Why are monuments needed? Social significance of architectural monuments Why preserve architectural monuments

Every city in the world has its own architectural face. Cities built several hundred years ago can boast of something that modern, young cities do not have: their history and unique architectural appearance, a certain special spirit, imprint of people and events characteristic of this particular place. Arriving in a resort or historical city, we begin our walks from the historical center, from the “old town”. Old small houses, narrow streets, local color... No one goes anywhere to see residential areas or identical panel high-rise buildings. High-rise buildings are interesting only where they really impress with their grandeur: in the emirates, New York, Shanghai, for example. That is why it is so important to preserve what already exists, what has come to us from the past, what has a history, a special unique aesthetics and uniqueness. For yourself, your self-awareness, for the continuity of generations, to preserve the beauty of the past. Cities that understand this become attractive to tourists and loved by their own residents. Many times in Ufa and other Russian cities I heard words of admiration from foreigners about our historical and architectural monuments, in particular, wooden architecture.

There is an opinion: wooden houses have a short life, and there is no point in restoring them, because... They don't have long to live. However, scientists from Tomsk State University, together with scientists from Stuttgart and Darmstadt, conducted a study of one of the wooden monuments of federal significance in the city of Tomsk and found that the service life of this wooden building, which is over 100 years old, can be up to 400 years with proper operation. What then can we say about stone architectural monuments, if with proper care wooden buildings can last up to 400 years?

The oldest surviving wooden monument in Russia, the Church of the Deposition of the Robe from the village of Borodava, erected in 1485 and moved to the city of Kirillov, stood practically without restoration until 1950, and after restoration it is now in excellent condition. More than 500 years!

So it is not true to say that the age of hundred-year-old wooden houses has already passed. They can and should be preserved, the only question is proper care and restoration.

In Europe, the attitude towards historical and architectural monuments is much more careful; they honor and are proud of their history and protect its architectural heritage. Probably many people watched the program “Heads and Tails,” where they showed houses in Lithuania, in Vilnius. These houses are very reminiscent of those in Ufa, and they cost more than a million dollars, because they are cultural heritage.

Houses in Vilnius

In Norway and Finland, only objects of national importance are restored exclusively from the state budget (in Finland there are only 200 of them), and the rest, as a rule, are preserved through the joint efforts of the owners and the state. In the Bulgarian city of Nessebar and the Finnish Rauma, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, 600 wooden monuments are preserved each, and in the Swedish Bergen - 40.
In the ancient city of Finland, Rauma, blocks of wooden historical buildings. Old Raum is the largest historical wooden town in the Nordic countries. In total there are about 600 buildings from the 18th and early 19th centuries, most of which are privately owned. A mechanism for providing state assistance to building owners for their repair and restoration has already been worked out. Usually, state aid is 40% of the cost of work.
To support the conservation and development of Old Rauma, the Old Rauma Foundation was created, which raises funds for the preservation and development of the old city, and also offers loans for the renovation of historical buildings at central bank rates.

Old Rauma, Finland

Trondheim, Norway

This indicates a respectful attitude towards architectural monuments both from the state and from the people themselves, whose private property is the majority of these houses.

But in Russia there are successful examples of the preservation and restoration of historical and architectural monuments.
Like, for example, in Tomsk. The city, founded in 1604, is home to 500 thousand people. The uniqueness of the historical heritage of Tomsk lies in the preservation of tracts of urban wooden buildings dating back to the 19th-20th centuries.
In total, there are about 3 thousand wooden buildings and structures in Tomsk. Of these, about 1.5 thousand are objects that have historical, architectural value or form the historical environment as background buildings. The program for the preservation and revival of wooden architecture in Tomsk and the Tomsk region, which originated as a civil initiative, then taken under the patronage of Governor Victor Kress and received the status of an official document 5 years ago, includes 701 objects. For comparison: in the Bulgarian city of Nesseber and the Finnish Rauma, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, 600 wooden monuments are preserved, in the Swedish Bergen - 40. Thus, in the number of preserved wooden buildings, Tomsk is ahead not only of domestic Vologda and Irkutsk, but also of the world centers of wooden architecture. Although, of course, there are problems here too.

