Realism of L. Tolstoy and its features

In 1869, from the pen of L.N. Tolstoy came one of the brilliant works of world literature - the epic novel "War and Peace". The genre of the epic novel is the creation of Leo Tolstoy. The ideological and artistic meaning of each novel scene and each character becomes fully clear only in their connection with the comprehensive content of the epic, that is, in the context of historical events. The composition of “War and Peace” is also subject to the requirements of the genre. The plot is based on historical events. Secondly, the significance of the destinies of families and individuals is revealed. The epic novel combines detailed pictures of Russian life, battle scenes, artistic narration and philosophical digressions. The basis of the content of the epic novel is events of a large historical scale, “general life, not private life,” reflected in the destinies of individual people. Tolstoy achieved an unusually wide coverage of all layers of Russian life - hence the huge number of characters. The popular idea is not that ordinary people are depicted, but that at the time of historical upheavals the nation acquires a directed movement that unites all layers of society. For T, the people are not peasants, but all Russian people opposing an external enemy, and the division occurs not along social lines, but according to friend or foe... People in “War and Peace” it is the living soul of the nation: Russian peasants, soldiers and partisans; townspeople who destroyed their property and left long-lived places: the nobility who created militias; the population leaving Moscow and showing “with this negative action the full strength of their national feeling.” The common good (victory) is portrayed by the writer as a necessary (natural) result of the unidirectional interests of many people, always determined by one feeling - the “hidden warmth of patriotism.” One of the chapters of compositions of methods for constructing a district is ANTITHESIS. Already in the title: “B and M”. two antonyms. It is war in its meaning, but peace is like 1) peace; 2) universality, the whole world; 3) peace with And short - community, community cell. Community implies commonality: everyday life, interests, economic. How is the correct model of the community device. The entire text is organized with this principle: episodes of peaceful and military life are compositionally interspersed. It shows h-ka in peacetime and wartime. The system of pers-zhey also determines the str-ru of the district. Favorite and least favorite heroes. Alive, having developed their spirit: Andrey, Pierre, Nikolai, Natasha. They are opposed to static heroes: Helen, Sonya (also contrasted to Natasha. She did not become Tolstoy’s ideal, because she is sweet, but cold (episode of a summer night) and she does not react, does not reflect). Anatol. Napoleon and Kutuzov. Eyes are an important detail of Tolstoy’s hero, a meaningful, deep look. The principle of antithesis is subject to 2 compositional nests: the War of 1805-7 and 1812. In the first war, the Russian army showed itself passively, the souls of Russians were not affected. The second is domestic, defensive. Andrey: Under Austerlitz there was nothing to defend. Don't take prisoners in Borodino, they entered my house. Composite nests yet. 1) families: family is a mirror of society. Different families are shown and they are also contrasted: 1) Families where there is a union between parents and children. Rostov, Bolkonsky. They are also opposed to each other: Rostov - absolute trust and all-consuming love. Natasha comes to her mother and tells her all her thoughts. Nikolai confesses to his father about his gambling debt, who helps him. The father dominates the Bolkonsky family. The obedience of children is built on the authority of the father. Maria is ready to learn geometry so that her father will be pleased with her. Farewell to father and Andrey. The father first gives orders if the son returns and the father has already died. Then he gives an order: I am glad that you are going to the front and will become a warrior, but it will hurt me if you die, but I will be sad if you do not behave like Bolkonsky’s son. Andrey: you shouldn’t tell me about this. These families bring up those people who will become the foundation of the Russian nation. 2) There is no connection between them. Kuragins, caragins, bergs. Kuragins - moral decay. All they do is oppose the French - they refuse the French language. The viability of each character in War and Peace is tested by popular thought. Among the people, Pierre's best qualities turn out to be necessary: strength. disdain for the conveniences of life, simplicity, selflessness, lack of egoism" He strives to "enter this common life, to be imbued with his whole being by what makes them so." Pierre feels his insignificance, the artificiality of his mental "constructions in comparison with the truth, simplicity and by the strength of the soldiers and militias seen on the Borodino field. The highest praise for Andrei Bolkonsky is the nickname “our prince” given to him by the soldiers of the regiment. The correctness of Kutuzov in his dispute with Bennigsen at the council in Fili is emphasized by the fact that the sympathies of a peasant girl are on his side Malashi.The positive traits of Natasha Rostova are revealed with particular brightness at the moment when, before the French enter Moscow, inspired by a patriotic feeling, she forces her to throw her family goods off the cart and take the wounded, and when she, in a Russian dance, delighted with folk music, shows all her strength the national spirit contained in it. The author creates many images of men, soldiers, whose judgments together make up the people's perception of the world. “People's thought” is embodied in many individualized images. Those people qualities that T. always considered to be the integral qualities of a Russian soldier - heroism, willpower, simplicity and modesty - are embodied in the image of Captain Tushin, yavl. a living embodiment of the people's spirit. Beneath the unattractive appearance of this hero lies inner beauty and moral greatness. Tikhon Shcherbaty – person. war. The spirit of rebellion and the feeling of love for his land, all that rebellion that T. discovers in the serf peasant, he brought together in this image. Platon Karataev brings peace to the souls of the people around him. He is completely devoid of egoism: meek and kind to every person. “People's thought” clearly sounds in the protest against Napoleon’s wars of conquest and in the blessing of the liberation struggle, in which the people defend their right to independence, to their national way of life. The folk is revealed in War and Peace, first of all, as universal, national. "Anna Karenina": began publishing in the magazine "Russian Bulletin" in January 1875 and immediately caused a storm of controversy in society and Russian criticism. The main thought is a family thought. Three types of family relationships. There are 3 storylines in the district: 1) the story of Anna’s adultery, the triangle Anna - Vronsky - Karenin; 2) history of the Oblonsky family; 3) the love story of Levin and Kitty Shcherbatskaya. At first glance, these storylines are loosely connected. Anna is Stiva Oblonsky's sister. Kitty is Dolly Oblonskaya's sister; Anna and Levin meet twice in the novel (at the ball, when Levin proposes to Kitty, and shortly before Anna's death). The destinies of the heroes are intertwined. These three storylines are three versions of family, human relationships and human types. The peculiarity of the composition of the novel is that in the center there are two stories that develop in parallel: the story of the family life of Anna Karenina, and the fate of the nobleman Levin, who lives in the village and strives to improve the farm. These are the main characters of the novel. Their paths cross at the end of the work, but this does not affect the development of the events of the novel. There is an internal connection between the images of Anna and Levin. The episodes associated with these images are united by contrast, or according to the law of correspondence, one way or another, complement others. The principle of concentric arrangement of large and small circles of events in the novel. Tolstoy made Levin’s “circle” much wider than Anna’s “circle”. Levin's story begins much earlier than Anna's story and ends after the death of the heroine after whom the novel is named. The book ends not with the death of Anna (part seven), but with Levin’s moral quest and his attempts to create a positive program for the renewal of private and public life (part eight). Anna and Vronsky live for love, but sensual, carnal love. Karenin for social activities, and only Levin in the novel gives the final and correct answer: a person lives for the sake of love for people. Levin is the only one in the novel who thinks about philosophical questions. He comes to the conclusion that nothing needs to be changed in the patriarchal structure of the Russian village. Anna's death leads him to think about the fragility of human existence. He, too, is visited by thoughts of death, but his love for Kitty and the child, for the whole world, saves him and establishes a balance between him and the world: he finds the meaning of life in activities for people. "Resurrection". In comparison with “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection” is new, openly social, “public”. In the structure of “Resurrection” 3 points are important: 1) the main task of the region is to artistically explore the entire existence general structure of life. The work shows various social strata: aristocracy, clergy, merchants, peasantry, military environment, English missionaries, workers, jailers. The setting is varied: Moscow and St. Petersburg, a poor village, a landowner's estate, a prison, transit stages, judicial institutions, a church, a tavern, etc. The beginning of the district is Nekhlyudov’s crime against Katyusha Maslova (seduction of a girl). The rest of the material is strung on this plot core. 2) Rn thought about sin, repentance and the revival of the nobleman Nekhlyudov. However, in the final version, something else came to the fore as a subject - the life of the offended people, in particular the innocently convicted Maslova. Maslova's trial is discussed in detail in her prison cell, as are all her meetings with Nekhlyudov. 3) The district is sharply journalistic. This is both a district review and a district sermon. The composition is single-line and is built in accordance with the main conflict. The world is divided into 2 unequal and hostile camps: the ruling classes and peasants, the urban poor, prisoners, political exiles. At the center of the story is the situation of the fall and rebirth of the heroes. The entire district excl. The first chapters are the story of the gradual internal revival of the h-ka. Katyusha Maslova is experiencing spiritual resurrection. In her life we can highlight 2 key stages: 1) Nekhlyudov’s meanness and 2) meeting with political prisoners, who believed her. Affected??? social, morals, f-fskogo x-ra. The title itself already contains all these problems. Sunday is not a day of the week, it is a capacious concept. 1) Christian meanings: spiritual rebirth (i.e. the fall of morals and the ascent of morals) Redemption. When Katya Maslova becomes a prostitute, even her name changes: Lyubka. She begins to lead a different life. The point of the trial is the beginning of the spirit of rebirth. The main character recognizes his old love. He sees in him not Lyubka, but Katya. He breaks through the wall with which she has surrounded herself and the spirit of rebirth begins. Tolstoy shows 2 ways of revival: 1) repentance, awareness. Nekhlyudov - an attempt to save another person. 2) Katya Maslova - becomes close to the revolutionaries and socialists. Her sacrificial path is serving the people. At the end of the district, when Nekhlyudov follows her into exile in Siberia. Transit points - Nekhlyudov's declaration of love, marriage proposal. She loves him, but will never allow herself to hang the yoke of the past on him. She chooses a revolutionary, he becomes her husband. “Resurrection” summed up all of Tolstoy’s TV in the 80s and 90s. On the negative side, the tasks of universal denunciation and moral preaching were achieved by this novel. For this work the writer was excommunicated from the church. Tolstoy's districts were translated into European languages during Tolstoy's lifetime. They were accepted by European readers. They had an impact on the worldview, the districts were discussed, Sunday - with an open ending, therefore there is a lot of controversy. Tolstoy had a significant influence on the tradition of the European region.

