose capital exceeds this last figure. France remained an almost indifferent spectator of this great undertaking. Given the new situation that has occurred in the presence of a dismembered Mexico from a disproportionately enlarged American Union, it would be idle to insist on what has not been done; but is there nothing to do?
If Mexico, devastated from her richest provinces, should give up all hopes of social regeneration, surely all will be said, and enslavement would be better for him than anarchy; but the question does not arise in such simple terms. In the midst of the growing disorganization of Mexican society, all signs of vitality have not yet disappeared. The symptom must be considered the existence of a party which, with all its desires, calls for the strengthening of power, even if it must be acquired through a complete change of regime.
Beverages:
Tequila, pulque, mezcal, beer, chelada (beer with salt and lime juice) and michelada (beer with salt, lime and pepper).
Also, one of the Mexican delicacies is dried grasshoppers. They are usually consumed with beer, before which they are abundantly poured with lime juice. I'll tell you the taste for an amateur, but it's worth a try.
Mexico is a country with interesting culture and colour. Here you will not have time to get bored. And what exactly to see in Mexico and where to go - read further in this section.
Mexico, United Mexican States
State structure
Legal system
general characteristics
Criminal law and process
Literature
State in the south North America.
Territory - 1958.2 thousand square meters km. The capital is Mexico City.
Population - 100.3 million people. (1999); Mexicans: 55% Spanish-Indian mestizos, 29% - Indians, 15% - descendants of Europeans.
The official language is Spanish.
The dominant religion is Catholicism.
Territory modern Mexico from ancient times it was inhabited by Indian tribes (Aztecs, Mayans, Toltecs, Olmecs, etc.), who reached high level development. From the 16th century until the beginning of the nineteenth century. - colony of Spain. Independence was proclaimed in 1821. As a result of the bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1910-1917. the foundations of the modern political and social structure of the country were laid. At present, Mexico is an industrial-agrarian country with an average level of development of capitalism.
State structure
In the form of a state-territorial structure, Mexico is a federation, which includes 31 states and the capital federal district.
The constitutional development of Mexico, unlike most Latin American states, is characterized by relative stability. According to the Constitution of 1917 (valid with subsequent changes), the form of government of Mexico is a presidential republic.
The political regime is liberal (combines elements of democracy and bureaucratic authoritarianism). The Institutional Revolutionary Party (IRP) was founded in 1929 and has been in power ever since.
Legislative power belongs to the bicameral National Congress: the Senate - 128 people elected for 6 years (half of the senators are elected every 3 years), the Chamber of Deputies - 500 deputies elected for 3 years: 300 - according to the majority system of relative majority in uninominal constituencies, the rest - through the system of proportional representation, through regional lists, which are voted on in polynomial electoral districts.
The main function of the congress is to pass laws and decrees on matters within the competence of the federation. The right of legislative initiative belongs to the President of the Republic; deputies and senators of the National Congress; state legislatures.
Any draft laws and decrees, the discussion of which is not within the exclusive competence of one or another Chamber, are discussed successively in both Chambers. A bill approved by the House in which it was introduced is sent for discussion to another. If the other House approves it, it is sent to the executive branch, which, if there is no objection, immediately publishes it. A draft law or decree rejected by the executive in whole or in part is returned with comments to the Chamber from which it originated. Further, the procedure is repeated. In this case, the project will become a law or a decree if it gains 2/3 of the total number of votes in each of the chambers. It is then published by the executive branch.
A draft rejected in its entirety by one Chamber is returned to the other (from which it originated) with appropriate comments. If, after a second discussion, it is accepted by an absolute majority of the members present, it is returned to the House that rejected it; the latter considers it again and, having approved it by the same majority of votes, directs the executive power; if the draft does not receive the approval of the Chamber, it cannot be submitted again during the same session.
The Congress is also empowered to: accept new states into the federation, form new states within the boundaries of existing states; establish taxes necessary to cover budget expenditures; determine the principles on the basis of which the executive branch may issue loans secured by the state, approve such loans, confirm the public debt; approve and abolish federal positions, determine, increase or decrease official salaries; declare war, taking into account the data provided by the executive branch; declare an amnesty for the convicted by the judicial authorities of the federation. The Constitution assigns other powers to Congress and its chambers.
The powers of the House of Representatives include: to approve the federal budget; to oversee the precise performance by the office of the Comptroller of the Treasury of its functions; to appoint directors and other officers of the Office of the Comptroller of the Treasury; consider charges brought against public officials specified in the Constitution in connection with the commission of malfeasance by them; approve the appointment of members of the High Court of the Federal District provided by the President of the Republic.
