Peter 1 black and white portrait. Peter I: biography in portraits

According to various sociological surveys, Peter I remains one of the most popular historical figures in our time. Sculptors still exalt him, poets compose odes to him, and politicians speak enthusiastically about him.

But did the real person Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov correspond to the image that, through the efforts of writers and filmmakers, was introduced into our consciousness?

Still from the film "Peter the Great" based on the novel by A. N. Tolstoy (Lenfilm, 1937 - 1938, director Vladimir Petrov,
in the role of Peter - Nikolai Simonov, in the role of Menshikov - Mikhail Zharov):

Let's start with the fact that the majority imagines Peter I to be absolutely different from what he really was.

According to the films, Peter is a huge man with a heroic physique and the same health.
In fact, with a height of 2 meters 4 centimeters (indeed, huge in those days, and quite impressive in our times), he was incredibly thin, with narrow shoulders and torso, a disproportionately small head and foot size (about size 37, and this is with so tall!), with long arms and spider-like fingers. In general, an absurd, awkward, clumsy figure, a freak of a freak.

The clothes of Peter I, preserved to this day in museums, are so small that there can be no talk of any heroic physique. In addition, Peter suffered from nervous attacks, probably of an epileptic nature, was constantly ill, and never parted with a traveling first aid kit containing many medications that he took daily.

Peter's court portrait painters and sculptors should not be trusted either.
For example, the famous researcher of the Peter I era, historian E. F. Shmurlo (1853 - 1934) describes his impression of the famous bust of Peter I by B. F. Rastrelli:

“Full of spiritual power, an unyielding will, a commanding gaze, an intense thought, this bust is related to Michelangelo’s Moses. This is a truly formidable king, capable of causing awe, but at the same time majestic and noble.”

This more accurately conveys the appearance of Peter plaster mask taken from his face in 1718 the father of the great architect - B. K. Rastrelli , when the tsar was conducting an investigation into the treason of Tsarevich Alexei.

This is how the artist describes it A. N. Benois (1870 - 1960):“At this time, Peter’s face became gloomy, downright terrifying in its menacingness. One can imagine what impression this terrible head, placed on a gigantic body, must have made, with darting eyes and terrible convulsions that turned this face into a monstrously fantastic image.”

Of course, the real appearance of Peter I was completely different from what appears before us on his ceremonial portraits.
For example, these:

Portrait of Peter I (1698) by a German artist
Gottfried Kneller (1648 - 1723)

Portrait of Peter I with the insignia of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called (1717)
works by the French painter Jean-Marc Nattier (1685 - 1766)

Please note that between the painting of this portrait and the making of Peter’s lifetime mask
Rastrelli was only a year old. Are they really similar?

Most popular currently and highly romanticized
in accordance with the time of creation (1838) portrait of Peter I
works by the French artist Paul Delaroche (1797 - 1856)

Trying to be objective, I cannot help but note that monument to Peter I , works of sculptor Mikhail Shemyakin , made by him in the USA and installed in the Peter and Paul Fortress in 1991 , also little corresponds to the real image of the first Russian emperor, although, quite possibly, the sculptor sought to embody that same "monstrously fantastic image" , which Benoit spoke about.

Yes, Peter's face was made from his death wax mask (cast by B.K. Rastrelli). But Mikhail Shemyakin consciously, achieving a certain effect, increased the proportions of the body by almost one and a half times. Therefore, the monument turned out to be grotesque and ambiguous (some people admire it, while others hate it).

However, the figure of Peter I himself is very ambiguous, which is what I want to tell everyone who is interested in Russian history.

At the end of this part about another myth concerning death of Peter I .

Peter did not die from catching a cold while saving a boat with drowning people during a flood in St. Petersburg in November 1724 (although such a case actually happened, and it led to an exacerbation of the Tsar’s chronic illnesses); and not from syphilis (although from his youth Peter was extremely promiscuous in his relationships with women and had a whole bunch of sexually transmitted diseases); and not because he was poisoned with some “specially gifted sweets” - all these are widespread myths.
The official version, announced after the death of the emperor, according to which the cause of his death was pneumonia, does not stand up to criticism either.

In fact, Peter I had advanced inflammation of the urethra (he suffered from this disease since 1715, according to some sources, even since 1711). The disease worsened in August 1724. The attending physicians, the Englishman Horn and the Italian Lazzaretti, tried unsuccessfully to cope with it. From January 17, 1725, Peter no longer got out of bed; on January 23, he lost consciousness, to which he never returned until his death on January 28.

"Peter on his deathbed"
(artist N. N. Nikitin, 1725)

Doctors performed the operation, but it was too late; 15 hours after the operation, Peter I died without regaining consciousness and without leaving a will.

So, all the stories about how at the last moment the dying emperor tried to write his last will on his will, but only managed to write "Leave everything..." , are also nothing more than a myth, or if you want, a legend.

In the next short part so as not to make you sad, I’ll give you historical anecdote about Peter I , which, however, also refers to the myths about this ambiguous personality.

Thank you for attention.
Sergey Vorobiev.

Often my historical research follows the principle “He went to Odessa and came out to Kherson.” That is, I was looking for information on one topic, but found it on a completely different issue. But also interesting. So it is this time. Meet: Peter 1 through the eyes of foreign artists... Well, okay, a couple of ours were there too.

Peter I, nicknamed Peter the Great, Russian Tsar in 1697. Based on the original by P. Van der Werff. Versailles.

Portrait of Peter the Great. XVIII century. J.-B. Weiler. Louvre.


Portrait of Tsar Peter the Great. XVIII century. Unknown. Louvre.

Portrait of Tsar Peter I. 1712. J.-F. Dinglinger. Dresden.

I didn’t understand what nationality the artist is. It seems that he is still French, since he studied in France. I transcribed his last name as French, but who knows...

Portrait of Peter the Great. XVIII-XIX centuries Unknown artist of the Russian school. Louvre.

Portrait of Peter the Great. 1833. M.-V. Jacotot based on an original by a Dutch artist. Louvre.

Portrait of Peter the Great. Until 1727. Sh. Bois. Louvre.

Portrait of Peter the Great. Around 1720. P. Bois the Elder. Louvre.

Peter the Great (presumable). XVII century N. Lanyo. Chantilly.

This portrait, of course, made me fall. I don’t understand where they saw Peter here.

Well, we're done with the portraits, let's look at the paintings.

An incident from the youth of Peter the Great. 1828. C. de Steben. Museum of Fine Arts in Valenciennes.


Yes, that golden-haired youth is the future Tsar Peter I. Wow!

Peter the Great in Amsterdam. 1796. Pavel Ivanov. Louvre.

Louis XV pays a visit to Tsar Peter at the Lediguieres' mansion on May 10, 1717. XVIII century L.M.Zh. Ersan. Versailles.


If anyone doesn’t understand, the French king settled down in the arms of our king.

"Portrait of Peter the Great."
Engraving from a painting by Benner.

However, Peter didn’t really like dudes either. “It has reached us,” he wrote in one of the decrees, “that the sons of eminent people in gispan trousers and camisoles flaunt along Nevsky Prospekt insolently. I order the Governor of St. Petersburg: from now on, catch these dandies and beat them with a whip in the ass... until the very obscene look remains of the Spanish pants."

Vasily Belov. "Lad." Moscow, "Young Guard". 1982

Ivan Nikitich Nikitin.
"Peter I against the backdrop of a naval battle."
1715.