13. Creativity of A.P. Chekhov. A.P. Chekhov (01/17/1860 – 07/2/1904). 1 lane - TV 1 floor. 1880s (1879-1885). Collaborates with humorous magazines (eg “Oskolki”). Signed as: Antosha, Man without a spleen, My brother's brother, more often than not Antosha Chekhonte. During the first half of the 1880s. Chekhov works in different genres: humorous little thing(comic aphorisms, captions for drawings, parody calendars, reports, etc.) literary parody, feuilletons, anecdote, novella(“Living Goods”, “Belated Flowers”), the genre of the scene (a short humorous story, a picture from life, the comedy of which consists in conveying the conversation of the characters), comic novella (81-82): a humorous story, built according to novelistic laws, action-packed and with an unexpected resolution. (“Death of an Official” and “Fat and Thin” (1883), “Chameleon” and “I Quarreled with My Wife” (1884), “Dear Dog” and “Horse Name” (1885), “On Mortality” (1886)). The main novelistic devices: double denouement, violation of the traditions of the plot cliche, endings “contrastingly wrapped up in the beginning of the story”, ring composition, typical for a comic short story “motive of unfulfilled expectations”, etc. A special place is occupied by novella of morals, rising to biting satire. C ikle stories 1883 ode about officials, which are built on the same principle: the hero abruptly changes his behavior or says something opposite to what he was just saying out of inner conviction, “instinctively, by reflex,” automatically and instantly. "Chameleon" It was first published in the magazine “Oskolki”, in 1884 it was signed “A. Chekhonte”. Features of the genre. The action begins immediately. There are no detailed author's arguments. The part bears a special load. The plot of the story is based on a certain everyday conflict, a specific situation: the goldsmith Khryukin was bitten by a dog, and the police warden Ochumelov must resolve the conflict in the market square. Feature of the composition: the same scene is repeated several times. but it repeats itself, as in a mirror. Depending on who owns the dog, Ochumelov is ready to consider her or Khryukin to be the culprit of the incident. Little man theme. The story “The Death of an Official” shows a paradoxical situation when a small man pursues a strong one. Chekhov emphasizes in the little man a slave who has no self-esteem. A person turns into a rank. Another type of little person was developed by the author in the stories “Grief”, “Tosca”, etc. This is a humiliated, oppressed person, but retaining human dignity, for example, like the old cab driver Iona Potapov from the story “Tosca”. 2nd lane - TV in the 2nd half of the 80s - 90s. In 1885-1889. Chekhov began his professional literary career as an employee of the monthly magazines “Severny Vestnik”, “Russian Thought”, “Life”. The stories and stories “Steppe”, “Name Day” (1888), “Fit”, “Boring Story” (1889) belong to this period. During this period, the collections “At Twilight” (1887), “Innocent Speeches” (1887), “Stories” (1888), and “Gloomy People” (1890) were published. Chekhov works a lot for the theater: the play “Ivanov” (1887-1889), the one-act play “Wedding” (1889, published 1890), the play “Leshy” (1889, published 1890; then remade into the play “Uncle Vanya”), vaudevilles “The Bear”, “The Proposal”, “Anniversary”, etc. The story “The Steppe” is considered to be a transitional stage in the writer’s television. In it, Chekhov, moving away from the concrete everyday localization of his early stories, changes spatial orientations and expands his field of vision. “The Steppe” was published in 1888. In "Northern Bulletin". The main themes and problems of the story: 1) the theme of the Motherland, its endless expanses, powerful people: 2) man and nature; 3) beauty and meaning of life: 4) national happiness: Happiness is understood as overcoming, gaining life experience, mastering living space, unity with people: 5) as well as the formation of the human personality. The subtitle of the story “The Story of One Trip” indicates that the work can be perceived on two levels: external, objective, realistic, and then it is almost an ethnographic essay, in which in front of the traveling 9-year-old boy Yegorushka, one picture successively replaces another. The name “Steppe”, which absorbs a whole complex of associations, takes the narrative to a symbolic, metaphysical level. The original plot is in that. that the story intertwines two storylines: human life and the life of nature. Landscape of the story: the steppe with human destinies included in it. The steppe is a holistic image-character. The author uses the technique of correlating the hero with nature (for example, the singing peasant woman is the singing grass. Dranitskaya is a black bird, Solomon is a plucked bird). The story can be roughly divided into 3 parts: Yegorushka’s past life, given retrospectively, in memories, very briefly: Yegorushka’s future, which is still unclear. In the present there is a bare steppe living its own life. Features of the composition: each chapter makes up a special story. Compositionally, “Steppe” is built in the same way. like many of Chekhov's later stories, the beginning and end, as well as numerous repetitions, round out the narrative, forming a ring composition. Artistic features: 1) the author’s desire for maximum generalization (the steppe is the image of a yearning Motherland): 2) associativity: 3) sound painting; 4) a kind of chronotope: in the steppe, the present and the past overlap each other, time is compressed. Yegorushka makes her way from patriarchal antiquity to the world of civilization. The road in the work is a road from one space-time plane to another. This is Russian history, the history of Russia's path. In 1890, Chekhov took a trip to the island. Sakhalin, the result of which is the essay and journalistic book “Sakhalin Island” (1893-1894, separate edition 1895). In the same 1890, he bought the Melikhovo estate in the Moscow province, where he built schools, helped the poor and treated peasants, worked as a local doctor during the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893, participated in the general population census of 1897. In 1898-1900 The writer creates his most famous stories: the trilogy “The Man in a Case”, “Gooseberry”, “About Love”, as well as “Ionych” and “The Lady with the Dog”. Around 1893, a new stage in Chekhov’s work began(plays “The Seagull” (1896), “Uncle Vanya” (1897), “Three Sisters” (1900-1901, awarded the Griboyedov Prize), “The Cherry Orchard” (1903-1904)). In Vishn. In the garden in the center there is a sale of the estate. But from the first act to the end of the play, Ranevskaya’s drama immerses us in the driving process of general everyday life. The Cherry Orchard” by the representative. is a combination of comedy - “sometimes even farce,” as the author himself wrote, with gentle and subtle intrigue. While ridiculing their weaknesses and vices, the author at the same time sympathizes with them. The main conflict develops in the souls of the heroes. He concluded not in the struggle for the cherry orchard, but in dissatisfaction with life, the inability to unite dream and reality. Particular conflicts entailed changes in the depiction of the dramatic character. The author does not sharply characterize the individual's speech; rather, their speech merges into one melody. With this effect, the author created a feeling of harmony. Innovation of the playwright. The fact is that it departs from the prince of classical drama and reflects the dramatic world of not only the problems, but also the display of the psychological experiences of the heroes. Chekhov's plays became a new wave in theatrical art.

14.History, theoretical foundations and artistic practice of Russian symbolism. Poetry of A.A. Blok. Symbolism was first recognized as a new literary direction in an article by D.S. Merezhkovsky in 1893. He proclaimed 3 main elements of Russian literature: mystical content, symbols and the expansion of artistic impressionability. The word-symbol was considered as a sign with the help of which the artist comprehended the “mystical content”. Bryusov, Balmont, Sologub belonged to the generation of “senior” symbolists. Decadent moods in their work were reflected in the pessimistic perception of the world as a prison (Gippius, Sologub), in the self-deification of the “I” (Bryusov), motives of loneliness, lack of faith in life and one’s own strength. In the works of older symbolists, the apocalyptic theme associated with the image of the city clearly manifests itself. “Younger Symbolists”: A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach.Ivanov, S. Solovyov, Ellis (L.L. Kobylinsky) - came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. and acted as adherents of a philosophical and religious understanding of the world in the spirit of the late philosophy of Vl. Solovyova. The younger symbolists tried to overcome the extreme subjectivism and individualism of the older ones. Peering into the surrounding life in search of mysterious signs, many felt tectonic processes within Russian culture, Russian society, and all of humanity as a whole. The premonition of an impending catastrophe literally permeates all the lyrics of the mature Blok and A. Bely. The book “Gold in Azure” by A. Bely is imbued with the expectation of apocalyptic periods; in the books “Ashes” and “Urna” (1909), these expectations are replaced by tragic pictures of a dying Russia. And in the “City” cycle from the book “Ashes” a sign of revolution appears - a red domino, an ominous sign of an impending disaster. Main features of symbolism:- Dual world: departure from the real earthly and the creation of an ideal world of dreams and mysticism, existing according to the laws of Eternal Beauty; - Images-symbols: the language of premonitions, hints, generalizations, mysterious visions, allegories; -Symbolism of color and light: azure, purple, gold, shadows, shimmer; - The poet is the creator of ideal worlds - mystical, cosmic, divine; -Language: orientation towards classical verse, exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of syllable, attitude to the word as a code, symbolic content of everyday words. Manifestos: 1) Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature”; 2) Bryusov “Keys of Secrets”; 3) Vyach. Ivanov “Thoughts on Symbolism”; 4) Block “On the current state of Russian symbolism.” A.A.Blok(1880-1921) Blok’s early poems made up the first book, published in 1904, “ Poems about a Beautiful Lady" are multifaceted. These poems are symbolist, contrasting the mournful HERE and the beautiful THERE, the holiness of the hero's ideals, the desire for the promised land, a decisive break with the surrounding life, the cult of individualism, beauty. The plot of the cycle is the expectation of a meeting with the beloved, who will transform the world and the hero. The heroine, on the one hand, a real woman “She is slender and tall, // Always arrogant and stern.” On the other hand, before us is the heavenly, mystical image of the “Virgin,” “Majestic Eternal Wife,” “Incomprehensible.” “He” is a lover a knight, a humble monk, ready for self-denial. "She" is the ethereal focus of faith, hope and love of the lyrical hero. His second book, " Unexpected joy", made the poet's name popular in literary circles. Among the poems are "Stranger", "A Girl Sang in the Church Choir", "Autumn Wave". Blok's hero becomes an inhabitant of noisy city streets, greedily peering into life. He is lonely, surrounded by drunkards, he rejects this world that horrifies his soul, like a booth, in which there is no place for anything beautiful and holy. The world poisons him, but in the midst of this drunken stupor a stranger appears, and her image awakens bright feelings, it seems she believes in beauty. Her image is surprisingly romantic and alluring, and it is clear that the poet’s faith in goodness is still alive. Vulgarity and dirt cannot tarnish the image of a stranger, reflecting Blok’s dreams of pure, selfless love. And the poem “Autumn Wave” became the first embodiment of the theme of the homeland, Russia in Blok’s work. In Nekrasov's intonations appear in the poems - love for the homeland - love-salvation, the understanding that one’s destiny cannot be imagined in isolation from it. After a trip to Italy in 1909, Blok wrote the cycle " Italian poems", in the spring of 1914 - cycle " Carmen". In these poems, Blok remains a subtle lyricist, praising beauty and love. Through the deepening of social trends ( cycle "City"), religious interest ( cycle “Snow Mask”), comprehension of the “terrible world”, awareness of the tragedy of modern man (the play “Rose and Cross”) Blok came to the idea of the inevitability of “retribution” ( cycle "Iambics"; poem "Retribution"). Hatred of the “well-fed” world, of the ugly, inhuman features of life (the “Terrible World” cycle, 1909-16) is persistently and strongly expressed in Blok’s work. Love lyrics Blok is romantic, she carries, along with delight and rapture, a fatal and tragic beginning (sections of the cycle “Snow Mask”, “Faina”, “Retribution”, 1908-13, “Carmen”, 1914). Theme of the poet and poetry. The idea of the poet's freedom, his independence from public opinion, superiority over the crowd runs through all the early poems on the topic of creativity. poems “To Friends” and “Poets. “To the Muse” creativity is not a reward, but hard work, which often brings disappointment and dissatisfaction rather than laurels and joy. Inspiration is sent by God, but any gift must be paid for, and the poet pays with personal happiness and peace, comfort and well-being. Blok considers the main theme of his work theme of the Motherland. From the first poems about Russia (“Autumn Wave”, “Autumn Love”, “Russia”) a two-faced image of the country appears - poor, pious and at the same time free, wild, banditry. During this period, the poet created cycles of poems “Motherland” and “On the Kulikovo Field”. The ambivalent attitude towards Russia is especially vividly embodied in the poem “To sin shamelessly, uncontrollably...”. Blok paints a realistic picture of contemporary Russia. And under the lamp by the icon / Drink tea, snapping the bill, / Then salivate coupons, / Open the pot-bellied chest of drawers... But the work ends with the words: Yes, and so, my Russia, / You are dearer to me of all lands. The revolution of 1917 was reflected in the largest post-October poem " Twelve"(1918). It reflected both real events and the poet's views on history, the essence of civilization and culture. The very beginning of the poem sets the reader up for struggle; two worlds stand in sharp contrast - the old and the new, just born: Black Evening. / White snow. /Wind, wind! /A man cannot stand on his feet. Human passions and the raging elements act in unison, destroying everything that has become obsolete, personifying the old way of life. As attributes of the old way of life - the bourgeois, the lady, and the priest: There is the lady in karakul / Turned up to another... / - We were crying, crying... - / Slipped / And - bam - stretched out! And then, shaking off the fragments of a lost society, twelve people walk. Who are they - builders of the future or cruel destroyers, killers? Blok used many symbols in his poem: names, numbers, colors. The leitmotif of the poem appears from the first bars: in the gap and opposition of “white” and “black.” Black color is a vague, dark beginning. White color symbolizes purity, spirituality, this is the color of the future. The image of Christ is also symbolic in the poem. Jesus Christ is the messenger of new human relationships, an exponent of holiness and purifying suffering. For Blok, his “twelve” are real heroes, since they are the executors of a great mission, carrying out a holy cause - a revolution. As a symbolist and mystic, the author expresses the holiness of the revolution religiously. Emphasizing the holiness of the revolution, Blok places the invisible walking Christ before these “twelve”.