Since 2005, about sixty wooden buildings have been restored. About 380 million rubles were spent on this from the budget. At the same time, there was no separate budget item for the restoration of wooden houses. The money came out little by little. Another 70 million were raised from investors and another 20 million from the federal budget.
And here’s the case: the Sapozhnikvov House, a monument of wooden architecture in Tomsk, was resettled, set on fire several times and finally burned completely - the day after the completion of the Russian-German summit and the departure of VIPs from Tomsk. The public then created a big scandal with a rally near the burned house and a letter that collected one and a half thousand signatures. Ufa has almost twice as many residents, but when Archprotection collected signatures for the preservation of architectural monuments, there were only about 200 of them. Maybe we, as residents of our city, need to become less indifferent to our cultural heritage? After all, there is still something to save. Some corners of the city have remained almost the same as 100 years ago, and there are still wonderful monuments of wooden architecture.

The dictionary includes basic terms and concepts in landscape gardening art. In addition to the traditional range of terms and their definitions, the dictionary contains some new words that have entered scientific and practical use in connection with the problems of restoring historical parks, their inclusion in the structure of a modern city, tasks of nature conservation, and organizing mass recreation for the population. Compiled by: Vergunov A.P., Gorokhov V.A.

Outline- 1) the linear outline of an object, the outline of a tree or bush; 2) a plan of the territory, made by hand, indicating on it the planting places, the location of structures, roads, etc. Openwork is a property that characterizes the number of gaps in the crowns of both individual trees and shrubs, and the planting as a whole.

Agraf- stylized plant motif in the design of garden parterres of the 17th-18th centuries. Usually it looked like a bunch of branches, leaves, petals emanating from one point at the edge of the parterre.

Aqueduct- a bridge for transferring a water pipeline across a ravine, gorge, or river valley. As an element of decorative design, it was introduced into romantic gardens of the second half of the 18th century.

Accent- in gardening art, emphasizing a detail (a group of trees, a tree or a bush) in the overall landscape picture. An accenting detail of the landscape can be a sculpture, a gazebo or any other architectural form.

Alley- a pedestrian or transport road in a park, lined on both sides with equally spaced trees, shrubs or groups of them in a certain rhythm.

“First of all, when arranging the alleys, the only order observed was to plant them in a long and straight line and in two rows of trees, placing them so that one tree was directly opposite the other. But finally they noticed that this situation is very far from natural, and the garden, which has nothing in itself except straight alleys, has a uniform and not very pleasant appearance; then, to correct this deficiency, in new gardens they stopped making alleys continuous, but began to intersect them with platforms, bushes and other decorations... Regularity and Symmetry can most of all be interrupted when a straight line is sometimes interfered with an isognot. Moreover, the difference of trees can also help this intention, in judging their distance, height, growth and leaves, and therefore the trees can sometimes be closer to each other, and sometimes further away, in one place higher, and in another lower, and intermix with small and weak bushes, and sometimes crowd into heaps, connect their tops and form them under themselves as if a vault or a covered road; in another place, have the top open and be bright, and finally, in some places have nooks and corners, and in others extend as a straight and beautiful line” [Osipov, 1793. Part I. P. 53-55].

Rock garden- a rocky garden displaying the beauty of the mountain landscape and its flora. It is characterized by a combination of low-growing alpine plants with rocks and water.

Gazebo- see Gazebo

Ampelous plants- R. with curly or cascading stems. They are grown in amplitudes (hanging flowerpots, baskets, etc.). Used to decorate gazebos, trellises, canopies, etc.

Amphitheater- in ancient Roman architecture, a spectacular structure in the shape of an ellipse with stepped rows of seats; in the 18th century. appeared in parks in the form of a decorative structure for spectacles.

“The name amphitheaters refers to spectacles located on the slopes of elevations. A slightly steep slope can be lined with ledges in several rows in a convex or convex semicircle, these ledges can be strengthened with piles and then covered with turf: an amphitheater will remain. Such amphitheaters are decorated with figured trees, statues, and vases. For access to them, in conspicuous places they make stairs from cut stones, wood or from steps covered with turf” [Levshin, 1805-1808].

English park- see Landscape Park.

Ensemble- in gardening art, a spatially and functionally connected set of structures, vegetation, reservoirs and other landscape elements, forming an integral architectural and artistic composition.

Entourage- environment, external environment, background. Plant compositions in gardens and parks often serve as an entourage to the architectural structures and monuments located in them.

Enfilade- in gardening art, a series of separate enclosed spaces delimited by plantings, connected to each other by passages located along the same axis. The alternation of large and small glades often takes on the appearance of an enfilade (for example, in Trostyanets, Voronovo).