Hasty and active, feverish activity, which began naturally in early youth, now continued out of necessity and did not stop almost until the end of his life, until the age of 50. The Northern War, with its anxieties, with defeats at first and with victories later, finally determined Peter’s way of life and informed the direction, set the pace of his transformative activities. He had to live from day to day, keep up with the events quickly rushing past him, rush towards new state needs and dangers that arose daily, without having time to take a breath, come to his senses, or figure out a plan of action in advance. And in the Northern War, Peter chose a role for himself that corresponded to the usual activities and tastes acquired from childhood, impressions and knowledge brought from abroad. This was not the role of either a sovereign ruler or a military general-commander-in-chief. Peter did not sit in the palace, like previous kings, sending decrees everywhere, directing the activities of his subordinates; but he rarely stood at the head of his regiments to lead them into the fire, like his enemy Charles XII. However, Poltava and Gangud will forever remain in the military history of Russia as bright monuments of Peter’s personal participation in military affairs on land and at sea. Leaving his generals and admirals to act at the front, Peter took upon himself the less prominent technical part of the war: he usually remained behind his army, arranged its rear, recruited recruits, drew up plans for military movements, built ships and military factories, prepared ammunition, provisions and military shells, stored everything, encouraged everyone, urged, scolded, fought, hanged, galloped from one end of the state to the other, was something like a general feldzeichmeister, a general provisions master and a ship chief master. Such tireless activity, which lasted almost three decades, shaped and strengthened Peter’s concepts, feelings, tastes and habits. Peter was cast one-sidedly, but in relief, came out heavy and at the same time eternally mobile, cold, but every minute ready for noisy explosions - exactly like the cast iron cannon of his Petrozavodsk casting.

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky. "Course of Russian history".

Louis Caravaque.
"Peter I, commander of the four united fleets in 1716."
1716.

Andrey Grigorievich Ovsov.
"Portrait of Peter I".
Miniature on enamel.
1725. Hermitage,
Saint Petersburg.

Dutch paintings appeared on the banks of the Neva in 1716, long before the museum was founded. This year, more than one hundred and twenty paintings were purchased for Peter I in Holland, and after that almost the same number of canvases were purchased in Brussels and Antwerp. Somewhat later, English merchants sent the king another one hundred and nineteen works. Peter I’s favorite subjects were scenes from the life of “Dutch men and women,” and Rembrandt was among his favorite artists.

L.P. Tikhonov. "Museums of Leningrad". Leningrad, "Lenizdat". 1989

Ivan Nikitich Nikitin.
"Portrait of Peter I".
1717.

Jacob Houbraken.
"Portrait of Emperor Peter the Great."
Engraving based on the original by Karl Moor.
1718.

Another portrait was painted by the Dutchman Karl Moor in 1717, when Peter traveled to Paris to hasten the end of the Northern War and prepare the marriage of his 8-year-old daughter Elizabeth with the 7-year-old French King Louis XV.

Parisian observers that year portrayed Peter as a ruler who had learned his commanding role well, with the same penetrating, sometimes wild look, and at the same time as a politician who knew how to treat pleasantly when meeting the right person. Peter was then already so aware of his importance that he neglected decency: when leaving his Parisian apartment, he calmly got into someone else’s carriage, felt like a master everywhere, on the Seine, as on the Neva. This is not the case with K. Moore. The mustache, as if glued on, is more noticeable here than on Kneller’s. In the set of the lips and, especially in the expression of the eyes, as if painful, almost sad, one senses fatigue: you think that the person is about to ask permission to rest a little. His own greatness crushed him; there is no trace of either youthful self-confidence or mature contentment with one’s work. At the same time, we must remember that this portrait depicts Peter, who came from Paris to Holland, to Spa, to be treated for an illness that buried him 8 years later.

Miniature on enamel.
Portrait of Peter I (bust-length).
1712.
Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

"Family portrait of Peter I."
1712.

"The Family of Peter I in 1717."

“Katerinushka, my dear friend, hello!”

This is how dozens of letters from Peter to Catherine began. There was indeed a warm cordiality in their relationship. Years later, in correspondence, there is a love game between a pseudo-unequal couple - an old man, constantly complaining about illness and old age, and his young wife. Having received a parcel from Catherine with the glasses he needed, he sends jewelry in response: “On both sides, worthy gifts: you sent me to help my old age, and I send them to decorate your youth.” In another letter, blazing with a youthful thirst for meeting and intimacy, the tsar again jokes: “Although I want to see you, but you, tea, much more, because I'm in[yours] I was 27 years old, and you[my] I haven’t been there for 42 years.” Catherine supports this game, she jokes in tone with the “cordial old man”, is indignant and indignant: “It’s a waste of time, that old man!” She is deliberately jealous of the Tsar, either of the Swedish queen or of the Parisian coquettes, to which he responds with feigned insult: “Why are you writing that I will soon find a lady [in Paris], and that is indecent for my old age.”

Catherine's influence on Peter is enormous, and it grows over the years. She gives him something that the whole world of his external life - hostile and complex - cannot give. He - a stern, suspicious, difficult man - is transformed in her presence. She and the children are his only outlet in the endless, difficult circle of state affairs, from which there is no way out. Contemporaries recall amazing scenes. It is known that Peter was subject to attacks of deep blues, which often turned into fits of frenzied anger, when he destroyed and swept away everything in his path. All this was accompanied by terrible facial spasms, convulsions of the arms and legs. Holstein minister G. F. Bassevich recalls that as soon as the courtiers noticed the first signs of a seizure, they ran after Catherine. And then a miracle happened: “She began to talk to him, and the sound of her voice immediately calmed him down, then she sat him down and took him, caressing him, by the head, which she scratched lightly. This had a magical effect on him, and he fell asleep in a few minutes. In order not to disturb his sleep, she held his head on her chest and sat motionless for two or three hours. After that, he woke up completely fresh and alert.”
She not only cast out the demon from the king. She knew his preferences, weaknesses, quirks, and she knew how to please, please, simply and affectionately do something pleasant. Knowing how upset Peter was because his “son”, the ship “Gangut,” had somehow received damage, she wrote to the Tsar in the army that the “Gangut” had arrived after successful repairs “to her brother “Lesnoy,” with whom she had now copulated and standing in one place, which I saw with my own eyes, and it is truly joyful to look at them!” No, neither Dunya nor Ankhen could ever write so sincerely and simply! The former port-washer knew what was dear to the great skipper of Russia more than anything in the world.

"Portrait of Peter I".
1818.

Peter Belov.
"Peter I and Venus".

Probably, not all readers will be satisfied with me, because I did not talk about the Tauride Venus, which has long served as an adornment of our Hermitage. But I have no desire to repeat the story about her almost criminal appearance on the banks of the Neva, since this has already been written about more than once.

Yes, we wrote a lot. Or rather, they didn’t even write, but rewrote what was known earlier, and all historians, as if by agreement, unanimously repeated the same version, misleading readers. For a long time it was believed that Peter I simply exchanged the statue of Venus for the relics of St. Brigitte, which he allegedly received as a trophy during the capture of Revel. Meanwhile, as it recently became clear, Peter I could not have made such a profitable exchange for the reason that the relics of St. Brigitte rested in Uppsala, Sweden, and the Tauride Venus went to Russia because the Vatican wanted to please the Russian emperor, whose greatness Europe no longer doubted.