15.Acmeism in Russian literature: main representatives, aesthetic program, artistic practice. Plaziya A.A. Akhmatova. Acmeism as a literary movement emerged from symbolism; the emergence of the movement dates back to the early 1910s. The formation of the new movement takes place first in the “Society of Admirers of the Artistic Word” (“Poetic Academy”), and then in the “Workshop of Poets” created in 1911, headed by N. Gumilyov and S. Gorodetsky. The most prominent representatives of the new trend included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, S. Gorodetsky, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut. Later they were joined by G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup. The Acmeism program was proclaimed in such manifestos as: 1) “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” by N. Gumilyov; 2) “Some trends in modern Russian poetry” by S. Gorodetsky; 3) “Morning of Acmeism” by O. Mandelstam. The organs of the new trend were the magazines “Apollo” (1909-1917), created by the writer and historian S. Makovsky, and “Hyperborea”, founded in 1912 and headed by M. Lozinsky. The current has gotten three non-identical names: “acmeism” (from the Greek acme - flowering, peak, tip), “Adamism” (on behalf of the first member of Adam) and “clarism” (beautiful clarity). The philosophical basis of this movement was pragmatism (philosophy of action) and the ideas of the phenomenological school (which defended the “experience of objectivity”, “questioning of things”, “acceptance of the world”). Among their literary teachers, the Acmeists singled out F. Villon (with his appreciation for life), F. Rabelais (with his inherent “wise physiology”), W. Shakespeare (with his gift of insight into the inner world of the human race), T. Gautier (a champion "impeccable forms"). Also the poets E. Baratynsky, F. Tyutchev and Russian classical prose. The artistic principles of Acmeism were entrenched in his poetic practice: 1) active acceptance of multi-colored and vibrant earthly life; 2) rehabilitation of a simple objective world that has “shapes, weight, time”; 3) a primitive bestial, courageously strong view of the world; 4) denial of transcendence and mysticism; 5) focus on the picturesqueness of the image; 6) transfer of psychological states with attention to the bodily principle; 7) expression of “longing for world culture”; 8) attention to the specific meaning of the word; 9) perfection of forms. The fate of Acmeism is tragic. He had to assert himself in a tense and moral struggle. He was persecuted more than once. The tragic fate of A. Akhmatova, and the death of Mandelstam (died in a hospital barracks in the camp), Narbut (was shot at a quarantine transit point). The first victim was the leader of the movement, N. Gumilyov (he was shot). Anna Andreevna Akhmatova(surname at birth - Gorenko; 1889-1966) - one of the most famous Russian poets of the 20th century, writer, literary critic, literary critic, translator. Akhmatova was one of those who acted as a representative of the new movement of Acmeism (from Symbolism). In her early poems, the world around her is depicted clearly, vividly and objectively accurately. “I don’t need my legs anymore...” Object-figurative expressions: water column, coolness, the heroine grabs the seaweed with her hand. She sees in front of her a bridge as distant as her former lover. The layer of water is dense and heavy; above the water there is light smoke, into which her soul turns. The main theme is love. Dramatic moment: separation, approaching separation. Portrayed psychologically accurately. Collection "Evening".“I clenched my hands under a dark veil,” “I put the glove from my left hand on my right hand.” Uses a detail-thing, a detail-gesture. Collection "Rosary" 1914. The theme of love expands, while there is a complete rejection of the indifferent and frivolous attitude towards love, psychologism deepens, and a rejection of hedonism (sensual pleasures). “I escorted my friend to the front.” Then 1917. Collection “White Flock” and “Plantain”. Poems dedicated to the beginning of the 1st World War. "In memory of July 19, 1914." “Prayer” the heroine is ready to sacrifice everything so that the cloud over Russia becomes a cloud. Akhmatova did not accept the 1917 revolution in February and rejected the October one. “There was a voice for me, it called comfortingly” poem-voice monologue + author’s remarks. This form is more complex than all previous verses. The theme of emigration is “to leave or to stay?”. Akhmatova remains. “I am not with those who abandoned the earth to be torn apart by the enemies.” Positions: 1) those who abandoned the earth at a difficult moment - contempt; 2) “I always feel sorry for the exile” not of his own free will, they were expelled - pity; 3) those who remained, even on the verge of disaster, count themselves. In the early 20s, Akhmatova was forced to refuse to publish her poems, because... comes into conflict with the totalitarian regime. He is engaged in translations, the life and works of Pushkin. In the 1930s he wrote a series of poems, which he later combined into poem "Requiem". sources: Akhmatova’s personal tragedy (the arrest of her son), the execution of Nikolai Gumilyov, the repression of Akhmatova’s second husband. We are talking about the general grief of the totalitarian regime, the grief of all Russian women on “this side of the prison bars.” "Instead of a preface." 3 plot layers: 1) personal grief of a mother who lost her son; 2) the grief of thousands of Russian women; 3) the grief of the Mother of God losing her son. Themes of life, death, madness, memory, monument are intertwined. The mother suffers so deeply that she calls for death, but madness comes. She is glad for him, because madness kills memory and frees her from suffering. A woman who is a mother can allow herself to forget, but a woman who is a poet cannot. She needs to preserve the memory of these “frenzied years.” In the epilogue of the poem, the theme of memory turns into the theme of a monument. 2 questions: 1) will they remember me, 2) why exactly. “And I pray not for myself alone, but for everyone who stood there with me.” The monument is not to her, but to thousands of women who have lost loved ones. Place the monument “here, where it stood for 300 hours and where the bolt was not opened for me.” During the war, Akhmatova lived in St. Petersburg. Collection "Wind of War". The tragedy of the Leningrad blockade. “Oath” and “Courage” 1942 Akhmatova addresses the Russian intelligentsia. It is necessary to preserve Russian culture, the Russian word. Mature creativity “Poem without a hero.” Action in 1913 in Petrograd. This is a kaleidoscope of life in a ghostly, fantastic city. The central event is a theatrical masquerade. There are a lot of allegories here. Lots of allusions to real people. Fragmentary episodes. In the life of the city, as at this ball, masks dominate instead of people. However, real drama ensues. A dragoon cornet with poetry committed suicide under the doors of the calambina, which rejected him. This plot is projected onto the life of an entire era. frivolous, superficial and tragic. There is a hero in it - a lyrical heroine who, from the heights of the 50s, looks back to her youth in 1913. And on the one hand, he admires this time, and on the other, he understands that it was then that something important was missed, which led the country to disaster. In Akhmatova’s mature lyrics, the theme of creativity develops in a new way. She explores those secret motives that lead to the creation of poetry collection “Secrets of the Craft”. Cycle "Northern Elegies". biblical and evangelical motifs. She had to endure two disgraces. During her second disgrace, she died in 1966.

16. Russian futurism: futurist groups, main representatives, manifestos, artistic practice. Poetry of V. Mayakovsky. Futurism (from Latin - future) arose almost simultaneously in Russia and Italy.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde movements in European art of the early 20th century. Russian futurism arose in 1910-1911. as an original artistic movement. Its history consisted of a complex interaction and struggle of 4 main groups: “Gilea” (Cubo-Futurists), “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Centrifuge”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”. The earliest and most radical was “Gilea”, whose participants in numerous collections (“Zadok of Judges”, 1910; manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, 1912; “Dead Moon”, 1913, etc.) and speeches primarily defined “the face of futurism " In “The Slap of Public Taste,” the futurists proclaimed a revolution of form independent of content. The call for a revolution in form stemmed from the first and main postulate of the futurists - about art as life-creativity, about the subjective will of the artist as the decisive and main engine of human history. The coming revolution was desired because it was perceived as a massive massacre. an action that involves the whole world in the game. After the February revolution, ft. The "Gileans" formed an imaginary "Government of the Globe". Software for ft. became shocking to the average person (“A slap in the face to public taste” - manifesto). F. was most afraid of indifference. A necessary condition for its existence was the atmosphere of literature. scandal. Optimal cheat. reaction to TV ft. there was aggressive rejection and hysterical protest, which was provoked by extremes in the behavior of the foot. (Malevich appeared with a wooden spoon in his buttonhole, Mayakovsky in a woman’s yellow jacket, Kruchenykh wore a sofa cushion on a cord across his shoulder). The principle of their work is the principle of “shift”, which was transferred to the literature of their avant-garde painting. Lexical renewal was achieved by depoetizing the language, introducing stylistically inappropriate words, vulgarisms, etc. terms. The word is ft. lost its halo of sacredness, it became objectified. Syntactic. displacements appeared at feet. in violation of the laws of logical compatibility of words, refusal of punctuation marks. Great value ft. gave the visual impact of the text. Futurists advocated the destruction of the conventional system of literary genres and styles and insisted on unlimited “word creativity and word innovation. The creation of original neologisms is a common feature in the works of such dissimilar poets as I. Severyanin and V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayak-ii and A. Kruchenykh. A bright innovator in the field of language was V. Khlebnikov, at the beginning of 1920. he introduced a special term to designate such a language - “zaum”, “abstruse language”. Calling for Pushkin and other classics to be thrown off the ship of modernity, the Futurist poets were unable to break the ties that connected them with the primordial traditions of Russian culture. The traditions of Russian futurism started from the poetics of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” through the odic poetry of the 18th century. (G.R. Derzhavina), classical poetry of the 19th century (A.S. Pushkin), decadence of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. and through the poetry of symbolism. Mayak- a poet of accented verse with a distinct oratorical intonation (in the text there is no regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. In long lines with stressed syllables, from 1 to 6 unstressed syllables are placed). At the same time, there is a rhyme; Mayak-go's rhyming thinking was generally strict and original. Early lyrics. City theme. The idea of urban civilization as a second, man-made nature, which h-k created around himself in contrast to the first. The poem “To Signs”, the theme of which is “new urban beauty.” “Iron Books” - street signs on tin - are indeed intended for reading. The subject of poetic inspiration here is the city, which is beautiful because it was created for the purpose. Theme of loneliness. The main topic becomes psychological condition his lyrical hero, the cat; despite the cordiality of the signs, he feels like he’s in a big city lonely. This hero is drawn from books, from indoor life to the street, to people. However, in the restaurant you can see a chewing creature. It was to him that Mayak addressed in verse "Here!":“In an hour from here into a clean alley / Your flabby fat will leak out.” The city is inhabited not by people, but by a crowd, which Mayak contemptuously calls “a hundred-headed louse.” The main opposition of early creativity: I - you (“Could you?” 1913); he has so far romantic shit, reflects duality.“Listen!”(] 914): spitting pearls. War theme (“War has been declared”, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”). Compassion for the victims of war. "To you!" - political continuation of “Here!” Satirical theme- Parody hymns (to dinner, to the scientist, to the critic, to the judge) "A cloud in pants" (1915), which brought him real fame. The Lighthouse rebellion is addressed to the Creator, cat. created love-torment, love-suffering. The hero of Mayak-go claims to curtail God, declaring Him “a half-educated, tiny big thing.” This is how the grandiose idea of remaking the universe grows. But the only carrier of rebellion is the poet’s lonely “I.” The riot happens in his mind, unfolding like one big metaphor. A challenge thrown to the sky: “Hey, you! Sky! Take off your hat,” remains simply unheard. The conflict stated in “Cloud in Pants” was deepened and developed in the poems “Spine Flute” (1915) and “War and Peace” (1916), where the preaching of a harmonious world order by the forces of the h-ch himself was combined with the readiness of the hero Mayak-go sacrifice yourself for the sake of the future. This collision was brought to its complete exhaustion in the poem “Ch-k” (1916-1917), the final, final project of the pre-revolutionary Mayak. Revolution The lighthouse was greeted with enthusiasm. During the revolution and the civil war, he renamed the Cubo-Futurists into Comfutists (communist-futurists). Then he created LEF - the left front of the movement, which, in his opinion, was supposed to unite the leaders of the Kura who were close to the revolution - not only writers, but also musicians, artists, theater and film directors. Then LEF was not enough for him, he wanted to become “to the left of LEF”, and he created the “New LEF”. Then he once again reformed his group and renamed it REF - the revolutionary front of art. Z poet's wish- put into poetic form a political slogan, propaganda poster, trade advertising, current information, satirical feuilleton, write odes in honor of the leaders of the Bolshevik Party and revolutionary holidays. In the first post-October verses, Mayak calls his poems marches And orders:“Our March”, “Left March”, “Order for the Army of Arts”, “Order No. 2 for the Army of Arts”. Mayak's poems in the first post-revolutionary years sound like an oratorical speech at a rally. The “I”, to whom one prefers, almost disappears from his poems. "We". Mayak speaks as if on behalf of a new breed of people, cat. brought to life by the revolution. In 1918 he writes play "Mystery Bouffe". Mystery is a square dramatization of biblical stories, and the word “Buff” refers to the tradition of a cheerful circus performance. Two levels, sublimely religious and comically circus, determined the style and poetics of this piece. The scene of action is declared to be “the entire universe,” which the ark plows in search of the “Promised Land.” This turns out to be the “Communar World”, that is, the land rinsed by the revolution - the “holy washerwoman” - and turned into a universal Commune. Following “Mystery,” he wrote the heroic poem “150 million” (1919), inspired by the prospects of the approaching world revolution (the revolutionary fire in 1919 was already burning in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Germany). The main character of the poem - the one hundred and fifty million people of Russia, united in the “united Ivan”, crushed the stronghold of the world bourgeoisie - America. M wrote 2 satirical plays “Bedbug” and “Bathhouse”. In the play “The Bedbug” of 1929, the poet declares an irreconcilable war on philistinism in all its manifestations. “Former worker, former party member, now groom,” Prisypkin, who renamed himself Pierre Skripkin, reveals his philistine essence in actions and speeches. The inhabitants of the “young people’s” hostel, people from the future, into which the viewer finds himself along with the characters of the play, perceive Prisypkin and the microbe of philistinism, with which he is amazed, as phenomena incompatible with the laws, views, way of life of the new society. va. The mercilessness in exposing philistinism gives the play a combative, offensive character. The play “Bath” (1930) is aimed at an equally dangerous phenomenon - bureaucracy. The play is a fusion of dreams and reality, an interweaving of the present and the future. This is achieved by using fiction, which is woven into the real life of the inventor Chudakov and his comrades. The whole action comes down to the struggle for the time machine created by Chudakov, which will allow him to see the future, to be convinced of the reality of the dream, which is brought closer every day by the selfless work of thousands of people. The acute conflict between the real builders of the new society and Pobedonosikov, who stands in the way of the society to the future, is growing into a decisive battle between the new norms of life and bureaucracy, with Pobedonosikovism. The fantastic nature of the plot allows the poet to show the unacceptability of bureaucratic principles for the society of the future: the time machine throws out those “who are not needed for communism.” Political acuity in the formulation of the problem, accuracy of the poetic word, ingenuity in creating stage action are the distinctive features of this play by M.