The exclusive competence of the Senate includes: to analyze foreign policy, to approve international treaties and diplomatic agreements concluded by the executive branch of the federation; approve the appointments made by the President of ambassadors, diplomatic representatives, consuls general, senior officials of the treasury, colonels and other senior officials of the national army, navy and air force; to authorize the President to send national troops outside the territory of the country, to allow foreign troops to pass through the state territory and the fleets of the powers to stay in Mexican waters for more than one month; consent to the use by the President of the Republic of the national guard outside the respective states, determining the necessary need for armed force; proclaim, in the absence of all constitutional powers in the state, the necessity of appointing an interim governor; to serve as a jury for adjudication by a political court on offenses and omissions of public officials acting to the detriment of the fundamental public interest and violating their official duties; to approve the appointments of members of the Supreme Court of the Federation, represented by the President of the Republic, as well as to grant applications for leave or resignation.
Both Houses have the power to set up commissions to investigate the activities of federal ministries, administrative departments, and state-dominated enterprises.
Between sessions of the Congress, there is a Permanent Commission consisting of 39 members, of which 15 are deputies and 14 are senators, appointed by the respective Chambers at the last meeting before the close of the session. The Chambers appoint one deputy for each member of the Standing Committee from among their members.
The Permanent Commission, in addition to the powers specifically provided for by the Constitution, has the right to: give consent to the use of the National Guard; to take, as appropriate, the oath of office for the President of the Republic, the members of the Supreme Court of the Republic, and the members of the High Court of the Federal District; to accept between sessions of the Federation Congress bills and proposals sent to the Chambers, and submit them for conclusion to the commissions of the Chamber in order to be considered at the next session; convene, on its own initiative or at the suggestion of the executive power, extraordinary sessions of the Congress or of one House, for which, in both cases, 2/3 of the votes of the members present are required; approve the appointments of members of the Supreme Court of the Federation and members of the High Court of the Federal District, represented by the President of the Republic, as well as grant applications for leave of members of the Supreme Court; approve the appointments made by the President of the Republic of ambassadors, diplomatic representatives, consuls general, senior officials of the treasury, colonels and other senior officials of the national army, navy, air force in the manner prescribed by law.
The head of state and government is the President, who is elected for a 6-year term without the right to re-election. The President of the Republic is the pivotal figure in the constitutional mechanism of state power in Mexico.
As head of the executive branch, the President directs the entire state apparatus, appoints and dismisses senior officials of the federation and the federal district, and heads the armed forces. It has been given the right to initiate legislation, and virtually the vast majority of bills discussed and approved by Congress come from the executive branch. The President has the power of veto, which has not gained popularity in Mexico because, in the actual system of relations between Congress and the President, the latter has the ability to fully control the legislative process. The president has the right to introduce a state of emergency, suspend constitutional guarantees, and realize the possibility of federal intervention in the internal affairs of the states. He issues, in cases expressly provided by the Constitution, or in accordance with the powers vested in him by Congress, decrees having the force of law.
The President exercises executive power through the federal administration, acting under the Organic Act passed by Congress. The federal administration consists of ministries headed by secretaries of state (ministers) and administrative departments.
All resolutions, decrees, resolutions and orders of the President must be countersigned by the Secretary of State or the head of the administrative department in charge of the matter; V otherwise these acts are not enforceable.
The secretaries of state and heads of administrative departments, at the opening of each ordinary session of Congress, provide it with a report on the state of affairs in their departments. Each of the Houses may call upon the Secretary of State and the Head of the Administrative Department for information on the law under discussion or on any other matter under consideration relating to their department or activity.
In the states, legislative power belongs to the House of Representatives, and executive power belongs to the governors (elected for 6 years).
Legal system
general characteristics
The legal system of Mexico as a whole belongs to the Romano-Germanic legal family, being part of its separate Latin American group. Like many other states of this group, it was formed on the basis of four legal cultures: Indian, Spanish, French and Anglo-American.
Its initial basis was the socio-normative system of the indigenous population - the Indians, which has partially survived to this day, especially in the sphere of organization and activities of rural communities. The Spanish colonizers were forced to recognize them and sanction the existence of Indian legal and pre-legal norms. In a special royal act of August 6, 1555, it was prescribed to observe "the laws and good customs that the Indians have used since ancient times for their good government", but on the indispensable condition that "they do not contradict the sacred religion and laws." At the same time, active colonial activity led to the establishment of a Spanish legal culture in Mexico, built on the traditions of Roman law and Roman legal thinking. Gradually, the norms that were in force in colonial Mexico - Spanish and neo-Spanish legislation ("Indian law") and the law of the Indians, formed a single legal body.
Having achieved independence in 1821, Mexico, like other states of the region, set about creating a national legal system. At the same time, the legislation of the former metropolis of semi-feudal Spain, but of bourgeois France, was chosen as a model. The idea of creating a logically coherent system of codified law put forward by French educators and lawyers was in tune with the liberal moods of the young Mexican bourgeoisie. However, the replacement of colonial law by modern codes was for a long time prevented by feudal-clerical circles. Only after the revolution of 1854-1857. there was a real opportunity to start the reception of French legislation. In 1854, the first Mexican Commercial Code was adopted, modeled on the French Commercial Code of 1807, replaced in 1889 by a new TC. In 1859, the government of B. Juarez issued the Reform Laws, which provided for the separation of church and state, the introduction of civil marriage, etc., and a draft civil code was developed. The first federal Civil Code of Mexico was adopted in 1870, the second - in 1884; both followed the model of the 1804 Napoleonic Code with its individualistic concept of property.