An ignorant reader will involuntarily think: if the Venus de Milo was found on the island of Milos, then the Tauride Venus, presumably, was found in Taurida, in other words, in the Crimea?
Alas, it was discovered in the vicinity of Rome, where it lay in the ground for thousands of years. “Venus the Most Pure” was transported in a special carriage with springs, which saved her fragile body from risky jolts on potholes, and only in the spring of 1721 she appeared in St. Petersburg, where the emperor was eagerly awaiting her.

She was the first ancient statue that the Russians could see, and I would be lying if I said that she was greeted with unprecedented delight...

Against! There was such a good artist Vasily Kuchumov, who in the painting “Venus the Most Pure” captured the moment of the appearance of the statue in front of the king and his courtiers. Peter I himself looks at her point-blank, very decisively, but Catherine hid a grin, many turned away, and the ladies covered themselves with fans, ashamed to look at the pagan revelation. They weren’t ashamed to swim in the Moscow River in front of all the honest people wearing what their mother gave birth to, but to see the nakedness of a woman embodied in marble, you see, it became shameful for them!

Realizing that not everyone would approve of the appearance of Venus on the paths of the capital's Summer Garden, the emperor ordered her to be placed in a special pavilion, and posted sentries with guns for protection.
- Why did you gape? - they shouted to passers-by. - Go away, it’s none of your business..., the king’s!
The sentries were needed for good reason. People of the old school mercilessly scolded the Tsar-Antichrist, who, they say, spends money on “naked girls, filthy idols”; passing by the pavilion, the Old Believers spat, crossing themselves, and others even threw apple cores and all sorts of evil spirits at Venus, seeing in the pagan statue something satanic, almost a devilish obsession - to temptations...

Valentin Pikul. "What Venus held in her hand."

Johann Koprtzki.
"Peter the Great".

Among the great people of the past there was one amazing person who, although not a professional scientist, was nevertheless personally acquainted with many outstanding naturalists at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries.

In Holland, he attended lectures by the famous chemist, botanist and physician G. Boerhaave (1668-1738), the same one who was the first to use a thermometer in medical practice. With him he examined the exotic plants of the Leiden Botanical Garden. The scientists there showed him the newly discovered “microscopic objects” in Delft. In Germany, this man met with the president of the Berlin Scientific Society, the famous mathematician and philosopher G. Leibniz (1646-1716). He was in friendly correspondence with him, as well as with another famous mathematician and natural scientist, H. Wolf (1679-1754). In England, he was shown the famous Greenwich Observatory by its founder and first director J. Flamsteed (1646-1720). In this country, he was warmly received by Oxford scientists, and some historians believe that during the inspection of the Mint, the director of this institution, Isaac Newton, talked to him...

In France, this man met with professors from the University of Paris: astronomer J. Cassini (1677-1756), famous mathematician P. Varignon (1654-1722) and cartographer G. Delisle (1675-1726). Especially for him, a demonstration meeting, an exhibition of inventions and a demonstration of chemical experiments were organized at the Paris Academy of Sciences. At this meeting, the guest discovered such amazing abilities and versatile knowledge that the Paris Academy elected him as a member on December 22, 1717.

In a letter expressing gratitude regarding his election, the unusual guest wrote: “We want nothing more than to bring science to its best color through the diligence that we will apply.” And as subsequent events showed, these words were not a tribute to official politeness: after all, this amazing person was Peter the Great, who “to bring science to its best color” decided to create the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences...

G. Smirnov. "The great one who knew all the great ones." “Technology for Youth” No. 6 1980.

Francesco Vendramini.
"Portrait of Peter I".

"Peter the Great".
XIX century.

A. Herzen once called Peter I “a crowned revolutionary.” And the fact that this was indeed the case, that Peter was a mental giant, towering above the majority of his even enlightened compatriots, is evidenced by the most curious history of the publication in Russian of “Cosmoteoros” - a treatise in which Newton’s famous contemporary, the Dutchman H. Huygens, outlined and developed in detail Copernican system.

Peter I, quickly realizing the falsity of geocentric ideas, was a convinced Copernican and in 1717, while in Paris, bought himself a moving model of the Copernican system. At the same time, he ordered the translation and publication of Huygens’s treatise, published in The Hague in 1688, in 1200 copies. But the king’s order was not carried out...

The director of the St. Petersburg printing house M. Avramov, having read the translation, was horrified: the book, according to him, was saturated with “satanic cunning” and “devilish intrigues” of Copernican teaching. “Trembling in heart and horrified in spirit,” the director decided to violate the tsar’s direct order. But since there were no jokes with Peter, Avramov, at his own peril and risk, only dared to reduce the circulation of the “atheistic book of an extravagant author.” Instead of 1200 copies, only 30 were printed - only for Peter himself and his closest associates. But this trick, apparently, did not escape the tsar: in 1724, “The Book of the World, or Opinion on the Heavenly-Earthly Globes and Their Decorations” was published again.

“An atheistic book by an extravagant author.” “Technology for Youth” No. 7 1975.

Sergey Kirillov.
Sketch for the painting "Peter the Great".
1982.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Ge.
"Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei."

The documents relating to the case of Tsarevich Alexei and stored in the State Archives of the Empire are numerous...

Pushkin saw documents about the torture that the prince was subjected to during the investigation, but in his “History of Peter” he writes that “the prince died poisoned.” Meanwhile, Ustryalov makes it clear that the prince died, unable to withstand the new torture to which he was subjected by order of Peter after the death sentence was announced. Peter was apparently afraid that the prince sentenced to death would take with him the names of his accomplices, who had not yet been named by him. We know that the Secret Chancellery and Peter himself were looking for them for a long time after the death of the prince.

The official version said that upon hearing the death sentence, the prince “felt a terrible cramp throughout his whole body, from which he died the next day.”* Voltaire in his “History of Russia during the reign of Peter the Great” says that Peter came to the call of the dying Alexei, “both he and the other shed tears, the unfortunate son asked for forgiveness” and “his father forgave him publicly”**. But the reconciliation was late, and Alexei died from an apoplexy that befell him the day before. Voltaire himself did not believe this version and on November 9, 1761, while working on his book about Peter, he wrote to Shuvalov: “People shrug their shoulders when they hear that the twenty-three-year-old prince died of a stroke while reading the sentence, the abolition of which he should have hoped.” ***.
__________________________________
* I. I. Golikov. Acts of Peter the Great, vol. VI. M., 1788, p. 146.
** Voltaire. History of the Russian Empire during the reign of Peter the Great. Translated by S. Smirnov, part II, book. 2, 1809, p. 42.
*** This letter was published in the 34th volume of the 42-volume collection. op. Voltaire, published in Paris in 1817-1820...

Ilya Feinberg. Reading Pushkin's notebooks. Moscow, “Soviet Writer”. 1985.

Christoph Bernard Franke.
"Portrait of Tsarevich Alexei, son of Peter I, father of Peter II."