17. Main trends in the development of Russian realism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries: main representatives, artistic practice. Creativity of I. Bunin. Realism in RL belongs to the ageless and eternal phenomena, and at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, he is experiencing a powerful rise. In Tolstoy: the poem “Resurrection”, “Father Sergius”, “The Devil”. Chekhov: the play “The Cherry Orchard”, the stories “The Bishop”, “The Bride” (1903). Later, a group of young writers entered Russian literature, continuing the traditions of classical realism. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky, I.A. Bunin, B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev. The work of these writers uniquely reflected the interaction of the realistic method with the new trends of the era. In 1902, Gorky became one of the organizers of the publishing partnership “Znanie”, and in 1904 he began publishing collective collections of prose and poetry. At the center of the work of the Znanievo writers was the theme of intense resistance of the h-ka to the social evil surrounding him, the theme of the awakening of consciousness, the formation of personality. L. Andreev, I. Bunin, V. Veresaev, S. Gusev-Orenburgsky, A. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, M. Gorky and others collaborated in nineteen collections of “Knowledge” that appeared in 1904-1907. I. Bunin (1870-1953). TV developed in two directions: poetry and prose. Symbolist poetry with the influence of impressionism. The prose is realistic. Bunin began his literary career as a poet. His earliest poem is dated 1883. At first he was a student of Nikitin, Koltsov, and partly also of Nekrasov. Bunin followed them in developing peasant themes, adopted the motifs of their lyrics, and imitated the structure and rhythm of their poems. While at the gymnasium, in January 1886 he wrote the poem “In the Village Cemetery” - about the hard lot of the Russian peasant. characteristic of one of Bunin’s first poems to appear in print, “The Village Beggar” (1886). In its center is the mournful image of an old peasant, a homeless sufferer, overcome by too much need, forced to live out his days on beggarly alms. We find sad thoughts about the homeland in a number of poems “Motherland” (1891), “Motherland” (1896). Gradually, nature became for Bunin that healing and beneficial force that gives a person everything: joy, wisdom, beauty, a sense of infinity, diversity and integrity peace, a sense of unity, kinship with him. Recreating pictures of Russian nature and the image of the Motherland, the poet cannot free himself from the feeling of grief. “Yes, my native land is not happy now!” - he exclaims in the poem “In the Steppe” (1889), merging together the feeling of his homeland and the feeling of grief for it. In 1903, the Academy of Sciences awarded Bunin the Pushkin Prize for the poetry collection “Falling Leaves” (1901) and the translation of “The Song of Hiawatha” (1896) by the American poet G. Longfellow, based on the tales of North American Indians (in 1909 the Academy of Sciences would choose Bunin as its honorary member). In 1903-1908. mournful poems arose about modernity, about Russia, where everything was shifting - “the great and the vile,” despotism and slavery, humility, heroism and cruelty. Printing the short poetic cycle “Rus” in 1908, Bunin reveals the complex, contradictory world of Russia. The poem that closes it, “Wasteland,” is perhaps Bunin’s most socially acute poem of those years. The theme of the people and their suffering is combined with the lyrical and mournful voice of the author. Bunin's realistic poetry was associated with the motives, moods, images and themes of his prose. Bunin turned to fiction at the age of sixteen. The unfinished sketch “The Lark's Song” and the fairy tale “The Light of Life” (1886 - 1887) were a kind of lyricism in prose; in which an attempt is made to express the youthful rapture of the beauty of nature, passionate but vague dreams of happiness, and creativity. Bunin’s first love story “Infatuation” (1886 - 1887) is also full of lyrical animation; the entire narrative bears the imprint of bookish imitation. The theme of first love is in the plot of the story “First Love”. Young Bunin acted as a “writer of the offended and oppressed.” Bunin's earliest epic works, such as the story "Nefedka" (1887) or the essays "Two Wanderers" (1887 - 1889) and "Convulsive" (1891), introduce the reader to the world of the village poor, beggars, tramps, lonely wanderers, the destitute, the homeless people The theme of the moral responsibility of the noble intelligentsia to the people was raised in the stories “Tanta” (1893), “News from the Motherland” (1895). In many works, the writer shows the desolation of the noble estate, the savagery of its last inhabitants (“In the Field”). In his stories, novellas, and poems, Bunin shows the whole range of problems of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The main theme of the early 1900s was the theme of Russia's fading patriarchal past. The stories “Antonov Apples”, “Pines”, “Zakhar Vorobyov” and others were written. They capture the beauty of Russian nature, the tragedy of a poor, disadvantaged people. We see the most vivid expression of the problem of the collapse of the foundations of noble society in the story “ Antonov apples" Bunin regrets Russia's fading past, idealizing the noble way of life. Bunin’s best memories of his former life are saturated with the smell of Antonov apples. The stories “The Good Life”, “The Mister from San Francisco” and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. In the mid-1910s, he moved away from the theme of Russia's patriarchal past to criticism of bourgeois reality. The stories “The Good Life”, “The Mister from San Francisco” and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. Bunin describes in great detail the luxury that represents the true life of the gentlemen of modern times. At the center of the work is a collective image of an American bourgeois millionaire who does not even have his own name, since no one remembered it. The consumer society has erased everything human in itself, the ability for empathy and condolences. Bunin perceived the October Revolution as a social drama. In 1920 he emigrated to France. There he continues his creative activity, creates the autobiographical novel “The Life of Arsenyev”, the stories “Mowers”, “Lapti”, writes a cycle of short stories “Dark Alleys”. In the collection " Dark alleys"The main theme is love. The book “Dark Alleys” is a whole gallery of female portraits. Here you can meet girls who have matured early, and self-confident young women, and respectable ladies, and prostitutes, and models, and peasant women. Female characters play the main role in the stories, male characters are auxiliary, secondary. More attention is paid to men's emotions and their feelings. The stories amaze with the variety of shades of love: the simple-minded but unbreakable affection of a peasant girl for the master who seduced her (“Tanya”); fleeting dacha hobbies (“Zoyka and Valeria”); a short one-day novel (“Antigone”, “Calling Cards”); passion leading to suicide (“Galya Ganskaya”); simple-minded confession of a minor prostitute (“Madrid”). The heroine of the story “Cold Autumn”, who lost her fiancé, loves him for thirty years and believes that in her life there was only that autumn evening, and everything else was an “unnecessary dream”. In the story " Sukhodol"The writer reconsiders the tradition of poetizing estate life. The ideological orientation of the work is contradictory, for Bunin, truthfully depicting the horrors of serfdom, the cruelty and degeneration of the owners of the estate, at the same time strives to substantiate the idea of the blood unity of landowners and peasants, of the special closeness of their way of life and psyche. The Sukhodolsk chronicle is refracted through the perception of the former serf Natalia. She is submissive to her masters, incapable of condemnation and protest. The Khrushchevs are reputed to be the kindest gentlemen. On the other hand, they keep their peasants at bay. There are many oddities in the Khrushchev family: the grandfather, Tonya and Natalya are going crazy, either from boredom or from love. The house of the pillar nobles is gloomy and gloomy, like the life of its inhabitants. It seems that the Sukhodol residents live in isolation from the outside world. In the entire village there is the same desolation as in their souls, the death of old Khrushchev, killed by Gevraska, is predetermined by fate itself. Women, living out their lives, live only with memories of the past. Above the novel Life of Arsenyev“Bunin worked for a long time, with breaks. Novel is constructed as a free lyrical-philosophical monologue, where there are no usual heroes, where it is impossible to highlight the plot in the usual sense on the left. But “The Life of Arsenyev” is not just a lyrical diary of distant days. The first impressions of childhood and adolescence, life in the estate and study at the gymnasium, pictures of Russian nature and the life of the impoverished nobility serve only as a canvas for Bunin’s philosophical, religious and ethical concept. Autobiographical material is transformed by the writer. A huge mosaic picture of Russia is made up of many miniatures. “The Life of Arsenyev” is dedicated to the journey of the soul of a young hero who perceives the world with an unusually fresh and acute perception of the world. A passionate and deep feeling permeates the last, fifth book of the novel - “Lika”. It was based on the experiences of Bunin himself, his youthful love for Varya Pashchenko. Time is powerless to kill a true feeling. “Recently I saw her in a dream - the only time in my entire long life without her” - this is how “The Life of Arsenyev” ends. In the novel, death and oblivion recede before the power of love, before the heightened sense - of the hero and the author - of life. After being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933, Bunin became a symbol of Russian literature throughout the world.