If, after gaining independence, European legislation served as a model for private law in Mexico, then the model for public law was the US Constitution, which for a long time was the only valid written republican constitution. These ideas, adopted by the Mexican legal system under the influence of North American constitutionalism, include the concept of separation of powers, checks and balances with a strong presidential power, federalism, and so on. All these ideas, previously tested in the United States, were adopted by the first constitutions of Mexico, and then developed by the Constitution of 1917.
A new stage in the development of the Mexican legal system began with the victory of the bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1910-1917, which had an anti-feudal and anti-imperialist character. The government that came to power embarked on deep social reforms in the spirit of national reformism.
The foundations of the new legal system were laid by the democratic Constitution of 1917, imbued with the spirit of anti-clericalism, etatism and ideas of solidarity. The Mexican Constitution, earlier than it was in the developed capitalist countries, recognized (Article 123) important social rights of workers: an 8-hour working day, special conditions for women and adolescents, a weekly rest day, annual holidays, postnatal leave for women, etc. .d. For the first time, the right of workers to organize in trade unions and the right to strike was proclaimed. The Constitution provided the state with the opportunity to expropriate private property in the interests of society, to actively intervene in economic and social processes, and laid the legal basis for the liquidation of latifundism. Being impressive in volume, the Constitution contains the basic principles of almost all branches of Mexican law.
A vivid reflection of the changes that took place in Mexican society after the revolution was the third federal Civil Code, adopted on May 28, 1928 and entered into force on October 1, 1932. In its content and structure, it differs significantly from the classical civil codes of Latin American countries, adopted in the second half of the 19th century. The concepts of liberal individualism, characteristic of both of his predecessors, were largely supplanted by the ideas of social solidarity.
In the development of the provisions of the Constitution of 1917, extensive reformist legislation was issued: the Labor Code of 1931, the laws on nationalization of 1938, on the agrarian reform of 1971, etc. These laws made it possible to somewhat mitigate social contradictions in Mexican society, at a certain stage contributed to industrial development of the country, strengthening its economic independence. They testified to the strengthening of the role of state power in solving key problems of economic development and social reforms. Only in the 1990s. the Mexican state began to move towards more liberal methods of regulating economic and social relations. The legislation of this period is already aimed at integrating the country into the world economy, reducing the public sector and encouraging foreign investment.
The modern legal system of Mexico adopted the structure of sources inherited from colonial law, but absorbed the ideas of the "natural" school.
The most important source of law in Mexico is the law: the Constitution of the United Mexican States, codes and current legislation. A corresponding hierarchy of legislative sources has also developed in the states.
The Mexican Constitution occupies a central place among the sources of law and serves as the basis for current legislation. Since the 19th century a peculiar system of control over the constitutionality of laws took shape in the form of the "amparo" procedure, which was later adopted by the legal doctrine and state practice of other countries of the continent. The essence of this procedure is the issuance by the court, at the request of the person, of an order to protect the rights violated by acts or actions of state bodies that are contrary to the Constitution. At the same time, the decision made by the court in cases of violation of human rights is strictly individual in nature, i.e. applies only to the plaintiff. Only in 1995 was the institution of constitutional control introduced in its classical form.
Although the Constitution of 1917 is considered the oldest in Latin America, it is not stable: since its adoption, several hundred amendments have been made to it, affecting more than half of the articles.
Mexican law, like the law of other Latin American countries, is well codified: separate codes have been adopted in almost all major branches of public and private law. The system of codes is supplemented on an increasing scale by current legislation. Laws are divided into organic, issued by direct prescription of the Constitution, and ordinary. Sufficiently large legislative powers are assigned to the states. They adopt their own civil, civil procedure, criminal and criminal procedure codes, as well as administrative and financial legislation. The conflict rule enshrined in the Constitution of 1917 provides that a contradiction between state law and federal law entails the application of a federal law rule. In recent decades, various by-laws have played an increasingly significant role among the sources of Mexican law, both at the level of the Federation and the states.
The lowest level of normative-legal regulation is constituted by municipal acts. Municipalities are empowered by the Constitution to issue, in accordance with rules to be established by the legislatures of the states, ordinances on order and good administration, as well as administrative regulations, circulars and general provisions within their competence.
The jurisprudence in Mexico, unlike other countries of Latin America and, in general, countries of the continental system of law, is recognized as a source of law. Here an institution has developed, called "binding case law", according to which the decisions of certain courts become binding on the courts of equal and lower instances. This applies, in particular, to decisions of the Supreme Court, collegiate district courts, adopted on issues within their competence and binding not only on federal courts, but also on state courts. However, such decisions are not identical to the precedents in the countries of English common law and do not mean a departure from the traditional view of the system of sources of law for the continental system of law, since they mainly concern the interpretation of legal norms.