The extinguished candle

Tsarevich Alexei was strangled in the Trubetskoy bastion of the Peter and Paul Fortress. Peter and Catherine breathed freely: the problem of succession to the throne was resolved. The youngest son grew up, touching his parents: “Our dear Shishechka often mentions his dear father and, with the help of God, gets into his condition and constantly has fun with drilling soldiers and cannon fire.” And even if the soldiers and guns are still wooden, the sovereign is happy: an heir, a soldier of Russia, is growing up. But neither the care of the nannies nor the desperate love of his parents saved the boy. In April 1719, after being ill for several days, he died, not having lived even three and a half years. Apparently, the disease that claimed the baby’s life was an ordinary flu, which always took its terrible toll in our city. For Peter and Catherine, this was a severe blow - the foundation of their well-being suffered a deep crack. After the death of the empress herself in 1727, that is, eight years after the death of Pyotr Petrovich, his toys and belongings were found in her belongings - not Natalia, who died later (in 1725), not other children, namely Petrusha. The stationery register is touching: “A gold cross, silver buckles, a whistle with bells and a gold chain, a glass fish, a jasper cooker, a fuselette, a skewer - a golden hilt, a tortoiseshell whip, a cane...” You can just see the inconsolable mother sorting through these little things.

At the funeral liturgy in the Trinity Cathedral on April 26, 1719, an ominous event occurred: one of those present - as it later turned out, the Pskov landrat and relative of Evdokia Lopukhina Stepan Lopukhin - said something to the neighbors and laughed blasphemously. In the dungeon of the Secret Chancellery, one of the witnesses later testified that Lopukhin said: “Even his, Stepan’s, candle has not gone out, there will be time for him, Lopukhin, from now on.” From the rack, where he was immediately pulled up, Lopukhin explained the meaning of his words and laughter: “He said that his candle did not go out because Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich remained, thinking that Stepan Lopukhin would have good things ahead.” Peter was filled with despair and powerlessness as he read the lines of this interrogation. Lopukhin was right: his, Peter’s, candle was blown out, and the candle of the son of the hated Tsarevich Alexei was flaring up. The same age as the late Shishechka, the orphan Pyotr Alekseevich, not warmed by the love of loved ones or the attention of nannies, was growing up, and everyone who was waiting for the end of the tsar rejoiced - the Lopukhins and many other enemies of the reformer.

Peter thought intensely about the future: he still had Catherine and three “robbers” - Annushka, Lizanka and Natalya. And in order to untie his hands, on February 5, 1722, he adopted a unique legal act - the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne.” The meaning of the “Charter” was clear to everyone: the tsar, breaking the tradition of passing the throne from father to son and further to the grandson, reserved the right to appoint any of his subjects as heirs. He called the previous order “an old bad custom.” It was difficult to imagine a more vivid expression of autocracy - now the tsar controlled not only today, but also the future of the country. And on November 15, 1723, a manifesto about the upcoming coronation of Ekaterina Alekseevna was published.

Evgeny Anisimov. "Women on the Russian throne."

Yuri Chistyakov.
"Emperor Peter I".
1986.

“Portrait of Peter I against the backdrop of the Peter and Paul Fortress and Trinity Square.”
1723.

In 1720, Peter laid the foundation for Russian archeology. In all dioceses, he ordered the collection of ancient charters, historical manuscripts and early printed books from monasteries and churches. Governors, vice-governors and provincial authorities were ordered to inspect it all, dismantle it and write it off. This measure did not turn out to be successful, and subsequently Peter, as we will see, changed it.

N. I. Kostomarov. "Russian history in the biographies of its main figures." St. Petersburg, "All". 2005 year.

Sergey Kirillov.
Study of the head of Peter for the painting “Thoughts about Russia” (Peter the Great).
1984.

Sergey Kirillov.
Duma about Russia (Peter the Great).
1984.

P. Soubeyran.
"PeterI».
Engraving from the original by L. Caravacca.
1743.

P. Soubeyran.
"Peter I".
Engraving based on the original by L. Caravacca.
1743.

Dmitry Kardovsky.
"The Senate of Peter's time."
1908.

Peter denied himself and the Senate the right to give verbal decrees. According to the General Regulations of February 28, 1720, only written decrees of the Tsar and the Senate are legally binding for colleges.

Sergey Kirillov.
"Portrait of Peter the Great."
1995.

Adolf Iosifovich Charlemagne.
“Peter I declares the Peace of Nystad.”

The conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt was celebrated with a seven-day masquerade. Peter was overjoyed that he had ended the endless war, and, forgetting his years and illnesses, sang songs and danced on the tables. The celebration took place in the Senate building. In the midst of the feast, Peter got up from the table and went to the yacht standing off the bank of the Neva to sleep, ordering the guests to wait for his return. The abundance of wine and noise at this long celebration did not prevent the guests from feeling bored and burdened by the obligatory fun along the way, even with a fine for evasion (50 rubles, about 400 rubles in our money). A thousand masks walked, pushed, drank, danced for a whole week, and everyone was very happy when the official fun lasted until the specified date.

V. O. Klyuchevsky. "Russian History". Moscow, Eksmo. 2005 year.

"Celebration at Peter's"

By the end of the Northern War, a significant calendar of annual court holidays had been compiled, which included Victorian celebrations, and from 1721 they were joined by the annual celebration of the Peace of Nystadt. But Peter especially loved to have fun on the occasion of the launching of a new ship: he was happy with the new ship, like a newborn brainchild. In that century they drank a lot everywhere in Europe, no less than now, and in the highest circles, especially the courtiers, perhaps even more. The St. Petersburg court did not lag behind its foreign models.

Thrifty in everything, Peter did not spare expenses on drinking bouts, which were used to inject the newly-constructed swimmer. The entire high society of the capital of both sexes was invited to the ship. These were real sea drinking parties, the ones that lead to or from which comes the saying that the sea is knee-deep drunk. They used to drink until old Admiral General Apraksin began to cry and burst into burning tears that here he was, in his old age, left an orphan, without a father, without a mother. And the Minister of War, His Serene Highness Prince Menshikov, will fall under the table, and his frightened Princess Dasha will come running from the ladies’ room to take a leak and scrub off her lifeless husband. But the feast did not always end so simply. At the table, Peter will flare up at someone and, irritated, will run to the ladies' quarters, forbidding his interlocutors to leave until he returns, and will assign a soldier to the exit. Until Catherine calmed down the dispersed tsar, put him to bed and let him sleep, everyone sat in their places, drank and was bored.

V. O. Klyuchevsky. "Russian History". Moscow, Eksmo. 2005 year.

Jacopo Amigoni (Amiconi).
"Peter I with Minerva (with the allegorical figure of Glory)."
Between 1732-1734.
Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

Nikolai Dmitrievich Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.
“The Persian campaign of Peter the Great. Emperor Peter I is the first to land on shore.”

Louis Caravaque.
"Portrait of Peter I".
1722.

Louis Caravaque.
"Portrait of Peter I".

"Portrait of Peter I".
Russia. XVIII century.
Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

Jean Marc Nattier.
"Portrait of Peter I in knightly armor."

“The Journal of Peter the Great,” published by Prince Shcherbatov half a century after Peter’s death, is, according to historians, a work that we have the right to look at as the work of Peter himself. This “journal” is nothing more than the History of the Sveian (that is, Swedish) war, which Peter waged throughout most of his reign.