18.Creativity of S. Yesenin. Issues. Artistic originality. S. Yesenin (1895-1925) Born in the Ryazan province into the cross family. He studied at the zemstvo school in the village. Konstantinov, church-teacher's office in Spas-Klepiki, moving to Moscow. This is the peasant elite! There he worked as an assistant proofreader at Sytin's printing house, attended meetings of the Surikov circle and lectures at the Shanyavsky People's University. (The Surikov circle was founded in 1872 by the famous peasant poet Ivan Zakharovich. Surikov as a literary association of writers from the people). His early poems were rehashes of Koltsov, Nadson, and imitative developments of folklore motifs and genres. There was a lot of bad taste and provincialism in them. Quite quickly I realized their limitations. An important point is getting to know Blok and Klyuev. Blok gave him a recommendation, and at the end of 1915 Yesenin published his first book of poems in St. Petersburg - “Radunitsa”. Soon he was warmly received in St. Petersburg salons, and critics started talking about him as “Ryazan Lele.” The first period of TV-va E. (1914-1916) called Kitezh. (Klyuev attracted E. to the role of a salon poet: it is necessary to play the role of a “shepherdess” - boots, a jacket, a peasant talk. 1) Klyuev took into account the emerging fashion for everything “national”, thereby hoping to win a place in the literary environment. 2) Klyuev, who considered himself a representative of the ancient Russian nation, called E. to go to the people from the spoiled city center). Yours of this period reflects the sacred Russian dual world. In everyday life, he is a pagan, but he believes in Christ and goes to church. In the center of Yesenin’s world is “blue” Rus', a peasant hut with images (“In the Hut”). The main motive is grace (“Black, then smelling howl!”). The landscape is static; built on metaphor. Christ walks among people and calls the hero into the oak groves. The lyrical hero of E.’s early poems most often appears in 2 forms: 1. pilgrim, walking through the fields and forests of Rus' with secret faith in Jesus and the Mother of God and 2. Pagan shepherd (shepherd-shepherd, he is involved in the works of Christ): I pray at the dawn, I take communion by the stream. Pagan and Christian merge in the image of “double feeling.” An example of double feeling is the poetry of early E. "Song of the Dog" (1915), in which the whelping red bitch appears almost as the Virgin Mary. Her puppies are drowned, and one of them, like a red moon in the sky, turns out to be taken to heaven. The dog's tragedy is projected onto the gospel story. Second period - 1916 - 1919. Yesenin is a utopian. the search for an ideal - the kingdom of universal happiness, earthly paradise. The idea of Russia-Inonia, another Rus' (land of ancestors, mythological eternity). In the small poems “Comrade”, “Singing Call”, “Otcharya”, “Advent”, “Transfiguration”, “Rural Book of Hours”, “Inonia”, “Jordanian Dove”. He talks about God's chosen country, Russia, cat. should become an earthly paradise. Christ is close to the Russian revolution - he was born in a manger and a peasant took him into his callous hands. In the poems and poems of this period, the image of the baby Jesus and, in parallel, the image of the calving sky are important: “The calving sky licks the red heifer.” A new Russia is born and brings to the world the Third - peasant - testament. The new god is a peasant god, a cow god, without a cross and torment, so it sounds like blasphemy: “I spit out the sacrament.” 1918 gr.war - conflict with Klyuev, lost faith in utopia. Dystopia. In the poem “Mare's Ships,” the Third Testament turned into a pestilence. Horses are dying on city streets - Apocalypse: “mad glow of corpses”). Who is to blame? Element of October (Metaphor: the October wind will consume the groves). He renounces the February and October illusions. 1919 own poetic manifesto - “The Keys of Mary”. In “The Keys of Mary” he wrote about the ancient ch-ka and its mythology, the secret of which was known to the ancient Slavic culture of shepherds and farmers. This art was connected with the sky. The remains of this culture are preserved by the Russian village (This is peasant folklore - the basis of Russian imagery), cat. in the era of bourgeois, “urban” civilization, it dies “like a fish splashed out on the shore of the earth by a wave.” Meets Anatoly Mariengof and Vadim Shershenevich. ( approximately 1920-1924 Imagist period) Imagists affirm the idea of the intrinsic value of the image in poetry (the content is the cecum of art). The image is built on logic, talent and intuition are dubious things. The category of beauty was also banished, anti-aestheticism and the physiological nature of the image were welcomed. In a certain sense, Yesenin followed these principles: “The sun grows cold, like a puddle that a gelding has made,” “Over the groves, like a cow, the dawn lifted its tail.” The “Imagist” period of E.’s creativity begins with the transformation monk and shepherd into a hooligan. 1920 poem “Hooligan”, “Confession of a Hooligan”. In them, not only the lyrical hero changes, but also the landscape, the cat. becomes uncomfortable, gloomy, hostile. Yesenin strengthens the motive of his rejection, calling himself a robber, horse thief, thief, boor, charlatan, brawler. But at the same time he emphasizes in every possible way that at heart he remained as before as a village hick. In 1920 he began working on the dramatic poem “Pugachev,” but he was interested in Nestor Makhno, who was then called the new Pugachev. But writing a poem about him was too dangerous. E. saw in Makhno the possibility of a third way in the revolution, but it collapsed. 1922-1923 cycle of poems “Moscow tavern.” (MK)(feeling of hopeless impasse) Paradoxical combination of the theme of drunken decay with amazing poetic power. The disintegration in “MK” is Asian-style, cruel and rampant. One of the most expressive poems of the cycle ended like this: You, my Scattered... Scattered... Asian side. The lyrical hero E is just as cruel in this cycle. Purification for the hero of “MK” could only come through death and a religious return to the lost national soil. “Soviet Rus'” in the works of S. Yesenin E. greeted the revolution enthusiastically. At first he talks about God's chosen country of Russia, cat. should become an earthly paradise. In the poems and poems of this period, the image of the baby Jesus and, in parallel, the image of the calving sky are important: “The calving sky licks the red heifer.” But the civil war cooled the ardor. In the poem “Mare's Ships,” Paradise turned into pestilence. Horses are dying on city streets - Apocalypse: “mad glow of corpses”). Who is to blame? Element of October (Metaphor: the October wind will consume the groves). He renounces the February and October illusions. He was close to the Essayers. He considered Makhno's Republic as a new path for Russia. After traveling to America, In 1924-1925 An attempt to overcome one's discrepancy with reality. "I accept" concept. He makes a peacemaking gesture towards the Bolsheviks and tries to join the new Russia. E. writes a kind of small lyrical trilogy - “Return to the Motherland”, “Soviet Rus'”, “Departing Rus'” - in which for the first time he turns to the life of the Soviet village. The language of E.’s utopia is alien to this village, which gave rise to a bitter confession: “The language of my fellow citizens has become like a stranger to me, / In my own country I am like a foreigner.” Or, as he summed it up in another verse: “Who am I? What am I? Is it just a dreamer, / Lost the blue of his eyes in the darkness.” He writes about “steel Rus'”, about how he wants to “lift up his pants and run after the Komsomol.” In “Letter to a Woman,” E. is generally inclined to condemn himself for staying away from the struggle for the future, efforts to speak up for the new tongue. Yesenin's last major works are of a final nature. In 1925, one after another, he wrote the cycle “Persian Motifs”, the poems “Anna Snegina” and “The Black Man”. In “Persian Motives”, a conventional, invented Persia arises - a country of poetry and love, an illusory world of peace and silence. In “The Black Man,” the subject of the image was an empty, devalued life, in the face of which the poems are exposed as something illusory and deceitful. The poet's double, the Black Man, confesses with cynical composure. Yesenin painfully felt that he was living the fate of some “adventurer,” “a scoundrel and a drunkard.” Until now it was a mask. In “The Black Man,” the mask was fused to the face and was torn off with blood and flesh. Yesenin conceived “Anna Snegina” as an epic, “Nekrasov” narrative from peasant life, but in the end he created a lyrical confession. The plot of “Anna Snegina” unfolds against the backdrop of the men’s struggle for land in 1917. The hero of the poem, a double of Yesenin himself, also named Sergei, returns to his native place to rest. His friend Pron Ogloblin goes with him to the estate of the landowner Snegina (with whom Sergei once had an affair) to take land. Three people who love each other face a painful conflict - in order to eventually part forever: Anna goes to London, Sergei to the capital, Pron is killed by the whites. Anna from emigration sends him a letter of recognition." “But you are still dear to me, / Like the homeland and like spring.” And if at the beginning of the poem there is resentment towards a life in which there is so little love (“But they loved us little”) , then at the end the opposite is stated: (We all loved during these years, / But that means they loved us too.) The author of “Anna Snegina” forgives life for everything that “did not come true” in it, blessing it.

The appearance of the first works was well received by readers and critics, who praised the author for his “observation and subtlety of psychological analysis,” poetry, clarity and elegance of the narrative (thus, at the end of 1855, Tolstoy returned to St. Petersburg and was accepted into the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine as a Sevastopol hero and already a famous writer). N.G. turned out to be more insightful than other critics. Chernyshevsky ( 8th issue of Sovremennik, 1856, article “Childhood” and “Adolescence”. War stories of Count L.N. Tolstoy"), who drew attention to the features of psychological analysis.

“Most poets,” Chernyshevsky wrote, “are concerned primarily with the results of the manifestation of inner life, they care primarily about the results, the manifestations of inner life, about clashes between people, about actions, and not about the mysterious process through which a thought or feeling is developed. The peculiarity of Count Tolstoy’s talent is that he is not limited to depicting the results of the mental process: he is interested in the process itself, its forms, laws, dialectic of the soul, to express it in a definitive term.”

Since then, the “defining term” - “dialectics of the soul” - has been firmly attached to Tolstoy’s work, for Chernyshevsky really managed to notice the very essence of Tolstoy’s talent. Tolstoy’s predecessors, depicting the inner world of a person, as a rule, used words that accurately called the emotional experience “excitement,” “remorse,” “anger,” “contempt,” “malice.”

By discovering the “dialectics of the soul,” Tolstoy moves toward a new understanding of human character. We have already seen how in the story “Childhood” the “little things” and “details” of children’s perception blur and shake the stable boundaries in the character of the adult Nikolai Irtenyev. The same thing is observed in “Sevastopol Stories”. Unlike ordinary soldiers, Adjutant Kalugin has ostentatious, “non-Russian” courage. Vainglorious posturing is typical to one degree or another for all aristocratic officers; this is their class trait. But with the help of the “dialectics of the soul,” delving into the details of Kalugin’s mental state, Tolstoy suddenly notices in this man such experiences and feelings that do not fit into the aristocrat’s officer code and are opposed to it. Kalugin “suddenly became scared: he ran at a trot for five steps and fell to the ground...”. The fear of death, which the aristocrat Kalugin despises in others and does not allow in himself, suddenly takes possession of his soul.

In the story “Sevastopol in August,” the soldiers, hiding in a dugout, read from the primer: “The fear of death is an innate feeling in man.” They are not ashamed of this simple and so understandable feeling. Moreover, this feeling protects them from hasty and careless steps. Pointing his “artistic microscope” at Kalugin’s inner world, Tolstoy discovered spiritual experiences in the aristocrat that brought him closer to ordinary soldiers. It turns out that in this person there live broader possibilities than those instilled in him by his social status and officer environment. Turgenev, who reproached Tolstoy for excessive “pettiness” and meticulousness of psychological analysis, said in one of his letters that the artist should be a psychologist, but secretly, and not openly: he should show only the results, only the results of the mental process. Tolstoy pays the main attention to the process, but not for its own sake. “Dialectics of the soul” plays a large meaningful role in his work. If Tolstoy had followed Turgenev’s advice, he would not have discovered anything new in the aristocrat Kalugin. After all, the natural feeling of fear of death in Kalugin did not enter into his character, into the psychological “result”: “Suddenly someone’s steps were heard in front of him. He quickly straightened up, raised his head and, cheerfully rattling his saber, walked no longer with such fast steps as before.” However, the “dialectics of the soul” opened up prospects for change for Kalugin, prospects for moral growth.

Tolstoy's psychological analysis reveals infinitely rich possibilities for renewal in man. Social circumstances very often limit and suppress these possibilities, but they are not able to destroy them at all. Man is a more complex being than the forms into which life sometimes forces him. A person always has a reserve, a spiritual resource of renewal and liberation.

The feelings that Kalugin had just experienced had not yet entered into the result of his mental process; they remained in him unembodied, underdeveloped. But the very fact of their manifestation speaks of a person’s ability to change his character if he surrenders to them to the end.