Civil and related branches of law
In Mexico, as in other countries of Latin America, even in colonial times, the idea of dividing private law into civil and commercial was accepted. This idea has received further development under the influence of French law during the period of codification of Mexican law, when, along with the Civil Code, the Commercial Code of 1854 was adopted.
Civil law Mexico was formed on the basis of a synthesis of Spanish civil traditions and the provisions of the French Civil Code (FCC) of 1804. The Civil Code of the Mexican state of Oaxaca, three books of which were adopted respectively in 1827, 1828 and 1829, became the first independent civil code in Latin America. This code, although it borrowed the most general principles FGK followed its structure, but differed from the latter both quantitatively (in terms of the number of articles it is less than FGK) and qualitatively (to a certain extent it was adapted to the socio-economic realities of the country at that time). He was far ahead of the codification of civil law in other states of Mexico, where up to the second half of XIX V. the old colonial law was in effect (decrees of the Royal Council of Indian Affairs of 1541, decrees on Consulates of 1604, statutes of Bilbao of 1737, etc.).
The first Civil Code of Mexico was adopted in 1870 and in many respects reproduced both the Civil Code and the Code of Civil Procedure of France. The result of the reform was the new Civil Code of 1884, the volume of which was significantly reduced in comparison with the Code of 1870 due to the withdrawal from it of a large section regulating civil procedure. Both codes, created under the dominance of small property and unlimited individualism, could not meet the needs of the new Mexican society with its sharply accelerated pace of industrial development and the growing popularity of ideas of social solidarity.
Consolidating the results of the revolution of 1910-1917. The Constitution of 1917 laid the foundations for a fundamentally new regulation of property and other economic relations. Mexico became the first country in Latin America where the possibility of expropriation of private property was constitutionally enshrined. Article 27 of the Constitution of 1917 marked the beginning of the implementation of the principle social function property in the sphere of protection of the rights of individuals to real estate, in particular, land. Allowing the expropriation of private property, Article 27 emphasizes that it "may be carried out only for reasons of public benefit and subject to the payment of compensation."
Constitution of 1917 in accordance with the prevailing Mexican tradition attributed the regulation of civil law relations to the jurisdiction of the states. As a result, in addition to the federal Civil Code, the country also has civil codes in each of the 31 states, although there are no significant differences between them, since state codes tend to follow the federal model. Local Features concern only certain provisions of inheritance law, the permissible size of family property and the procedure for the transfer to the state of property left by the owner.
The current Federal Civil Code (full name "Código Civil para el Distrito y Territorios Federales") was adopted in 1928 (entered into force in 1932). It applies to persons located in the Federal county or federal territories, as well as to all persons within national territory in cases where its provisions supplement the laws of the states or when the federation is a party to a civil law dispute, as well as in certain other cases expressly specified in the law. The Civil Code consists of 4 books: I - About persons; II About things; III - On inheritance; IV - On obligations.
The Mexican Civil Code of 1928 markedly softened the frankly individualistic formulations characteristic of the codes of 1870 and 1889. It manifests a rejection of the doctrine of state non-intervention in civil law relations and emphasizes the priority of social interests over private ones, and provides for the possibility of alienating property in the public interest. To the traditional division of property into movable and immovable, he added a division into private (propiedad de los particulares) and public (dominio del poder publico). Public property is property owned by the federation, states, and municipal authorities (Article 765).
In a more progressive spirit than the previous ones, the Civil Code of 1928 regulates marriage and family relations. Quite new for Latin America of the period were the norms of the Code, equalizing spouses in property and parental rights, recognizing the rights of illegitimate children, as well as certain rights for a woman who is in actual marital relations with a man. The current Code allowed for the dissolution of a marriage a wide range grounds, including the mutual consent of the spouses (Article 267).
Land law is of particular importance in the Mexican legal system. After the revolution of 1910-1917. Mexico became one of the few Latin American countries that managed to put an end to latifundism, although agrarian reform dragged on here for many decades. The first law on land reform was adopted here back in 1915 in the course of civil war. The main content of this act determined the key areas of regulation of land relations. Chief among them was the task of returning to the Indian communities the lands that had been taken away from them in the second half of the 19th century.
The Constitution of 1917 (Article 27) invalidated the mass confiscations of public lands carried out by latifundists, the Church and foreign companies, prescribed the adoption of the necessary legislative measures for the "fair distribution of public wealth" to break up latifundia, develop small landed property, and form new agricultural communities (echidos). At the same time, the Constitution strengthened the purely capitalist order of land relations, providing that in the division of latifundia and the confiscation of surplus land, property amounting to less than 100 hectares of irrigated land could not be affected.