Feofan Prokopovich, Baron Huyssen, cabinet secretary Makarov, Shafirov and some other close associates of Peter worked on the preparation of this “History”. The archives of the Cabinet of Peter the Great contained eight preliminary editions of this work, five of which were edited by the hand of Peter himself.
Having familiarized himself upon his return from the Persian campaign with the edition of the “History of the Suean War”, prepared as a result of four years of work by Makarov, Peter “with his characteristic ardor and attention read the entire work with pen in hand and did not leave a single page of it uncorrected... Few places of Makarov’s work survived: everything important, the main thing belongs to Peter himself, especially since the articles left unchanged by him were copied by the editor from his own draft papers or from journals edited by his own hand.” Peter attached great importance to this work and, while doing it, appointed a special day for his historical studies - Saturday morning.

"Portrait of Peter I".
1717.
Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

"Portrait of Peter I".
Copy from the original by J. Nattier.
1717.

"Emperor Peter"IAlexeyevich".

"Portrait of PeterI».

Peter almost did not know the world: all his life he fought with someone, now with his sister, now with Turkey, Sweden, even with Persia. Since the autumn of 1689, when the reign of Princess Sophia ended, of the 35 years of his reign, only one year, 1724, passed completely peacefully, and from other years one can accumulate no more than 13 peaceful months.

V. O. Klyuchevsky. "Russian History". Moscow, Eksmo. 2005.

"Peter the Great in his workshop."
1870.
Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

A. Schonebeck. The head of Peter was made by A. Zubov.
"Peter I".
1721.

Sergey Prisekin.
"Peter I".
1992.

Saint-Simon was, in particular, a master of dynamic portraiture, able to convey contrasting features and thus create the person he writes about. Here is what he wrote about Peter in Paris: “Peter I, Tsar of Muscovy, both at home and throughout Europe and Asia, acquired such a loud and deserved name that I will not take upon myself to portray this great and glorious sovereign, equal to the greatest men of antiquity, a wonder of this age, a wonder for centuries to come, an object of greedy curiosity throughout Europe. The uniqueness of this sovereign’s trip to France in its extraordinary nature, it seems to me, is worth not forgetting even the slightest of its details and telling about it without interruption...

Peter was a very tall man, very slender, rather thin; he had a round face, a large forehead, beautiful eyebrows, a rather short nose, but not too round at the end, thick lips; the complexion was reddish and dark, beautiful black eyes, large, lively, penetrating and well-defined, the gaze majestic and pleasant when he controlled himself; otherwise, stern and stern, accompanied by a convulsive movement that distorted his eyes and entire physiognomy and gave it a menacing appearance. This was repeated, however, not often; Moreover, the king’s wandering and terrible gaze lasted only one moment; he immediately recovered.

His whole appearance revealed intelligence, thoughtfulness, greatness, and was not without grace. He wore a round dark brown wig without powder that did not reach his shoulders; a dark, tight-fitting camisole, smooth, with gold buttons, stockings of the same color, but did not wear gloves or cuffs - there was an order star on the chest over the dress, and a ribbon under the dress. The dress was often completely unbuttoned; The hat was always on the table; he did not wear it even on the street. With all this simplicity, sometimes in a bad carriage and almost without an escort, it was impossible not to recognize him by the majestic appearance that was characteristic of him.

How much he drank and ate at lunch and dinner is incomprehensible... His retinue at the table drank and ate even more, and at 11 am exactly the same as at 8 pm.

The king understood French well and, I think, could speak this language if he wanted; but, for greater greatness, he had an interpreter; He spoke Latin and other languages ​​very well...”
I think it would not be an exaggeration to say that there is no other equally magnificent verbal portrait of Peter as we have just given.

Ilya Feinberg. "Reading Pushkin's notebooks." Moscow, “Soviet Writer”. 1985

August Tolyander.
"Portrait of Peter I".

Every schoolchild knows that Peter I, reforming the state administrative management of Russia, created 12 boards instead of the previous orders. But few people know exactly which colleges Peter established. It turns out that of all 12 colleges, three were considered the main ones: military, naval and foreign affairs. Three boards were in charge of the financial affairs of the state: income - the chamber board, - expenses - the state board, and control - the audit board. The affairs of trade and industry were carried out by the Commerce, Manufacture and Berg Collegiums. The series was completed by the justice college, the spiritual college - the synod - and the chief magistrate, who was in charge of city affairs. It is not difficult to see what a colossal development technology and industry have received over the past 250 years: affairs that in Peter’s time were managed by only two boards - the manufacturing and berg boards - are now managed by about fifty ministries!

"Technology for youth." 1986

On June 9, 1672, the first Russian emperor, the reformer Tsar Peter I the Great, was born - the Tsar from the Romanov dynasty, the last Tsar of All Rus', the first All-Russian Emperor (since 1721), the man who shaped the main directions of development of the Russian state in the 18th century, one of the most prominent statesmen in the history of Russia.

Childhood and adolescence of Peter the Great.

Peter I the Great was born on May 30 (June 9), 1672 in Moscow in the family of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Peter was the youngest son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Tsar Alexei was married twice: the first time to Marya Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya (1648-1669), the second time to Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina (from 1671). From his first marriage he had 13 children. Many of them died during their father’s lifetime, and of the sons, only Fyodor and Ivan survived him, although they were both seriously ill. Perhaps the thought of being left without heirs prompted Tsar Alexei to rush into a second marriage. The Tsar met his second wife Natalya in the house of Artamon Sergeevich Matveev, where she grew up and was brought up in a reformation environment. Infatuated with a beautiful and intelligent girl, the king promised to find her a groom and soon wooed her himself. In 1672, on May 30, they gave birth to a beautiful and healthy boy, who was named Peter. The king was very happy about the birth of his son. The relatives of his young wife, Matveev and the Naryshkin family were also happy. The Tsarevich was baptized only on June 29 in the Chudov Monastery, and Tsarevich Fyodor Alekseevich was the godfather. According to ancient custom, the newborn baby’s measurements were taken and the icon of the Apostle Peter was painted in its size. The newborn was surrounded by a whole staff of mothers and nannies; Peter was fed by his nurse. If Tsar Alexei had lived longer, one could guarantee that Peter would have received the same excellent, for that time, education as his brother Fedor.

January 1676 died, then Peter was not yet four years old, and a fierce dispute arose between the Naryshkins and the Miloslavskys over the succession to the throne. 14-year-old Fyodor, one of the sons of Maria Miloslavskaya, ascended the throne. Having lost his father, Peter was raised until the age of ten under the supervision of the Tsar’s elder brother Fyodor Alekseevich, who chose clerk Nikita Zotov as his teacher, who taught the boy to read and write. Peter liked Zotov's fascinating stories about other countries and cities in those days that were little known to the Russian people. In addition, Zotov introduced Peter to the events of Russian history, showing and explaining to him chronicles decorated with drawings. But the reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich was very short-lived, since he died on April 27, 1682. After the death of Feodor, the tsar had to be elected, because there was no established succession to the throne.

After the death of Fedor in 1682, the throne was to be inherited by Ivan Alekseevich, but since he was in poor health, the Naryshkin supporters proclaimed Peter Tsar. However, the Miloslavskys, relatives of Alexei Mikhailovich’s first wife, did not accept this and provoked a Streltsy riot, during which ten-year-old Peter witnessed a brutal massacre of people close to him. Elected king for ten years, in 1682 he experienced a number of difficult moments. He saw the mutiny of the archers; old Matveev, they say, was torn out of his hands by the archers; Uncle Ivan Naryshkin was handed over to him before his eyes; he saw rivers of blood; his mother and himself were in danger of death every minute. The feeling of hostility towards the Miloslavskys, cultivated earlier, turned into hatred when Peter learned how guilty they were of the Streltsy movements. He treated the archers with hatred, calling them the seed of Ivan Mikhailovich Miloslavsky. Peter's childhood ended in such a turbulent way.