“One of the most common and widespread superstitions is that each person has his own specific properties, that there are good, evil, smart, stupid, energetic, apathetic, etc.,” writes Tolstoy in the novel “Resurrection.” - People are not like that. We can say about a person that he is more often kind than evil, more often smart than stupid, more often energetic than apathetic, and vice versa; but it will not be true if we say about one person that he is kind or smart, and about another that he is evil or stupid. And we always divide people like this. And this is not true. People are like rivers: the water is lonely and the same everywhere, but each river is sometimes narrow, sometimes fast, sometimes wide, sometimes quiet, sometimes clean, sometimes cold, sometimes muddy, sometimes warm. So are people. Each person carries within himself the rudiments of all human properties and sometimes displays some, sometimes others, and is often completely unlike himself, remaining at the same time the same as himself.” The “fluidity of man,” his ability to make abrupt and decisive changes, is constantly in the center of Tolstoy’s attention. After all, the most important motive of the writer’s biography and creativity is movement towards moral heights, self-improvement. Tolstoy saw this as the main way to transform the world.

He was skeptical of revolutionaries and materialists, and therefore soon left the editorial office of Sovremennik. It seemed to him that a revolutionary restructuring of the external, social conditions of human existence was a difficult matter and hardly promising. Moral self-improvement is a clear and simple matter, a matter of free choice of every person. Before you sow goodness around, you need to become good yourself: with moral self-improvement you need to begin the transformation of life.

This explains Tolstoy’s close interest in the “dialectics of the soul” of man. The leading motive of his work will be testing the hero for variability. A person’s ability to renew himself, the mobility and flexibility of his spiritual world, his psyche are for Tolstoy an indicator of moral sensitivity, talent and vitality (We remember that in Tolstoy’s hero is either emerging or in a state of search). If these changes had been impossible in a person, Tolstoy’s view of the world would have collapsed and his hopes would have been destroyed. Tolstoy believes in the creative, world-transforming power of the artistic word. He writes with the conviction that his art enlightens human souls and teaches them to “love life.” Like Chernyshevsky, he considers literature a “textbook for life.” He equates writing novels to a specific practical task, which he often gives preference to in comparison with literary work.

From Chernyshevsky’s article: “Of course, this ability must be innate by nature. This is the desire for tireless observation of oneself. We can study the laws of human action, the play of passions, the chain of events, the influence of circumstances and relationships by carefully observing other people; but all the knowledge acquired in this way will have neither depth nor accuracy if we do not study the most secret laws of mental life, the play of which is open to us only in our [own] self-consciousness. He who has not studied man within himself will never achieve a deep knowledge of people. Tolstoy extremely carefully studied the secrets of the life of the human spirit within himself; this knowledge is precious not only because it gave him the opportunity to paint pictures of the internal movements of human thought, but also gave him a solid basis for studying human life in general, for unraveling the characters and springs of action, the struggle of passions and impressions.

<…> Knowledge of the human heart is the main strength of his talent.”

Thus, of the “various directions” of psychological analysis, Tolstoy is more attracted to “the mental process, its forms, its laws, dialectic of the soul" The last words became a classic definition of the features of Tolstoy’s psychologism.

Related information.

At the end of 1855, Tolstoy returned to St. Petersburg and was accepted into the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine as a Sevastopol hero and already a famous writer. N. G. Chernyshevsky in the eighth issue of Sovremennik for 1856 dedicated a special article to him, “Childhood” and “Adolescence.” War stories of Count L.N. Tolstoy." In it, he gave a precise definition of the originality of Tolstoy's realism, drawing attention to the features of psychological analysis.

“...Most poets,” wrote Chernyshevsky, “are concerned primarily with the results of the manifestation of inner life, ...and not with the mysterious process through which a thought or feeling is developed... The peculiarity of Count Tolstoy’s talent is that it is not limited to depicting the results of a mental process: he is interested in the process itself... its forms, laws, dialectics of the soul, to put it in a defining term."

Since then, the “defining term” - “dialectics of the soul” - has been firmly attached to Tolstoy’s work, for Chernyshevsky really managed to notice the very essence of Tolstoy’s talent. Tolstoy's predecessors, depicting the inner world of a person, as a rule, used words that accurately named emotional experience: “excitement,” “remorse,” “anger,” “contempt,” “malice.”

Tolstoy was dissatisfied with this: “To talk about a person: he is an original person, kind, smart, stupid, consistent, etc. - words that do not give any idea about a person, but have a claim to describe a person, whereas often they only confuse ". Tolstoy does not limit himself to precise definitions of certain mental states. He goes further and deeper. He "points a microscope" at the secrets of the human soul and the image captures the very process of the origin and formation of a feeling even before it has matured and acquired completeness. He paints a picture of mental life, showing the approximateness and inaccuracy of any ready-made definitions. By discovering the “dialectics of the soul,” Tolstoy moves toward a new understanding of human character. We have already seen how in the story “Childhood” the “little things” and “details” of children’s perception blur and shake the stable boundaries in the character of the adult Nikolai Irtenyev.

The feelings that the hero has just experienced have not yet entered into the result of his mental process, and remain under-embodied and underdeveloped in him. But the very fact of their manifestation speaks of a person’s ability to change his character if he surrenders to them to the end. Thus, Tolstoy’s “dialectics of the soul” tends to develop into a “dialectics of character.” “One of the most common and widespread superstitions is that each person has his own specific properties, that there are good, evil, smart, stupid, energetic, apathetic, etc.,” writes Tolstoy in the novel “Resurrection.” - People are not like that. We can say about a person that he is more often kind than evil, more often smart than stupid, more often energetic than apathetic, and vice versa; but it would not be true if we say about one person that he is kind or smart , and about the other, that he is evil or stupid. But we always divide people like this. And this is wrong. People are like rivers: the water is lonely in everyone and the same everywhere, but every river is sometimes narrow, sometimes fast, sometimes wide, sometimes quiet, sometimes clean, sometimes cold, sometimes cloudy, sometimes warm. So are people. Each person carries within himself the beginnings of all human properties and sometimes manifests some, sometimes others, and is often completely unlike himself, remaining all the same one and himself ". The “fluidity of man,” his ability to make abrupt and decisive changes, is constantly in the center of Tolstoy’s attention. After all, the most important motive of the writer’s biography and creativity is movement towards moral heights, self-improvement. Tolstoy saw this as the main way to transform the world.

This explains Tolstoy’s close interest in the “dialectics of the soul” and the “dialectics of character” of a person. The leading motive of his work will be testing the hero for variability. A person’s ability to renew himself, the mobility and flexibility of his spiritual world, his psyche are for Tolstoy an indicator of moral sensitivity, talent and vitality. If these changes had been impossible in a person, Tolstoy’s view of the world would have collapsed and his hopes would have been destroyed. Tolstoy believes in the creative, world-transforming power of the artistic word. He writes with the conviction that his art enlightens human souls and teaches them to “love life.” Like Chernyshevsky, he considers literature a “textbook for life.” He equates writing novels to a specific practical task, which he often gives preference to in comparison with literary work.

10. Roman L.N. Tolstoy’s “Resurrection”: main motifs, images, heroes. Christian and moral issues. The world of the city and the world of the village in the novel. Dmitry Nekhlyudov and Katyusha Maslova. The meaning of the novel's ending.

Tolstoy’s novel “Resurrection” is one of the most complex works in which the idea of non-resistance to the evil of violence is conveyed. For the first time in one novel, Tolstoy reveals the state of state and religious institutions, i.e. depicts social life in Russia in a voluminous manner: Tolstoy shows the life of high society, Russian officials, prisons and villages.

At the center of the novel are two destinies: a simple Russian girl serving in a rich house (Katya Maslova) and the golden stepson of the century (Nekhlyudov). They develop non-parallel, their plots interact. The composition is based on an antithesis: the opposition of ordinary people and representatives of the ruling classes. This contrast is outlined at the very beginning of the work with the depiction of the unequal position of the young master Dmitry Nekhlyudov and the courtyard girl Katyusha Maslova. The writer deliberately focuses on the details of Nekhlyudov’s expensive clothes and his carefree lifestyle. The key scene in the novel is the trial. It is here that the heroes meet again and from here their path to spiritual rebirth begins.

The main character of the novel, Katyusha Maslova, is “the daughter of an unmarried courtyard woman who lived with her cowgirl mother in the village with two sisters of young landowners.” The image of Katyusha Maslova was modern, new and, one might say, unique in Russian literature: it has no predecessors. Maslova is endowed with deeply personal traits, expressive portrait characteristics, a deep spiritual make-up and appears to us as an extraordinary personality. We cannot help but stop with respect before her spiritual fortitude, with which she endured all the trials that befell her: a brothel, a court, a prison, a hard labor stage. She worries about other unfortunate people, but not about herself. On the one hand, she does not consider her former occupation immoral and, as Tolstoy writes, she even considers it necessary for society; on the other hand, deep down in her soul she still remains a pure, kind, bright person, which the author emphasizes when describing her during court: “in a gray robe, put on a white jacket and a white skirt...”, “tied with a white scarf” and the tired face was distinguished by “special whiteness”. “She entered the courtroom with a cheerful step, stood straight and looked straight into the eyes - everything about her emphasized her innocence, the unspent consciousness of her inner dignity. She was painfully wounded by all sorts of unfair words, she, hearing them, shuddered, the blatant untruth cut her soul.”

The bright image of Katyusha Maslova is contrasted in the novel with such negative characters as Simon Kartinkin, Evfemia Bochkova, lawyer Fanarin, Countess Katerina Ivanovna with her husband and other officials (including judges). We see these people through the eyes of Nekhlyudov. They, belonging to high society, nevertheless remain at the lowest level of moral development. Hypocrisy, falsehood, selfishness, thirst for profit, lack of spirituality, criminal behavior towards ordinary people - these are their distinctive features.

As for judges, one of the ways to satirically expose the arbiters of destinies is to show their spiritual insignificance. Describing the trial of Katyusha Maslova, Tolstoy lifts the veil over the private life of adherents of justice and morality, revealing their inner world. And this immediately reveals the contrast between official pathos, official solemnity and the real abomination of the judges. While zealously demonstrating their adherence to the noble principles of law and morality, judges are completely absorbed in their own petty interests. Condemning the decline of morals, they are often carriers of immorality. Judges are not touched by the dramatic pictures of life unfolding before them, they are indifferent to the suffering of people; They are not interested in the ideas of justice they constantly proclaim.

For the ideological and creative concept of the novel as a whole, the debunking of the imaginary humanism of the “masters” is essential. The contrast between hypocritical mercy and real cruelty is clearly revealed in the depiction of Vice-Governor Maslennikov. Before meeting the vice-governor, Nekhlyudov observed scenes of prison life. Maslennikov himself is well acquainted with them, but this does not prevent him from assuring Nekhlyudov that the prisoners, due to the generosity of the authorities, are quite prosperous. Maslennikov’s wife, Anna Ignatyevna, evaluates her husband’s activities and his attitude towards troublemakers with even greater enthusiasm. “All these unfortunate people are his children. He doesn’t look at them differently,” she says. Maslennikov's kindness is, of course, a myth. But Maslennikov’s assurances regarding the situation of prisoners are no longer just a myth, but a deliberate deception. But his words about the firmness of power turn out to be completely real. And if, before and after the meeting with Maslennikov, Nekhlyudov is easily convinced of the illusory nature of the first “commandment” professed by the vice-governor, then he encounters the consistent implementation of the second at every step.

Dmitry Nekhlyudov is a very complex character. Tolstoy for the first time shows a completely different human hypostasis, a new concept of man: there is Nekhlyudov the spiritual man and there is Nekhlyudov the animal man. The path of the main character of the novel by L.N. Tolstoy’s “Resurrection” of Dmitry Nekhlyudov to moral and ethical ideals begins in early youth. While still a student and reading Spencer, he dreams of achieving perfection for himself and the whole world. During this period of his life, Tolstoy describes him as a pure, immaculate young man, worthy of respect. It was this Nekhlyudov that Katyusha fell in love with. The feeling of love for Katyusha that flared up in him then is distinguished by its purity and poetry; it gives him wings. Tolstoy needs a story about Nekhlyudov’s poetic feeling not only to depict the hero’s subsequent fall, but also to characterize the human qualities that are inherent in Nekhlyudov

Later, he went to serve in the army, where he met people with completely opposite views on life. While maintaining his individuality, he desperately resisted the destructive influence of the environment into which he found himself. However, after several years of service in the army, he turns into a completely different person: depraved, vicious, having no idea of the boundaries of what is permitted, cruel, selfish. Tolstoy blames the society in which the main character lived for Nekhlyudov’s moral decline.