The system of land relations, based on the provisions of the Constitution of 1917, was enshrined in the current federal civil code of 1928. This system assumes that the original ownership of land and water within Mexican territory belongs to the nation and that it was the nation that had and still has the right to transfer land to private property. This position is fundamental for the regulation of land ownership relations in Mexico, as it secures the right of the state (nation) to impose restrictions on the rights of private owners and even to expropriate land, if such restrictions or expropriation are dictated by public interests.
In accordance with Article 27 of the Constitution, a number of special laws were adopted in Mexico aimed at implementing land reform (Law on Agricultural Regulation of 1922, agrarian codes of 1934 and 1947). Agrarian legislation provided for two main types of land tenure: private and communal. Land ownership of Indian communities (ejido) is regulated by the Ejido Law of 1920. The greatest results in the redistribution of land through the forced acquisition of them from latifundists were achieved in Mexico under Presidents Lazaro Cardenas (1936-1940) and Gustavo Diaz Ordaz (1964-1970) . By the 1970s it was decided to concentrate the accumulated normative material in a new consolidated act. In 1971, the Federal Law on Agrarian Reform was adopted, aimed, among other things, at strengthening the communal (echidal) sector of land tenure.
The commercial law of Mexico, as well as the legal system of the country as a whole, has been influenced by Spanish, French and North American legal traditions. The main source of commercial law is the Commercial Code (TC) of 1889 (currently in force in 1956), which is largely modeled on the French Commercial Code of 1807. Unlike the Civil Code of Mexico, it is an act of federal action. It was supplemented by the Patents Act 1928, the General Securities and Credit Act 1932, the General Credit Act 1932, the Industrial Property Act 1942, the Companies Act 1934, and the Banking Act. and etc.
In the 1990s trade laws are being harmonized with those of Mexico, the United States and Canada, whose economic integration is becoming ever closer. In particular, Mexican legislators significantly strengthened the legal protection of intellectual property, passing new laws on industrial property (patents and trademarks) in 1991 and on copyright in 1997. The first of these laws established the Mexican Institute of Industrial Property, an independent body dealing with the protection industrial rights.
The Mexican constitution essentially rejects the principle of state non-intervention in economic life and provides for the growth of the functions of the state in various fields public life on the basis of the so-called social partnership. According to the Constitution, the state plans, coordinates and directs activities in the field of the national economy and manages it (Article 25).
The Constitution included a number of fundamentally new for its time anti-imperialist provisions aimed at restoring state control over national resources. Thus, Article 27 states that all minerals, as well as territorial waters, are "inalienable and unconditional property" of the state. The government may cede the development of these resources (with the exception of oil and gas) in the form of concessions to private individuals on the terms established by the relevant laws. But to acquire ownership of land and water, to obtain concessions for the operation of mines, for the extraction of mineral fuel, etc. only Mexicans and Mexican companies are eligible. The Constitution, in principle, provides for the possibility of granting such a right to foreigners, but on the condition that they officially declare to the Ministry of Foreign Relations their consent to be considered Mexicans with respect to the relevant property. The Constitution for the first time in the practice of Western constitutionalism banned (Article 28) capitalist monopolies and "the monopolistic practice of restricting trade."
For decades after the revolution, Mexican governments pursued a policy of strengthening the public sector in the economy and increasing the regulatory role of the state in economic life in the interests of ensuring economic independence and accelerating scientific and technological progress. As part of this course, the government of L. Cardenas in 1938 nationalized the oil industry, owned by British and American companies, in 1981 a general law on state property was adopted, in 1982 - a Decree on the nationalization of private banks.
However, in the 1990s Mexico has chosen the exact opposite concept of a set of socio-economic reforms designed to decentralize economic management, reduce the unprofitable public sector, and "open up" the economy and entrepreneurial activity. As a result of a radical privatization program, the number of state-owned enterprises increased in the 1990s. decreased from more than 1150 to less than 200.
In 1993, the Law on Competition was adopted - the first comprehensive legislative act aimed at suppressing monopolistic activities and unfair competition, at protecting and encouraging free competition. The law established an autonomous administrative body, the Competition Commission, which is responsible for investigating, issuing administrative regulations, and suppressing anticompetitive practices. The provisions of the Law cover two main areas: monopolistic practices and mergers and acquisitions.
The Law on Foreign Investments, adopted in the same 1993, replaced the former Law of 1973, which severely limited the opportunities for foreign investors. The new Law is in line with the provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement, to which Mexico is a party. It opened up a number of sectors of the Mexican economy to foreign entrepreneurs for the first time, provided national treatment for most foreign investment, and eased the conditions for automatic approval of foreign investment projects.
The labor law of Mexico is one of the most extensive and highly developed, surpassing the legislation of almost all developing and many developed countries in terms of the amount of guarantees provided to employees. The first laws on industrial accidents in Mexico were adopted in some states (Mexico City, New Leon) as early as 1903-1906, but the true flowering of Mexican labor law is associated with the victory of the democratic revolution of 1910-1917.