Arrangement- the art of making bouquets of individual plants, branches, green garlands, wreaths, flowers, leaves and placing them in vases and baskets to decorate the interiors and facades of park pavilions.

Arboretum- see Arboretum.

Architectonics- in decorative dendrology means the structure of the crown; determined by its size, shape, the nature of the branching of shoots and branches, and the beauty of their relative arrangement. Architectural and planning organization of the park - the order of placement of the main park centers, functional areas, pedestrian and transport communications; a compositional scheme reflecting the relationship between the artificial and natural components of the ensemble (plantings, reservoirs, buildings, monuments, etc.).

Architectural elements parka- buildings and structures (pavilions, amphitheatres, colonnades, gazebos, arches, stairs, retaining walls, balustrades, etc.), harmoniously combined with natural landscape elements. Dominant in parks of the 18th-19th centuries. Usually there was a palace, the main house of the estate, and sometimes a religious building.

“Different types of buildings have their own location and appearance, which distinguishes them from others, as architecture teaches. This art provides, if necessary, information on how to use different types of arrangement and decoration appropriate for each building, teaches how to build stone and wooden buildings, temples, civil houses and other buildings, gazebos, grottoes, galleries. Each building has its own outline. Beauty delights and attracts the eye, and the advantageous location between all buildings gives great pleasure, for which significant decorations are necessary... In all of them, no matter what type they are, one must observe the strength, hardness, convenience and beauty that comes from the location large and small parts...

Buildings are used in the garden for shelter and shelter from the rain and for shelter from the wind, while serving as a pleasant retreat for those who love solitude... In the garden, all kinds of architecture are suitable from Greek to Chinese and the choice lies in power: you should know that the buildings are gentle, represented to the eye in an open place, they are not as pleasant as those that are visible on one side, extended and surrounded by forest, because they appear between tree trunks. The building must be combined with other objects that would make it more visible. An elevated location usually has more grandeur. If a building is placed in the middle of a very spacious large overhang, then it will appear bare, separated and with little interaction with the surveyor, not naturally surrounded by forest. It is better to build it on a slope below, so that it can be connected with a large number of touching points surrounding it...” [Lem, 1818. Part IV. S. 1; Part III. P. 7].

Asymmetry- a combination of volumetric-spatial elements, characterized by the absence of an axis of symmetry, a widely used technique of park composition, especially in landscape-style parks.

Ahah- an external fence hidden in a recess, a technique common in landscape gardening art of the 17th-18th centuries. An unexpected opening of the view from the park to the surrounding landscape (for example, access to a river canyon), causing admiration (exclamation ah-ah!). Balustrade is a through fencing of terraces, stairs, retaining walls, consisting of a number of figured columns - balusters; in gardens and parks it is often decorated with flower vases and sculptures (for example, in the Arkhangelskoye estate).

Baroque- artistic style in European art from the end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th century, was reflected in the creation of gardens and parks in France, Italy and other countries, including Russia. Characterized by decorative pomp, plasticity, and sometimes pretentiousness of the composition, the desire to give natural materials (vegetation, water, relief) architectural forms (bosquets, fountains, terraces, retaining walls, etc.). Baroque compositions are partially preserved in Summer Garden, in Pushkin, Petrodvorets, etc.

Berso- see Circumferential roads.

Alcove- a garden and park structure, which is an open building for recreation, creating shade, and protection from rain.

“The structure and location of gazebos depends for the most part on the Architect and also belongs more to the art of architecture, however, it is not bad for the gardener to have an idea about them, so that, if necessary, he can make them himself, without requiring the help of the Architect; and especially in places where it cannot be found. And besides, since leaf and tree arbors belong directly to the gardener, for this purpose some brief and general rules about them are proposed here.

Leafy and wooden arbors should never be made too small; for not only do they mean nothing, but very soon they deteriorate from the growth of trees and lose all their appearance and figure. On the contrary, the larger they are, the better and the more famous a figure they can form in the garden... Gazebos of this kind are made in many different ways and serve both to give the garden better beauty and pleasantness, and for peace and cool shelter and relaxation. They are round, oval, four-sided, polygonal, solid, half, hidden and semi-hidden, that is, having large holes; and moreover, some are composed of some herbs, and others of trees and herbs. Finally, there is also this difference between them that some are made in such a way that human art is visible in them, while others are arranged as if they were produced by nature itself...” [Osipov, 1793. Part I. P. 90 -92].