During Nekhlyudov's second visit to the village, his new properties are revealed. Over the course of several years, the spiritual appearance of the hero changed dramatically. “Then he was an honest, selfless young man, ready to devote himself to any cause, - now he was a depraved, refined egoist, loving only his own pleasure.” What made Nekhlyudov a depraved egoist was the usual school of life for his environment, which he managed to “graduate” during this time . Having committed a bad act with Katyusha, Dmitry Nekhlyudov realizes the vileness of what he had done. But he doesn’t think about it for long and leaves for the army with a calm soul.

The meeting with Katyusha in court became fatal for Nekhlyudov. Suddenly his conscience awakens in him, he experiences something like a moral rebirth. From this moment Nekhlyudov’s wanderings begin. A person who has gained his sight and seen life as it is, can no longer, according to Tolstoy, remain in place, cannot be calm. Nekhlyudov’s mental crisis and moral insight not only gave him the opportunity to see the surrounding evil, but also caused a real need to see even more deeply everything to the last feature.

After the trial, Nekhlyudov has a burning desire to get rid of the lies and baseness that have entered his life. But at the same time, he is overcome by doubts about the possibility of realizing these desires. “After all, I’ve already tried to improve and be better, and nothing worked,” the voice of the tempter said in his soul, “so why try again? “You are not alone, but everyone is like that - such is life,” said this voice.” Nekhlyudov’s desire to live differently is expressed, first of all, in the desire to atone for his guilt before Katyusha Maslova. Katyusha's proposal to marry him is dictated not so much by a feeling of love, but by the consciousness of his duty to her.

The development of Dmitry Nekhlyudov is marked by his increasing departure from the views of his environment, the forms of its life. The awakening of a sense of justice allows Nekhlyudov to see what previously did not interest him at all; on the other hand, the naked truth of life strengthens his disagreement with existing “opinions” and with the very structure of society.

Nekhlyudov experiences a difficult internal struggle when he decides to transfer the land to the peasants. A significant shift in the protagonist’s worldview occurs just after his trip to the village, when he, having previously observed the misfortunes of prisoners in prison, sees the hopeless situation of the peasants. Nekhlyudov comes to the conclusion that the life of the propertied classes, just like his own, is not only unfair, but also criminal.

From the village Nekhlyudov heads to St. Petersburg. Shocked by what he saw in the village, the hero critically perceives the splendor and grandeur of dignitary Petersburg. What Dmitry Nekhlyudov previously found charm and charm in appears before him as deceitful and disgusting. The line separating Nekhlyudov from this environment is his caring attitude towards ordinary people, their troubles and sorrows.

During his trip to Siberia to pick up a batch of prisoners, Nekhlyudov sees terrible pictures of the suppression of the people, the arbitrariness and inhumanity of commanders from the lowest to the highest rank. Close acquaintance with the victims of the social order strengthens Nekhlyudov in his negative assessment of the fundamentals of the way of life. But, having understood its cruel injustice, the hero does not know the real means of eliminating its fundamental vices.

Nekhlyudov tries to find this possibility in the Gospel. Dmitry Nekhlyudov comes to Christian ideals at the end of the novel. Tolstoy leaves his hero on the threshold of his new life, on the eve of his implementation of his new path.

Christian ideals in the novel

Tolstoy puts Christian values on a par with moral and ethical values. He makes no distinction between them. However, he does not recognize the moral, ethical, and Christian values of secular society, considering them false.

In the novel “Resurrection” the theme of the repentant sinner comes to the fore. The author saw atonement for sin in moral self-improvement based on a new comprehension of Christian ideals, which, in the writer’s opinion, the official Orthodox Church has nothing in common with. Tolstoy came to the conviction that in order to comprehend God, a person does not need either a special church organization or church rituals, but must strive to follow God’s providence through spiritual and moral renewal and the accomplishment of good deeds. Tolstoy considers repentance for sin the first step towards correction. He considers spiritual repentance more important than imprisonment of the guilty person.

In Christian ideology, repentance is followed by atonement for sin. Likewise, in Tolstoy’s novel, the main character tries to atone for his sin before Katyusha, taking care of her in every possible way, working to correct the sentence.

“Ask, and you will be rewarded,” says the Holy Scriptures. The idea of forgiveness present in the novel is visible in the actions of Katyusha Maslova, who, despite the suffering caused to her, forgave her offender. A white scarf, a white jacket, a distinguished white face - with the help of a masterfully created portrait, Tolstoy elevates his heroine, if not to the category of saints, then at least to the category of angels, and it is to him, to this angel in the flesh, that Nekhlyudov turns, sincerely repenting, He asks her for forgiveness and salvation of his soul.

As for church rituals, Tolstoy condemns the very form of their implementation, considering them not only false, but even sinful. “...Jesus, whose name the priest repeated whistling countless times, praising him with all sorts of strange words, forbade precisely everything that was done here; prohibited not only such senseless verbosity and blasphemous sorcery of priest-teachers...” Tolstoy calls both the rituals themselves and the people who perform them “blasphemy and mockery” of Christ. The priests not only have no idea about this, but, on the contrary, do their job with a clear conscience.

Question 11: L. Tolstoy’s drama “The Living Corpse” The meaning of the title. Plot originality. The complexity and versatility of human existence. The peculiarity of the Russian soul of Fedya Protasov. Love and moral issues.

The drama “The Living Corpse” is one of the great works of L. Tolstoy, created in the era of socio-political upsurge of the 90-900s, which undoubtedly had a profound impact on the writer’s work. In terms of its problems, "The Living Corpse" is close to the novel "Resurrection". Both here and there Tolstoy denounced “the internal lies of all those institutions with the help of which modern society is held together: the church, the court, militarism, “legal” marriage, bourgeois science.”

The concept of the work dates back to the mid-nineties. In his diary on February 9, 1884, Tolstoy wrote: “The idea of a story clearly came to mind in which to present two people: one - dissolute, confused, fallen to contempt only from kindness, the other - outwardly pure, respectable, respected from coldness, not love." The concretization of this thought led the artist to the idea of a drama, which arose in 1887. At first, Tolstoy worked on the creation of “The Living Corpse” with great enthusiasm, but then doubts arose about the value and necessity of this work.

In The Living Corpse, Tolstoy develops the action without first drawing sharp internal distinctions between the characters. But at the same time, he paints a conflict as the initial situation, trying to clarify the characters’ characters from within. The spiritual appearance of the characters is revealed gradually, in contradiction to what the heroes seem to be like when first meeting them, in spite of how those around them evaluate them, what they think about themselves.

Fedor Protasov:

In The Living Corpse, Tolstoy resolved a similar problem, but within the framework of a different plot, using different life material. The main character of the play "The Living Corpse" Fyodor Protasov is a renegade from the bourgeois-noble circle, a man of sensitive conscience who feels the immorality of the existing social order and who becomes ashamed to belong to the ruling class. Protasov does not have a positive social ideal, does not see any environment into which he would like to move, where he could devote himself to active work. This renegade is declassed and finds himself in the position of a lumpen proletarian, but he prefers to sink to the “bottom” rather than lead that lordly life that he despises.

On a personal level, it would seem that nothing prevented Protasov’s happiness: he is wealthy, married to the woman he loves, enjoys sympathy in society, and has friends. In the life of the bourgeois-noble layer surrounding him, a semblance of personal freedom reigns. However, the illusion of personal freedom is destroyed as the hero tries to leave the framework of his class, to break with the life that is disgusting to him, built on lies. (This destruction of the illusions of individual freedom in bourgeois society brings The Living Corpse closer to the plays of Chekhov.) On his path, Protasov faces not only condemnation from the people of his class, but also coercion from the autocratic state.

Protasov's insight, his protest, his quest, all this is carried out without any connection with Christian ideals, with the influence of religion, to which the hero of this drama is completely alien. Reflecting on the life paths that open before him, Protasov sees three possibilities: “After all, all of us in our circle, in the one in which I was born, have three choices - only three: to serve, to make money, to increase the dirty tricks in which you live. This was disgusting to me, maybe I didn’t know how, but, most importantly, it was disgusting. Secondly, to destroy this dirty trick; to do this you need to be a hero, and I’m not a hero. Or thirdly: forget yourself - drink, walk, sing. That’s what I did ". The impact of the era of social upsurge was reflected here, firstly, in the fact that for a person who “breaks out” of his class, the most worthy activity is the active struggle of a hero who destroys the existing social order.

Fyodor Protasov is not a mouthpiece for the author’s ideas; his behavior, from the writer’s point of view, cannot serve as an example. But Tolstoy is close to Protasov’s protest, his spiritual quest, he is higher than everyone around him, he has an awakened, sensitive conscience; and the author, with the deepest sympathy, depicts the tragic fate of his hero - a victim of a hypocritical bourgeois-noble society, a victim of a police-bureaucratic state. And this hero is not inspired by Christian ideals.

The author himself was aware of this and wrote in his diary dated August 21, 1900: “I wrote a drama and was completely dissatisfied with it. There is no consciousness that this is the work of God, although a lot has improved: faces have changed.” According to P. A. Sergeenko, Tolstoy considered “The Living Corpse” to be one of the few works of his in which he “did not set any didactic or instructive goals, but was subordinated exclusively to artistic emotion” (entry dated December 21, 1900)1.

"The Living Corpse" in its genre is not just psychological, but socio-psychological drama or tragedy. Over the course of five acts, the conflict develops in the sphere of private relations, and only in the sixth act does the state come into play and complete what was prepared by secular society (although outwardly it turns out that the Karenins, at some point, also become victims of the system that protects foundations of their class).

Peculiarity:

An essential feature of "The Living Corpse" is the inextricable connection between the social, psychological and moral aspects. Coverage of the collisions of life, the psychology of the heroes in The Living Corpse, as in other works of Tolstoy, includes a moral conflict, which is not isolated from the internal development of the drama, but clearly appears in the depiction of its characters.

Gorky said about Tolstoy that his works were “written with terrible, almost miraculous power.” This power of depicting life is determined by the unsurpassed realism of Tolstoy’s work. V.I. Lenin calls Tolstoy’s realism “the most sober realism.” Painting Russian reality with rich, multi-colored colors, Tolstoy at the same time acts as a judge of the false sides of life, fearlessly tearing off “all and every mask” from people and life. It is enough to point to the depiction of the horrors of war in the novel “War and Peace”, to Andrei Bolkonsky’s discussion of the essence of war (in Chapter XXV of the third volume of the novel) and the characterization of high society society in the novel in order to understand the “terrible” revealing power of Tolstoy’s realism.

The method of exposure characteristic of Tolstoy is expressed, in particular, in the fact that he likes to call things “by their proper names.” Thus, he calls the marshal's baton in the novel "War and Peace" simply a stick, and the magnificent church chasuble in the novel "Resurrection" - a brocade bag.

Tolstoy's desire for realism also explains the fact that Tolstoy impartially points out character flaws even in his favorite heroes. He does not hide, for example, that Pierre Bezukhov threw himself headlong into unbridled revelry, that Natasha cheated on Prince Andrei, etc.

The great artistic achievement of Tolstoy the realist was his deep understanding of the “fluidity”, mobility of human nature (people are like rivers ...). He was attracted not only by complete, already formed characters, but also by heroes who did not stop in their development, capable of moral crises and spiritual rebirth. Overcoming the rationalistic explanation of human character, Tolstoy did not agree with the idea of the irresistible influence of the environment on a person. The great artist tried in every possible way to awaken people's self-awareness. And it is no coincidence that his beloved heroes so persistently sought independent answers to the most important, most pressing questions about the meaning of life, about the purpose of human existence. The writer was convinced that a person himself must bear moral responsibility for his actions, for his entire life. And it is quite natural for his heroes to grow in resistance to those circumstances that prevent the fullest manifestation of their spiritual essence.