The Constitution of 1917 recognized (Article 123) important social rights of workers: an 8-hour working day, special conditions for women and adolescents, a weekly day of rest, annual leave, postnatal leave for women, etc. As the Mexican labor movement continued to make progress, Article 123 was supplemented with new norms containing concessions in the field of social security, housing construction, and so on. In general, this article has been amended 47 times - more than any other article of the Constitution.
Labor legislation relates primarily to the powers of the Federation. The first Labor Code in the country was published in 1931 and consisted of about 1000 articles. In 1970, it was adopted in a new edition. Mexican labor law, following the Constitution, gives workers the right to unionize, bargain collectively, and strike. Mexican law allows the establishment of "forced unionism" in collective agreements, i.e. prohibition of hiring persons who are not members of the trade union that has concluded this collective agreement. The employer may dismiss an employee who has left or been expelled from the union. The conclusion of a collective agreement is obligatory for an employer who employs workers who are members of a trade union. Dismissal is allowed only on a very limited list of grounds. Provided 48 hour work week with one day off.
Criminal law and process
The Federal Penal Code of Mexico of 1931 is a code with traditional Spanish influence, but it reflects the concepts of positivist theory. The Criminal Code of Mexico consists of two books: 1 - The general part includes sections and chapters. In the book, including four canceled, 118 articles; 2 - The special part, which includes 23 sections, which are divided into chapters, contains 278 articles. In total, in the Criminal Code, taking into account the three final ones, there are 399 articles. This Code is valid on the territory of the Federal District in cases of general jurisdiction (general courts) and for the Republic as a whole - in cases of federal jurisdiction, i.e. in cases before federal courts. Each Mexican state has its own criminal code.
The Mexican Criminal Code contains a relatively large list of penalties and security measures, and all of them are listed without any distinction in a single article (Article 24). Some of the security measures (deprivation of rights) may be assigned for an indefinite period.
The 1917 constitution forbids punishment in the form of death penalty for political crimes and establishes that for other crimes it can only be assigned to a traitor to the Motherland during a war with foreign states, for parricide, for treacherous murder with premeditated intent or mercenary goals, for arson, kidnapping, highway robbery, piracy and grave military crimes. The death penalty was provided for in the Criminal Code of 1871, but then excluded from the Criminal Code of 1929 and subsequent codes. None of Mexico's 31 states have the death penalty in their code, and it hasn't been used in decades. The last execution took place in 1937.
According to the Constitution (Article 22), punishments that cause injury or deprivation of honor, as well as branding, beating with a whip or sticks, torture of any kind, excessive fines, confiscation of property and any other actions that are unusual and beyond the reasonable limits of punishment are prohibited.
The criminal process in Mexico combines elements of the Romano-Germanic and Anglo-American models. To a large extent, it is regulated by the norms of the Constitution of 1917, the creators of which sought to provide in this document a maximum of procedural guarantees. Other sources of Mexican criminal procedure law are the 1931 federal Code of Criminal Procedure, applicable to the Federal District and matters of federal jurisdiction, and the criminal procedure codes of the states. The Federal Code of Military Justice of 1933 is also in force.
According to Article 16 of the Constitution, an arrest or detention order can only be issued by a competent judicial authority and only on the condition that it is preceded by an accusation, prosecution or complaint of a certain act punishable by law by imprisonment, supported by testimony (under judicial oath) trustworthy person or other evidence that is reasonably likely to indicate the guilt of the accused, unless the perpetrators are caught at the scene. Only in urgent cases, when there is no judicial authority on the spot and when we are talking on malfeasance, the administrative authority, under its strictest responsibility, may order the detention of the accused with the immediate transfer of him to the disposal of the judicial authority. All search warrants, which can only be issued by the judiciary and only in writing, indicate the place to be searched, the person to be detained and the objects sought, which should limit the search procedure, after which a detailed protocol is drawn up in the presence of two witnesses proposed by the person. living in the searched place, and in the absence of this person or in case of his refusal by the bodies that conduct the search.
No detention can last more than 3 days without a warrant of arrest (art. 19). The accused must be immediately released (at his request) on bail set by the judge depending on the identity of the accused and the gravity of the crime he is charged with, provided that it does not entail imprisonment for more than 5 years, which requires only the transfer of appropriate monetary amounts at the disposal of the authorities or property security or a personal obligation of the accused sufficient as a guarantee, for which the judge is responsible (Article 20).
Despite an express prohibition in the Constitution, the practice of arbitrary arrest and illegal detention persists. The law provides that the district prosecutor cannot detain the accused for more than 48 hours without presenting him to the judge, but makes an exception for persons detained at the scene of a crime. In 1996, the federal Code of Criminal Procedure was amended to extend this exception to acts committed within the 72 hours prior to detention.
In accordance with the Constitution (Article 20), the accused has the right to have his case heard in open court by a judge or jury from among citizens who can read and write and who are residents of the locality in which the crime was committed, provided that it carries a prison sentence of more than one year. In any case, the jury considers crimes committed with the use of the media against: public order; internal or external national security.