Gazebo- a tower, a superstructure on a building, a gazebo on an elevated platform, from which a view of the surrounding area opens (for example, in Arkhangelskoye).

Bondage- See loop roads.

Curbs- narrow (10-30 cm) linear plantings of one or two rows of low (no more than 50 cm) flowering shrubs or decorative deciduous grasses of a certain type. They are used to frame flower beds, ridges or paths, highlighting patterns in flower beds and parterres.

Bosquet- a closed area with plantings of regular geometric shape, limited by trees and shrubs in the form of a hedge. The spaces inside the bosquets (in the Baroque era) were called cabinets or green rooms. Historically emerging types of bosquets: cropped walls with open lawns inside, filled with free-growing trees, with a green theater, labyrinth, pond, fountains, flower beds, etc. located inside. The predominant assortment of species when creating bosquets in Russia: small-leaved linden, spruce common, yellow acacia, common barberry, blue honeysuckle, hawthorns, brilliant cotoneaster, Tatarian maple, golden currant.

Broderie- see lace parterre.

Bulengrin- a special sports lawn, the middle part of which is lowered in the shape of a flat pit. B. is used to enhance the impression of spatiality of parks and gardens.

“Bulengrin is nothing more than a part or piece of a lawn, that is, a grassy place, distant and deepened in front of another place. Simple bulengrins are called those having no other decoration other than a turf band; the parts that make up the bullengreen itself are arranged in some kind of pattern, with which the turf area is cut through. Sometimes narrow paths and platforms with crown trees and flowers are added to this. They are made in open places and among garden forests; they are often planted around tall trees. You shouldn't consume too many boulengrins. Ten vershoks of depth is enough for small boulengrins, but an arshin is enough for large ones” [Bolotov, 1786a. P. 156].

Buffer zone(monument park) - part of the peripheral territory of the park or an additionally developed adjacent territory in which mass recreation and services for visitors are organized in order to reduce the excessively high recreational load on the cultural and historical zone of the park.

Bouquet plantings- a technique for forming tree groups by planting several seedlings in one nest in order to quickly create compact plantings. Creating a bouquet group is possible by specially planting a young tree “on the stump” or by creating conditions for the development of side shoots.

Fan composition of the park plan- a connection of radial alleys, usually at the main entrance to the park, from where they diverge throughout its entire territory. Architectural and landscape the construction develops along all rays in the direction from the center-entrance to the periphery. Semi-ring roads connect the rays with each other. The fan composition is formed by both regular and landscape-picturesque elements on flat or rough terrain. It is used as the basis for planning the park as a whole or part of it (Sokolniki Park).

Vertical gardening- a type of landscaping using vines or trimmed trees, the purpose of which is to decorate the facades and walls of buildings, protect from overheating, noise, dust; creating green walls to isolate individual areas of the garden from each other or from the outside environment.

Vertical layout- a set of measures aimed at transforming the relief for technical and compositional purposes, including the organization of surface runoff from the territory. Its specificity in the reconstruction and restoration of historical parks is the need to preserve valuable existing vegetation and soil cover of terraces, stairs, retaining walls, access to water and other elements of the ensemble.

Vertograd- Old Russian name for the garden.

Vertugaden- a small terraced amphitheater-type elevation with semicircular convex steps in the foyer of a trimmed green wall. Used as a stage area, decorated with sculptures, vases, etc.

View- part of the landscape. A term widely used in landscape architecture. Skillful disclosure of individual artistically expressive views in the landscape is an important aspect of the design and restoration of gardens and parks.

“...the more lively any species is, the more beautiful it is, and there is no more worthy of the name of the garden, which was given to it because of the pleasure produced by art. It often happens that near a building or entertainment house, nature forms beautiful carpets of greenery, surrounded by groups of trees and various bushes. Here are places illuminated by the sun, here its rays can barely penetrate, and there dense trees provide a gloomy, cool shadow. Opposite the house itself there is a view of meadows and fields along which a narrow path winds” [Collection of new thoughts..., 1799. Notebook XVI, description of drawings I and VII].

View point- a certain place on the territory of a forest park, park, garden, most convenient for perceiving the opening view; usually scheduled for artistic analysis and sketch development of the object as part of a whole series of visual “frames” following one another.