These events left an indelible mark on the boy’s memory, affecting both his mental health and his worldview. The result of the rebellion was a political compromise: two were elevated to the throne in 1682: Ivan (John) from the Miloslavskys and Peter from the Naryshkins, and Ivan’s sister Sofya Alekseevna was proclaimed ruler under the young kings. From that time on, Peter and his mother lived mainly in the villages of Preobrazhenskoye and Izmailovo, appearing in the Kremlin only to participate in official ceremonies, and their relationship with Sophia became increasingly hostile.

As a child, as we see, Peter did not receive any education other than simple literacy and some historical information. His amusements were of a childish military nature. Being a tsar, he was at the same time under disgrace and had to live with his mother in the amusing villages near Moscow, and not in the Kremlin palace. Such a sad situation deprived him of the opportunity to receive proper further education and at the same time freed him from the shackles of court etiquette. Lacking spiritual food, but having a lot of time and freedom, Peter himself had to look for activities and entertainment. In November 1683, Peter began to form the Preobrazhensky Regiment of willing people. In relation to this amusing regiment, Peter was not a sovereign, but a comrade-in-arms who studied military affairs along with other soldiers.
Maneuvers and small campaigns are undertaken, an amusing fortress is built on the Yauza (1685), called Presburg, and military science is studied not according to old Russian models, but according to the order of regular military service that was borrowed by Moscow from the West in the 17th century. Somewhat later than Peter’s war games were organized, a conscious desire to learn awoke in him. Self-study somewhat distracted Peter from exclusively military pastimes and broadened his mental horizons and practical activities. Time passed and Peter was already 17 years old, he was very developed both physically and mentally. His mother had the right to expect that her son, who had reached adulthood, would pay attention to state affairs and remove the hated Miloslavskys from them. But Peter was not interested in this and did not think of giving up his studies and fun for politics. To settle him down, his mother married him (January 27, 1689) to Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina, to whom Peter had no attraction. Obeying the will of his mother, Peter got married, but a month after the wedding he left for Pereyaslavl from his mother and wife to the ships. It should be noted that the art of navigation fascinated Peter so much that it became a passion in him. But in the summer of 1869, he was summoned by his mother to Moscow, because the fight with the Miloslavskys was inevitable.

The Pereyaslav fun and marriage ended the period of Peter's adolescence. Now he is an adult young man, accustomed to military affairs, getting used to shipbuilding and educating himself. At that time, Sophia understood that her time was approaching a denouement, that power should be given to Peter, but, not wanting this, she did not dare to take any drastic measures to strengthen herself on the throne. Peter, summoned by his mother to Moscow in the summer of 1689, began to show Sophia his power. In July, he forbade Sophia to participate in the procession, and when she did not listen, he left himself, thus causing public trouble for his sister. At the end of July, he barely agreed to issue awards to the participants of the Crimean campaign and did not receive Moscow military leaders when they came to thank him for the awards. When Sophia, frightened by Peter's antics, began to excite the Streltsy with the hope of finding support and protection in them, Peter, without hesitation, temporarily arrested the Streltsy chief Shaklovity. On the evening of August 7, Sophia gathered a significant armed force in the Kremlin. Seeing military preparations in the Kremlin, hearing incendiary speeches against Peter, the Tsar’s followers (among them were the Streltsy) let him know about the danger. Peter jumped straight out of bed onto his horse and, with three guides, rode off to the Trinity Lavra. From the Lavra, Peter and his leaders demanded a report on the weapons on August 7. At this time, Sophia tries to raise the archers and the people against Peter, but fails. The Sagittarius themselves force Sophia to hand over Shaklovity to Peter, whom he demanded. Shaklovity was interrogated and tortured, admitted to many plans against Peter in favor of Sophia, betrayed many like-minded people, but did not admit to plotting against Peter’s life. He and some Streltsy close to him were executed on September 11th. Together with the fate of Sophia's friends, her fate was also decided. Sophia received a direct order from Peter to live in the Novodevichy Convent, but did not become a nun. So, in the fall of 1689, Sophia’s reign ended

The beginning of one-man rule.

Since 1689, Peter became an independent ruler without any visible guardianship over him. The Tsar continued to study shipbuilding and military affairs from foreigners who lived in a German settlement in Moscow, and he studied diligently, sparing no effort. Foreigners now serve Peter not as teachers, but as friends, co-workers and mentors. Peter now freely at times flaunted himself in German dress, danced German dances and noisily feasted in German houses. Peter often began to visit the settlement (in the 17th century, foreigners were evicted from Moscow to a suburban settlement, which was called German), he even attended a Catholic service in the settlement, which, according to ancient Russian concepts, was completely indecent for him. Having become an ordinary guest in the settlement, Peter also found there the object of his heart’s passion, Anna Mons.
Little by little, Peter, without leaving Russia, in the settlement became familiar with the life of Western Europeans and cultivated the habit of Western forms of life.

But with his passion for the settlement, Peter’s former hobbies did not stop - military fun and shipbuilding. In 1690 we see great maneuvers near Presburg, a formidable fortress on the Yauza.

Peter spent the entire summer of 1692 in Pereyaslavl, where the entire Moscow court came to launch the ship. In 1693, Peter, with his mother’s permission, went to Arkhangelsk, enthusiastically rode on the sea and founded a shipyard in Arkhangelsk to build ships. His mother, Tsarina Natalya, died at the beginning of 1694. In the same year, 1694, maneuvers took place near the village of Kozhukhov, which cost several participants their lives. In 1695, the young Tsar clearly understood all the inconveniences of Arkhangelsk as a military and commercial port, realized that there could not be extensive trade near the Arctic Ocean, which was covered with ice most of the time, and that Arkhangelsk was too far from the center of the state - Moscow.

Ivan V died in 1696, leaving Peter as the only autocrat.

Peter's first war with Turkey.

Meanwhile, constant attacks by the Tatars on Rus' continued and the commitments made towards the allies gave rise to the idea in the Moscow government of the need to resume military operations against the Turks and Tatars. Peter’s first experience of leading real troops was the war with Turkey (1695-1700), which ruled the Crimea and the southern Russian steppes. Peter hoped to win access to the Black Sea. In 1695, the war began with Peter's campaign against the Azov fortress. In the spring, regular Moscow troops, numbering 30 thousand, reached Tsaritsyn along the Oka and Volga rivers, from there they crossed to the Don and appeared near Azov. But the strong Azov, receiving provisions and reinforcements from the sea, did not surrender. The assaults failed; The Russian army suffered from a lack of provisions and from a plurality of power (they were commanded by Lefort, Golovin and Gordon). Peter, who was himself in the army as a bombardier of the Preobrazhensky regiment, was convinced that Azov could not be taken without a fleet that would cut off the fortress from help from the sea. The Russians retreated in September 1695.