The accused is provided with all the information that he requires for his defense and that can be established in the course of criminal proceedings.
The accused must be tried before the expiration of 4 months for crimes punishable by not more than two years in prison, and a year if the maximum sentence exceeds this term.
The accused must be given the right to speak in his own defense either alone or through a lawyer, or in one and the other way at the same time at his choice. If the accused does not have a lawyer, he is provided with a list of official defense lawyers to choose from one or more of them. If the accused does not wish to name counsel after being asked to do so, the judge will appoint one from such a list. The accused may name his defense lawyer immediately after the arrest and has the right to have him present at all procedural actions.
In November 1996, the federal Organized Crime Act was passed, which, among other changes, allows for the use of electronic surveillance tools based on a court order. The law prohibits the use of such funds in electoral, civil, commercial, labor and administrative matters.
Extradition to foreign states is regulated by the Extradition Act 1975.
Judicial system. Control bodies
The Mexican judiciary is divided into federal and state courts, which apply federal and local law respectively.
The federal judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court and is composed of collegiate district courts, unitary district courts, district courts and, under a constitutional amendment effective 1995, the Federal Jury and the Federal Judicial Council.
The Supreme Court of the Republic (Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nacion) is the country's highest court; it consists of 21 main and 5 additional members and operates as part of the Plenum or Chambers. Additional members participate in the work of the Plenum only when they replace members of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court annually elects (from among its members) a chairman who can be re-elected.
The appointment of members of the Supreme Court is made by the President of the Republic and is subject to the approval of the House of Senators (failure to decide within a certain period is also considered as approval).
District and district judges are appointed by the Supreme Court of the Republic and serve for 4 years; in the event of re-election or promotion, they can only be removed from their posts by way of impeachment (political court).
The Supreme Court of the Republic also appoints additional circuit or district judges to assist courts or juries overburdened with cases; he shall also appoint one or more of his members, or one district or district judge, or one or more commissioners, as he deems necessary or at the request of the President or any of the Houses of Congress, or the Governor of the State, solely to investigate the actions of any judge or member Supreme Court or some fact that constitutes a violation of the rights of the individual.
In 1995, Mexico passed extensive legislation on judicial reform: the selection of the majority of judges of the appellate and lower federal courts and court clerks through competitive examinations was introduced; an independent judicial council has been established to provide organizational and personnel management of the activities of federal courts (excluding the Supreme Court, which itself provides for its activities); a qualified majority of 2/3 members of the Senate was introduced for the approval of judges of the Supreme Court. The Federal Judicial Council was established already in early 1995. It appoints and dismisses federal judges and magistrates, investigates the activities of judges, applies disciplinary sanctions against them and decides on bringing them to greater responsibility.
The exclusive competence of the Supreme Court of the Republic includes the consideration of disputes arising between two or more states, between the authorities of the same state on the constitutionality of their actions, the consideration of conflicts between the federation and the states, as well as those conflicts in which one of the parties is the federation in cases established by law. The competence of the Supreme Court also includes the resolution of all disputes about jurisdiction arising between the courts of the federation, between the latter and the courts of the states, or between the courts of two states.
The Supreme Court is authorized to investigate any fact or facts that violate the popular vote, but only in cases where, in the opinion of the Supreme Court, the legality of the entire procedure for the election of one of the authorities of the federation can be called into question. The results of the investigation are communicated to the competent authorities in a timely manner.
Judicial reform in 1995 gave the Supreme Court the power to invalidate any law or by-law on the basis of its unconstitutionality (request for constitutional review can be made by 1/3 members of Congress, 1/3 members of state congresses and the Attorney General). Thus, the Supreme Court of Mexico is now the body of constitutional review.
The Supreme Court can also review (in some cases) decisions of district courts and unitary district courts, decisions of collegiate district courts in cases of "direct amparo" (i.e., issuing an order for protection of rights against final judgments, including decisions of administrative and labor courts).
The courts of the federation consider all disputes arising from: laws or actions of the authorities that violate human rights; federal laws or actions that violate or restrict state sovereignty; laws or actions of the states invading the sphere of federal authority.
The courts of the federation consider: 1) all disputes in civil and criminal cases that have arisen in connection with the execution and application of federal laws or international treaties concluded by the Mexican state. When the said disputes involve only private interests, they may, at the option of the plaintiff, be heard by judges and courts of the states and the Federal District; 2) all disputes related to maritime law; 3) all disputes in which one of the parties is the federation; 4) all disputes arising between two or more states or a state and the federation, as well as between the courts of the Federal District and the courts of the federation or one state; 5) all disputes arising between a state and one or more residents of another state; 6) all cases concerning members of the diplomatic and consular corps.
Decisions rendered by the first instance may be appealed by way of appeal to the next instance in relation to the court considering the case for the first time.