Vista- a view, a narrow perspective, directed by the framing planes towards an outstanding element of the landscape - the focal point of the perspective. It includes a viewpoint (the place from which perception is optimal), a frame (“landscape frame” that captures the view), a middle plan (usually a backdrop of plants that should not distract attention from the main thing) and a culminating object of view that completes the scene. The visual focus can be, for example, architectural structures, monuments, a lake, a hill, a tree of unusual shape and color, a sunlit clearing at the end of a clearing or a shaded alley, etc.

Hanging Garden- a small garden located on the roof, gallery, special stone supports. It has a bulk soil layer for the growth of herbs, flowers, ornamental shrubs, and sometimes trees. Instead of a continuous soil layer, special portable containers for plant soil and small pools for aquatic plants are also used. The prototype of modern hanging gardens is the Gardens of Babylon in ancient Babylon, which were located on multi-stage stone terraces. Known hanging gardens in the Moscow Kremlin in the 17th century, on the terraces of the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo near the Cameron Gallery, in the Winter Palace. The Old Russian synonym for the term is “Horse Garden”.

Waterfall- a natural or artificially arranged falling flow of water between two bodies of water located at different levels. It is installed in gardens and parks where there are differences in relief. It is especially typical for romantic landscape-style parks (Alupka, Sofievka, etc.).

“A waterfall that has a drop of several feet in height, is not wide and properly constructed, makes it more pleasant, but a wide one will constitute a threshold and will bring ridicule, unless its width is divided into different currents. Many small waterfalls, one after another following the fall of water, are preferable to a large reservoir, whose image and respect are too correct. If a great space is divided into many parts and length is more important than breadth, then a large stream will hardly give way to the river, because its inclination is more noticeable and continues more uniformly; this is beneficial for waterfalls following one after another; Moreover, there is less work and waste; when the river falls from a certain height, then it is sufficient to decorate and enliven a large stream along the entire length of its course; when we look at the low-falling waters, we will see that they consist of the animated appearance that they give to a secluded place” [Lem, 1818. Part III. P. 51 (see also Cascade).

Air line- in perspective, denotes the general upper contour of trees in a group or array (can be clearly defined, rugged, vague, etc.).

Railway station- an outdated name for a concert hall in the park (by analogy with London's Vauxhall). After the first march was carried out to the "Vokzal" in Pavlovsk Railway, the word has acquired a modern meaning.

Volute- an ornament in a classic garden parterre in the form of a curl, a spiral. As a rule, it was placed in a corner or at the edge of the stalls.

Habit- appearance, shape of various trees and shrubs (see Architectonics).

Lawn- artificial turf cover, an area sown primarily with cereal grasses in order to create a uniform green-emerald background for sculpture, architectural structures, flower arrangements and tree and shrub groups; depending on the purpose of use, it is divided into decorative (including parterre), sports, flowering (Moorish), special

Harmony- in gardening art, proportionality of individual elements of a composition, specific unity in diversity (for example, harmony in proportion, color, texture of plants, etc.).

Geoplastics- architectural and artistic transformation of the relief, a type of vertical planning.

Germa- widespread in parks and gardens of the 18th century. a type of sculptural image in the form of a head or bust on a tetrahedral support (for example, in Ostankino, Arkhangelsk). They first appeared in ancient Greece.

Heroon- a memorial grove with statues and “memorial” trees.

Nest landings- groups of 3-5 trees, planted at a distance of 0.5-1 m from each other, forming a common crown of large diameter (like a “bouquet”).

Glorietta- a structure in the form of an open columned pavilion, usually located at the entrance to the park, on a hill or closing a deep perspective, appeared in the second half of the 17th century. in France. Gloriettes in the form of ceremonial gates and triumphal colonnades are characteristic of Russian parks of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. (Tsarskoe Selo, Kuzminki, etc.).

Grotto- a decorative park structure created in rock outcrops at the foot of a hill or in piles of stones; near a waterfall, pond, stream with cascades, etc.

“Grottos are made in secluded areas of the garden or in forests. Their appearance should represent savagery; but the interior requires decoration with various shells, mirrors, crystallizations and other shiny stones. The entrance to them, to increase the cold, is located on the north side. However, frequent repairs of grottoes entail difficulties” [Levshin, 1795. Part 8. P. 163].