The failure, despite attempts to hide it, was made public. Peter's losses were no less than Golitsyn's losses in 1687 and 1689. The discontent among the people against foreigners, who were credited with failure, was very great. Peter did not lose heart, did not drive out the foreigners and did not leave the enterprise. For the first time here he showed the full power of his energy and in one winter, with the help of foreigners, he built a whole fleet of sea and river vessels on the Don, at the mouth of the Voronezh River. At the same time, Taganrog was founded as a base for the Russian navy on the Sea of ​​Azov. Parts of galleys and plows were built by carpenters and soldiers in Moscow and in forest areas close to the Don. These parts were then transported to Voronezh and entire ships were assembled from them. At Easter 1696, 30 sea vessels and more than 1000 river barges were already ready in Voronezh for transporting troops. In May, the Russian army moved from Voronezh along the Don to Azov and besieged it a second time. This time the siege was complete, because Peter’s fleet did not allow Turkish ships to reach Azov. Peter himself was present in the army (with the rank of captain) and finally waited for a happy moment: on July 18, Azov surrendered. The victory was celebrated with the solemn entry of troops into Moscow, festivities and great awards.

This was the first victory of young Peter, which significantly strengthened his authority. However, he realized that Russia was not yet strong enough to establish a strong foothold in the south. Further, Peter, taking care of attracting foreign technicians to Russia, decided to create Russian technicians as well. Fifty young courtiers were sent to Italy, Holland and England, i.e. to countries then famous for the development of navigation. High Moscow society was unpleasantly surprised by this innovation; Peter not only made friends with the Germans himself, but apparently wants to make friends with others as well. The Russian people were even more amazed when they learned that Peter himself was going abroad.

Peter's trip to Europe.

Soon after returning to the capital in 1697, the king went abroad with the Great Embassy. He was the first Russian monarch to appear abroad. Peter traveled incognito, in the retinue of the “great embassy,” under the name of Peter Alekseevich Mikhailov, a sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment.

The purpose of the trip was to reaffirm ancient friendship and love. The embassy was headed by generals Franz Lefort and Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin. They had 50 retinue people with them. Peter left Moscow and the state in the hands of the Boyar Duma.

And so, through Riga and Libau, the embassy went to Northern Germany. In Riga, which belonged to the Swedes, Peter received a number of unpleasant impressions both from the population (who sold food to the Russians at high prices) and from the Swedish administration. The governor of Riga (Dalberg) did not allow the Russians to inspect the fortifications of the city, and Peter looked at this as an insult. But in Courland the reception was more cordial, and in Prussia Elector Frederick greeted the Russian embassy extremely cordially. In Konigsberg, a number of holidays were given for Peter and the ambassadors.

Between the fun, Peter seriously studied artillery and received a diploma from Prussian specialists, recognizing him as a skilled firearms artist.

After some excursions in Germany, Peter went to Holland. In Holland, Peter first of all went to the town of Saardam; there were famous shipyards there. In Saardam, Peter began to do carpentry and ride on the sea. Peter then moved to Amsterdam, where he studied shipbuilding at the East India Dockyard.

Then England, Austria followed, and when Peter was getting ready for Italy, news came from Moscow about a new revolt of the archers. Although a report soon arrived that the riot had been suppressed, Peter hurried home.

On the way to Moscow, passing through Poland, Peter met with the new Polish king Augustus II, their meeting was very friendly (Russia strongly supported Augustus during the elections to the Polish throne). Augustus offered Peter an alliance against Sweden, and Peter, taught by the failure of his anti-Turkish plans, did not refuse the same refusal as he had previously answered in Prussia. He agreed in principle to the alliance. So, he took abroad the idea of ​​expelling the Turks from Europe, and from abroad he brought the idea of ​​fighting Sweden for the Baltic Sea.

What did traveling abroad give you? Its results are very great: firstly, it served to bring the Moscow state closer to Western Europe, and secondly, it finally developed the personality and direction of Peter himself. For Peter, the journey was the last act of self-education. He wanted to get information on shipbuilding, and in addition received a lot of impressions, a lot of knowledge. Peter spent more than a year abroad, and, realizing the superiority of the West, he decided to raise his state through reforms. Upon returning to Moscow on August 25, 1968, Peter immediately began reforms. At first he starts with cultural innovations, and then a little later he carries out reforms of the government system

The beginning of reforms in Russia.

Abroad, Peter’s political program basically took shape. Its ultimate goal was the creation of a regular police state based on universal service; the state was understood as the “common good.” The tsar himself considered himself the first servant of the fatherland, who was supposed to teach his subjects by his own example. Peter's unconventional behavior, on the one hand, destroyed the centuries-old image of the sovereign as a sacred figure, and on the other hand, it aroused protest among part of society (primarily the Old Believers, whom Peter cruelly persecuted), who saw the Antichrist in the tsar.

Having finished with the archers, Peter set out to weaken the power of the boyars. Peter's reforms began with the introduction of foreign dress and the order to shave the beards of everyone except peasants and the clergy. So, initially, Russian society turned out to be divided into two unequal parts: one (the nobility and the elite of the urban population) was intended to have a Europeanized culture imposed from above, the other preserved the traditional way of life. In 1699, a calendar reform was also carried out. A printing house was created in Amsterdam to publish secular books in Russian, and the first Russian order was founded - St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called. The Tsar encouraged training in crafts, created numerous workshops, introducing Russian people (often forcibly) to the Western style of life and work. The country was in dire need of its own qualified personnel, and therefore the king ordered young men from noble families to be sent abroad to study. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow. The reform of city government also began. After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, a new patriarch was not elected, and Peter created the Monastic Order to manage the church economy. Later, instead of the patriarch, a synodal government of the church was created, which remained until 1917. Simultaneously with the first transformations, preparations for war with Sweden were intensively underway.

War with the Swedes.

In September 1699, the Polish ambassador Karlowitz came to Moscow and proposed to Peter, on behalf of Poland and Denmark, a military alliance against Sweden. The agreement was concluded in November. However, in anticipation of peace with Turkey, Peter did not enter into the war that had already begun. On August 18, 1700, news was received of the conclusion of a 30-year truce with Turkey. The Tsar reasoned that the Baltic Sea was more important for access to the West than the Black Sea. On August 19, 1700, Peter declared war on Sweden (Northern War 1700-1721).

The war, the main goal of which was to consolidate Russia in the Baltic, began with the defeat of the Russian army near Narva in November 1700. However, this lesson served Peter well: he realized that the reason for the defeat was primarily in the backwardness of the Russian army, and with even greater energy he set about rearming it and creating regular regiments, first by collecting “dacha people”, and from 1705 by introducing conscription . The construction of metallurgical and weapons factories began, supplying the army with high-quality cannons and small arms. Many church bells were poured into cannons, and weapons were purchased abroad using confiscated church gold. Peter gathered a huge army, putting serfs, nobles and monks under arms, and in 1701-1702 he came close to the most important port cities of the eastern Baltic. In 1703, his army captured the swampy Ingria (Izhora land), and there on May 16, at the mouth of the Neva River on the island renamed by Peter from Yanni-Saari to Lust-Eiland (Jolly Island), a new capital was founded, named in honor of the Apostle Peter St. St. Petersburg. This city, according to Peter’s plan, was to become an exemplary “paradise” city.

During these same years, the Boyar Duma was replaced by a Council of Ministers consisting of members of the Tsar’s inner circle; along with Moscow orders, new institutions were created in St. Petersburg.

The Swedish king Charles XII fought in the depths of Europe with Saxony and Poland and neglected the threat from Russia. Peter did not waste time: fortresses were erected at the mouth of the Neva, ships were built at shipyards, the equipment for which was brought from Arkhangelsk, and soon a powerful Russian fleet arose on the Baltic Sea. Russian artillery, after its radical transformation, played a decisive role in the capture of the fortresses of Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia) and Narva (1704). Dutch and English ships appeared in the harbor near the new capital. In 1704-1707, the tsar firmly consolidated Russian influence in the Duchy of Courland.