The desire for the deepest truth of life, to the point of “tearing off all and every mask” is the main feature of Tolstoy’s artistic realism.

For example, in “War and Peace” realism is manifested in the fact that its heroes are historical figures, nobles (Bolkonsky, Bezukhov, Rostov, etc.). Every character, every character is typical.

The most important features of L. N. Tolstoy - artist and thinker:

1. Tolstoy reflected the era of preparation for this revolution, reproduced in his books the period from 1861 to 1904, “when everything had just turned upside down and was beginning to fall into place.” This means that Tolstoy’s era is a post-reform and pre-revolutionary era, this is an era of acute crisis of the Christian religion, classical culture and the human spirit. Tolstoy in his works showed the tragedy of the spirit in this era of crisis.

2. Reflecting an entire era in the history of Russia, Tolstoy’s work became the result of the development of Russian literature over the entire century.

3. Tolstoy was the first noble writer in Russian literature to finally break with the social psychology of his class and consciously convert to the peasant faith, that is, to the position of the patriarchal peasantry.

4. Tolstoy is not just and not only an artist of words. He saw literature not as a profession, but as a means of educating and self-educating a person. In the process of creativity, he was not concerned with technical issues of plot, composition, language, but only with moral and religious problems of the meaning of life, conscience, death and immortality, freedom, dependence, truth, fate, happiness. Therefore, Tolstoy is also a moralist, preacher, philosophizing thinker, who created an original dogma that had 3 main directions:

Simplification (example from the novel “War and Peace”: Pierre after captivity under the influence of Karataev);

Moral self-improvement (the leading idea of Tolstoy’s entire life);

Non-resistance to evil through violence (a call to fight evil by any means, except one - violence; example, position - “I cannot remain silent!”. Meaning: affirmation of double humanism: the humanism of not only goals, but also the humanism of the means to achieve them.

L.N. Tolstoy attached special importance to moral self-improvement, therefore the ideological and moral searches of the heroes became the core of the problems of the entire work. His heroes are developing characters, changing under the influence of impressions and experiences. L. Tolstoy uses psychological techniques to make the evolution of character look as convincing as possible. The writer never depicts the hero’s inner world just like that: in any mental movement and experience, moral meaning is important to him. The peculiarities of L. Tolstoy’s approach to man determined the principles of psychologism in his novels.

The most important technique of Leo Tolstoy’s psychologism is the dialectic of the soul. The term belongs to Chernyshevsky

The main sign of the dialectic of the soul is that mental life appears as a process, as a change of feelings, thoughts, volitional impulses with other feelings and thoughts, including directly opposite ones. Tolstoy shows something extremely important, determining the structure of a person’s mental life, and he does it first: he reveals the secret of the very appearance of feeling. Everyone else worked with feeling as a ready-made, happened fact; Tolstoy shows how it comes into being. In modern language, this is the sphere of the subconscious. The dialectic of the soul is the spontaneous life of the psyche, uncontrollable, not meaningful and not summarized even for the hero himself.

In the sphere of reception, the method of dialectics of the soul most adequately implements the hero’s internal monologue. In Tolstoy’s world, it acquires significant specificity: logic disappears here, sometimes even the norms of grammar are violated - this is exactly how spontaneous inner mental life flows.

The dialectics of the soul made it possible to visually and artistically convincingly trace in all details the process of moral self-improvement of a person. The dialectics of the soul required the most complete and detailed reproduction of all the nuances of a person’s inner life, for which L. Tolstoy resorted to such a variety of narrative-compositional form as stream of consciousness. This technique is an internal monologue taken to its logical limit, and creates the illusion of an absolutely chaotic, disordered movement of thoughts and experiences.

Another feature of L. Tolstoy as a writer-psychologist is his unique understanding of external detail: an external, sometimes even random detail at key moments becomes an element of the hero’s inner world. Such a “detail-impression” becomes the last point that makes his psychological state clear to the hero himself (for example, the “high, endless sky” above Austerlitz for Prince Andrei).

In the works of L. Tolstoy, the organization of artistic time in psychological analysis is noteworthy. The writer is characterized by a discrepancy between the time in which the experience actually occurs and the time of the story about it. The duration of the story about the state does not depend on the duration of the experience itself. Such an organization of artistic time allows us to convey to the reader all the richness of the characters’ inner world and explain in detail the psychological processes and states.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL TRILOGY

The appearance in 1852 on the pages of the Sovremennik magazine of L. Tolstoy’s stories “Childhood”, and then “Adolescence” (1854) and “Youth” (1857) became a significant event in Russian literary life.

It was rightly noted that Tolstoy's autobiographical trilogy was not intended for children's reading. Rather, this is a book about a child for adults. According to Tolstoy, childhood is the norm and model for humanity, because the child is still spontaneous, he assimilates simple truths not with reason, but with an unmistakable feeling, he is able to establish natural relationships between people, since he is not yet connected with the external circumstances of nobility, wealth, etc. etc. For Tolstoy, the point of view is important: the narration on behalf of the boy, then the young man Nikolenka Irtenyev, gives him the opportunity to look at the world, evaluate it, understand it from the position of a “natural” child’s consciousness, not spoiled by the prejudices of the environment. The difficulty in the life path of the hero of the trilogy lies precisely in the fact that gradually his fresh, still immediate worldview is distorted as soon as he begins to accept the rules and moral laws of his society. The idea of moral improvement becomes one of the most significant features of L. Tolstoy’s philosophical thought, aesthetics and artistic creativity.

Already in the autobiographical trilogy, Tolstoy’s intense interest is clearly visible not in external events, but in the details of the inner world, the internal development of the hero, his “dialectics of the soul,” as Chernyshevsky wrote in a review of the writer’s early works. The reader learned to follow the movement and change of feelings of the heroes, the moral struggle that occurs in them, the growth of resistance to everything bad - both in the world around them and in their souls. “Dialectics of the Soul” largely determined the artistic system of Tolstoy’s first works and was almost immediately perceived by his contemporaries as one of the most important features of his talent.

Psychological innovation L.N. Tolstoy

Innovation L.N. Tolstoy, his inimitability lies in the fact that, unlike others, he is most interested in the psychological processes occurring in a person, their forms and laws, and not just in recording emotional experiences. That is, the dialectic of the human soul is important to him. And studying and identifying this can only be achieved through enormous, painstaking work on oneself. In general, to achieve anything, and not only, but simply to be a person, according to his definition, you need to constantly work on yourself.

This is clearly visible in his letter to his relative, Alexandra Andreevna Tolstoy in October 1857, in which he talks about the basic content of the human soul. Tolstoy writes that calmness is spiritual meanness. He claims that in order to live honestly, one must struggle, get confused, struggle, make mistakes, read, quit and start again. There is no need to sit idly by.

Based on this, we can conclude that the writer’s work is inseparable from his moral quest, from his personality. The greatness of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy lies precisely in the fact that everything he wanted to tell people was endured and suffered through by himself.

Composition

In Tolstoy's Sevastopol stories, the method of artistic depiction of war was already clearly defined, which manifested itself in full force on the pages of War and Peace. In them (and those close to them at the time - Caucasian stories) the typology of soldier and officer characters that is so widely and fully revealed in many chapters of the epic novel is clearly outlined. Having deeply realized the historical significance of the feat of the defenders of Sevastopol, Tolstoy turns to the era of the Patriotic War of 1812, which culminated in the complete victory of the Russian people and their army. In the Caucasian and Sevastopol stories, Tolstoy expressed his conviction that human character is revealed most fully and deeply during times of danger, that failures and defeats are the most powerful test of the character of a Russian person, his perseverance, firmness, and endurance. That is why he began War and Peace not with a description of the events of 1812, but with a story about the unsuccessful foreign campaign of 1805:

* “If,” he says, “the reason for our triumph (in 1812) was not accidental, but lay in the essence of the character of the Russian people and troops, then this character should have been expressed even more clearly in the era of failures and defeats.”

As we see, in “War and Peace” Tolstoy sought to preserve and develop the techniques of revealing the characters of the heroes that he used in his early works. The difference lies primarily in the scale of the task. The future Olenin in the story “Cossacks”. Tolstoy began to create the novel, experiencing an exceptional creative surge: “I am now a writer with all the strength of my soul, and I write and think about it as I have never written or thought about it before.”

In letters to loved ones sent at the end of 1863, Tolstoy said that he was writing “a novel from the times of 1810 and 20” and that it would be “a long novel.” On its pages, the writer intended to capture fifty years of Russian history: “My task,” he says in one of the unfinished prefaces to this novel, “is to describe the lives and conflicts of certain individuals in the period from 1805 to 1856.” He points out here that in 1856 he began writing a story, “the hero of which was supposed to be a Decembrist returning with his family to Russia.” In order to understand his hero and more fully imagine his character, the writer decided to show how he took shape and developed. For this purpose, Tolstoy several times moved the beginning of the action of the planned novel from one era to another - increasingly earlier (from 1856 to 1825, and then to 1812 and, finally, to 1805)
This enormous-scale plan was given the title by Tolstoy - “Three Pores”. The beginning of the century, the time of youth of the future Decembrists - the first time. The second is the 20s with their peak - the uprising of December 14, 1825. And finally, the third time - the middle of the century - the ending of the Crimean War, which was unsuccessful for the Russian army; sudden death of Nikolai; return from exile of the surviving Decembrists; the wind of change that awaited Russia, which was on the eve of the abolition of serfdom.

In the course of working on the implementation of this enormous plan, Tolstoy gradually narrowed its scope, limiting himself to the first period and only briefly touching upon the second period only in the epilogue of the work. But the “shortened” version also required enormous effort from the author.

In September 1864, an entry appeared in Tolstoy’s diary, from which we learn that he did not keep a diary for almost a year, that during this year he wrote ten printed sheets, and is now “in a period of correction and reworking” and that this is a state for him “ painful." In this preface, written at the end of 1863, he again returns to the same questions of artistic method that he posed in the above diary entries of the 50s and early 60s. What should an artist be guided by when covering historical figures and events? To what extent can he use “fiction” in order to connect “images, pictures and thoughts,” especially if they “were born of themselves” in his imagination?

In this first draft of the preface, Tolstoy calls the planned work “a story from the year 12” and says that his plan is filled with “majestic, deep and comprehensive content.” These words are perceived as evidence of the epic nature of his plan, which was determined already at the very early stage of work on War and Peace. If the writer had decided to create a family novel chronicling the lives of several noble families, as researchers have long believed, then he would not have faced the difficulties that he talks about in the unfinished drafts of the preface to War and Peace. As soon as Tolstoy transported his hero to the “glorious era of 1812 for Russia,” he saw that his original plan would have to undergo a radical change. His hero came into contact with “half-historical, half-public, half-fictional great characters of a great era.” At the same time, Tolstoy was faced with the question of depicting historical figures and events. In the same draft of the preface, the writer speaks with hostility about “patriotic essays about '12,” which evoke in readers “unpleasant feelings of shyness and distrust.”

Tolstoy criticized official, jingoistic works about the era of the Patriotic War of 1812 long before he began writing War and Peace. Creating one of the most patriotic works of world literature, Tolstoy denounced and exposed the false patriotism of official historians and opinionated fiction writers who glorified Tsar Alexander and his entourage and belittled the merits of the people and commander Kutuzov. All of them depicted the victory of the Russian army over the armies of Napoleon in the style of victory reports, the spirit of which Tolstoy hated even during the time of his participation in the defense of Sevastopol.

Beginning his stories about the defenders of Sevastopol, Tolstoy warned the reader: “You... will not see the war in a correct, beautiful, brilliant system with music and drumming, with fluttering banners and prancing generals, but you will see the war in its real expression - in blood, in suffering , in death."