Collegiate District Courts (Colegiados de Circuito) were created in 1950 to assist the Supreme Court in dealing with the increased volume of cases. Each of these courts is composed of three magistrates who hear and decide cases for the issuance of an order for the issuance of an order for the issuance of an order for the issuance of an order of protection in respect of final decisions ("straight amparo"). They also hear appeals from district courts and unitary district courts in amparo cases.
The unitary district courts are the courts of appeal for cases under federal jurisdiction. A single sitting magistrate hears appeals against decisions of district judges, as well as some amparo cases.
The district courts (Juzgados de Distrito) are composed of a single judge and have dual jurisdiction: 1) hear applications for an order for the protection of rights filed against acts of public authorities that violate individual constitutional guarantees and are not final decisions (amparo cases in the first instance); 2) consider cases related to the application of federal laws (for example, trade disputes).
In 1995, the Federal Jury was established. It can decide questions of fact in cases referred to it by the district courts, as well as pass sentences in cases of crimes committed by the press against the public order or national security of the country.
The judicial organization that exists in the Federal District (Mexico City) is used as a model for all states. It consists of: (a) the Supreme Court of the Federal District, which hears, as an appellate instance, civil and commercial cases arising from the application of federal laws; b) courts of first instance, resolving cases requiring the application of local laws. There are specialized trial courts for civil, commercial, family, criminal, tenancy and bankruptcy cases; c) magistrates' courts having jurisdiction over petty cases.
Along with the courts of general jurisdiction in Mexico, there is an intensively developing system of administrative justice. According to the Constitution federal laws may establish administrative courts with full autonomy and empowered to decide disputes between officials of the federation or the Federal District and private individuals. Review of their final decisions in the Supreme Court is possible only in cases established by federal laws.
At the federal level, these are the Federal Councils for Conciliation and Arbitration (Juntas Federales de Conciliacion y Arbitraje) and the Federal Court of Conciliation and Arbitration for civil servants, which deal with labor cases; Court of Agrarian Justice (Tribunal de Justicia Agraria); Court of Military Justice (Tribunal de Justicia Militar); Court of Electoral Jurisdiction (Tribunal de Jurisdiccion de Proceso Electoral), etc.
Administrative courts at the state level include the Administrative Court of Disputes (Tribunal Contencioso Administrativo), Magistrates Courts (Tribunales Calificadores), etc.
The Constitution (Article 102) provides for the institution of the Federal Prosecutor's Office; Prosecution officials are appointed and dismissed by the executive branch in accordance with the law and are under the authority of the Attorney General, who must meet the qualifications for members of the Supreme Court.
The prosecutor's office supports the state prosecution in court in all cases of crimes that violate federal laws; by virtue of this, it authorizes the arrest, collection and presentation of evidence of the guilt of the persons held accountable; oversees the proper conduct of the case in court in order to expedite the administration of justice; requires the application of punishment and participates in all actions specified by law.
The Attorney General of the Republic takes part personally in disputes between two or more states of the federation, between a state and a federation, or between different authorities of the same state. In all cases in which the federation is a party, in cases involving diplomats and consuls general, and in all other cases requiring the intervention of the federal prosecutor's office, the prosecutor general participates personally or through prosecutors subordinate to him. The Attorney General of the Republic is the Government's legal adviser.
Geographic Encyclopedia
MEXICO- The United Mexican States, the state occupying the northern, widest part of the isthmus, stretching south of the US border and connecting North America with South America. In the west, the coast of Mexico is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and ... ... Collier Encyclopedia
MEXICO- UNITED MEXICAN STATES State in North America. In the north and east it borders with the United States of America, in the south with Belize and Guatemala. In the east it is washed by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, in the west by the Pacific Ocean. ... ... Cities and countries
MEXICO- (United Mexican States) a state in the southern part of North America. Independent since September 16, 1810. Capital city of Mexico City. Form of government federal: consists of 31 states and one federal capital district. States have... encyclopedic Dictionary constitutional law
Mexico- United Mexican States, state in the southwestern part of the North. America. In 1821, the independence of the Spanish was proclaimed. colonies New Spain. The resulting new state took the name of Mexico City (Spanish Mexico, Mejico) after the name of the state capital of the city ... ... Toponymic Dictionary
Mexico- (Mexico) State of Mexico, geography, history, population and cities of Mexico Information about the state of Mexico, geography, cities, history and population of Mexico, economy and political structure Contents United Mexican States,… … Encyclopedia of the investor
Mexico- United Mexican States (Mexico, Estados Unidos Mexicanos), a state in the south of North America. 1958.2 thousand km2. Population 91.1 million (1995), mostly Mexicans. Urban population 73% (1990). The official language is Spanish. ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
MEXICO- (Mexico), United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos), state of the southwest. parts of Sev. America. It borders the United States in the north, Guatemala and British Honduras in the southeast, is washed in the 3rd and south by the Pacific Ocean, in the east by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