Charles XII, having concluded peace with Poland in 1706, made a belated attempt to crush his Russian rival. He moved the war from the Baltic states into the interior of Russia, intending to take Moscow. At first, his offensive was successful, but the retreating Russian army deceived him with a cunning maneuver and inflicted a serious defeat at Lesnaya (1708). Charles turned south, and on June 27, 1709, his army was completely defeated in the Battle of Poltava. Up to 9,000 dead remained on the battlefield, and on June 30, the remaining part of the army (16 thousand soldiers) laid down their arms. The victory was complete - one of the best armies of that time, which had terrified all of Eastern Europe for nine years, ceased to exist. Peter sent two dragoon regiments in pursuit of the fleeing Charles XII, but he managed to escape to Turkish possessions.

After the council near Poltava, Field Marshal Sheremetev went to besiege Riga, and Menshikov, also promoted to field marshal, went to Poland to fight against the Swedes’ protege Leshchinsky, who was proclaimed Polish king instead of Augustus. Peter himself went to Poland and Germany, renewed his alliance with Augustus, and entered into a defensive alliance against Sweden with the Prussian king.

On June 12, 1710, Apraksin took Vyborg, on July 4, Sheremetev captured Riga, and on August 14, Pernov capitulated. On September 8, General Bruce forced the surrender of Kexholm (Old Russian Karela), thus the conquest of Karelia was completed. Finally, on September 29, Revel fell. Livonia and Estland were cleared of the Swedes and came under Russian rule.

War with Turkey and the end of the Northern War.

However, Charles XII was not yet completely defeated. Now in Turkey, he made efforts to quarrel between her and Peter and impose a war on Russia in the south. On October 20, 1710, the Turks tore the peace apart. The war with Turkey (1710-1713) was unsuccessful: in the Prut campaign (1711), Peter, along with his entire army, was surrounded and was forced to conclude a peace treaty, abandoning all previous conquests in the south. According to the agreement, Russia returned Azov to Turkey and destroyed the Taganrog harbor. The treaty was concluded on July 12, 1711.

Hostilities were resumed in the north, where Swedish field marshal Magnus Gustafson Steinbock assembled a large army. Russia and its allies defeated Steinbock in 1713. On July 27, 1714, on the Baltic Sea near Cape Gangut, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron. Following this, the island of Åland, located 15 miles from Stockholm, was captured. The news of this horrified all of Sweden, but Peter did not abuse his happiness and returned with the fleet to Russia. On September 9, the Tsar solemnly entered St. Petersburg. In the Senate, Peter reported to Prince Romodanovsky about the Battle of Gangut and was promoted to vice admiral.

On August 30, 1721, the Peace of Nystadt was signed: Russia received Livonia (with Riga), Estland (with Revel and Narva), part of Karelia, Izhora land and other territories, and Finland was returned to Sweden.

In 1722-1723 Peter led a successful campaign against Persia, capturing Baku and Derbent.

Management reform.

Before setting off on the Prut campaign, Peter founded the Governing Senate, which had the functions of the main body of executive, judicial and legislative power. In 1717, the creation of collegiums began - central bodies of sectoral management, founded in a fundamentally different way than the old Moscow orders. New authorities - executive, financial, judicial and control - were also created locally. In 1720, the General Regulations were published - detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions.

In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the order of organization of military and civil service and was in effect until 1917. Even earlier, in 1714, a Decree on Single Inheritance was issued, which equalized the rights of owners of estates and estates. This was important for the formation of the Russian nobility as a single full-fledged class. In 1719, by order of Peter, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, consisting of districts.

But the tax reform, which began in 1718, was of paramount importance for the social sphere. In Russia, in 1724, a poll tax was introduced for males, for which regular population censuses (“audits of souls”) were carried out. During the reform, the social category of serfs was eliminated and the social status of some other categories of the population was clarified.

In 1721, on October 20, after the end of the Northern War, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles "Father of the Fatherland" and "Emperor", as well as "Great".

Relations with the church.

Peter and his military leaders regularly praised the Almighty from the battlefield for their victories, but the tsar’s relationship with the Orthodox Church left much to be desired. Peter closed monasteries, appropriated church property, and allowed himself to blasphemously mock church rites and customs. His church policies provoked mass protests from schismatic Old Believers who considered the tsar to be the Antichrist. Peter persecuted them cruelly. Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, and no successor was appointed. The patriarchate was abolished, and in 1721 the Holy Synod was established, a state governing body of the church, consisting of bishops, but led by a layman (chief prosecutor) and subordinate to the monarch.

Transformations in the economy.

Peter I clearly understood the need to overcome the technical backwardness of Russia and in every possible way contributed to the development of Russian industry and trade, including foreign trade. Many merchants and industrialists enjoyed his patronage, among whom the Demidovs were the most famous. Many new plants and factories were built, and new industries emerged. Russia even exported weapons to Prussia.

Foreign engineers were invited (about 900 specialists arrived with Peter from Europe), and many young Russians went abroad to study sciences and crafts. Under Peter's supervision, Russian ore deposits were studied; Considerable progress has been made in mining.

A system of canals was designed, and one of them, connecting the Volga with the Neva, was dug in 1711. Fleets, military and commercial, were built.

However, its development in wartime conditions led to the priority development of heavy industry, which after the end of the war could no longer exist without state support. In fact, the enslaved position of the urban population, high taxes, the forced closure of the Arkhangelsk port and some other government measures were not conducive to the development of foreign trade.

In general, the grueling war that lasted for 21 years, requiring large capital investments, obtained mainly through emergency taxes, led to the actual impoverishment of the country's population, mass escapes of peasants, and the ruin of merchants and industrialists.

Transformations in the field of culture.

The time of Peter I is a time of active penetration of elements of secular Europeanized culture into Russian life. Secular educational institutions began to appear, and the first Russian newspaper was founded. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education. By a special decree of the tsar, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the Tsar. They created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. changed. Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the educated environment. Arabic numerals and civil script were introduced, printing houses were established, and the first Russian newspaper appeared. Science was encouraged in every possible way: schools were opened, books on science and technology were translated, and the Academy of Sciences was founded in 1724 (opened in 1725).

Personal life of the king.

At the age of sixteen, Peter was married to Evdokia Lopukhina, but he lived with her for barely a week. She bore him a son, Alexei, heir to the throne. It is known that Peter transferred his dislike for Evdokia to her son, Tsarevich Alexei. In 1718 Alexei was forced to renounce his right to the throne. In the same year, he was tried, accused of conspiracy against the sovereign, found guilty and killed in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Since returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter finally broke up with his unloved first wife.

Subsequently, he became friends with the captive Latvian Marta Skavronskaya (future Empress Catherine I), with whom he married in 1712, who from 1703 was his de facto wife. This marriage produced 8 children, but except for Anna and Elizabeth, they all died in infancy. In 1724 she was crowned empress, Peter planned to bequeath the throne to her. In 1722, Peter issued a law on succession to the throne, according to which the autocrat could appoint a successor for himself. Peter himself did not take advantage of this right.
At the height, with an iron bridle
Raised Russia on its hind legs?