Group (plantings)- woody or shrub plants, planted at close distances from each other, playing, in accordance with the designer’s plan, a certain compositional role in constructing the landscape of a garden or park; are usually provided along the edges of massifs, on lawns and clearings, at the turns of paths. G. N. are divided: by species composition (single-species or multi-species), by size (small from 3-5 trees, large from 11 or more trees, but with an area usually not exceeding the height of the trees), by compactness and openwork (compact, bouquet plantings, see-through, loose plantings, etc.). One of the best examples of the creation of urban science is the White Birch area in Pavlovsk.

Palace and park complex- a large, historically established ensemble, including a palace, park, utility and religious buildings. As a rule, it is a complex monument of architecture and landscape art, used as a museum-reserve (Petrodvorets, Kuskovo, Livadia, etc.).

Decorative qualities of plants- qualitative and quantitative characteristics of plants that determine their appearance, constant during the period of formed leaves, flowers, inflorescences or changing throughout the year, life (size, appearance, crown architectonics, etc.). D.k.r. taken into account when selecting an assortment, placing plants, forming groups, curtains, and arrays.

Dissonance- a violation of harmony, manifested in a discrepancy between the form and content of objects and phenomena. Groups of plants poorly selected in size, architectonics and color, disharmony of architecture and landscape, contradiction in the appearance of new and historically established elements of the park, etc.

Dominant- in a park landscape the main, most expressive element to which other elements are subordinated. The dominant can be expressed by size and position, shape, rich color, etc. For example, the dominant of Vorontsovsky Park in Alupka is the top of Ai-Petri, the ensemble in Petrodvorets is the Grand Palace and the Main Cascade.

Recreational capacity- a value characterizing the ability of a park or recreation area to serve a certain number of visitors, subject to sufficient psychophysiological comfort, without degradation of the natural components of the environment and without causing damage to cultural, historical, architectural and artistic objects located on the territory.

Hedge- plantings of formed or freely growing trees or shrubs (or a combination thereof) in order to obtain closed, impenetrable plantings. Usually they are cut into the shape of a green wall. Based on their purpose, hedges can be one-, two-, three-row and of varying heights. Plants that are easy to trim and climbers are used (hawthorn, honey locust, oriental biota, privet, brilliant cotoneaster, etc.).

Thickened pellets- a technique for forming a park landscape in order to quickly create compact plantings with straight trunks. Subsequently, they require mandatory thinning.

Menagerie- a forested area, usually with specially constructed clearings, set aside for hunting in parks of the 18th century. (Gatchina, Kuzminki).

Green Theater- a structure intended for outdoor performances is installed in parks and gardens using the natural topography of the area. Fences made of hedges or climbing plants on special supports or frames are used as walls.

Water mirror- a shallow decorative pond, usually of a regular geometric shape with a low side “frame”. It was calculated on the effect of reflection (from an architectural structure, sculpture, trees, etc.).

Zoning (functional) territory- allocation of areas in the park that have different functional purposes, for example, areas for entertainment events, sports, walks and quiet rest, cultural and historical areas, etc.

Plant introduction- introduction of plants into areas where they were previously absent. A method of enriching our fields, vegetable gardens, botanical gardens and parks with valuable plant species.

Historical and architectural zoning- zoning of the territory of cultural monuments, identifying the historical layout in order to create environmental conditions close to the original state.

Historical park- an example of the park building culture of the past. As a monument it is subject to state protection.

Office in bosquet- a closed space formed by trimmed walls made of linden and other plants. Characteristic of formal gardens and parks in the 17th-18th centuries; some offices were decorated with pools, sculptures, gazebos (for example, the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg).

Cascade- a special multi-stage structure made of stone or concrete, used to cascade streams of water in places where natural rivers and streams flow quickly, as well as along the paths of artificial watercourses from a successive series of small terraces. One of the elements of the park composition, especially terraced parks (see Waterfall).

Cartouche- an ornament in a garden parterre of the 17th-18th centuries, reminiscent in shape of a half-unfolded scroll with curls. In the center of the cartouche was a monogram, the emblem of the owner of the garden.

Katalnaya Gora- characteristic of Russian parks of the 18th century. an artificial structure with a ramp for sledding (in Lomonosov, Pushkin parks, etc.).

Quarter- 1) an element of garden and park composition, introduced in the Middle Ages, with flower beds, gazebos, sculptures; 2) part of a forest park area limited by clearings.

Kencons- a method of planting trees in staggered rows in a checkerboard pattern, with crowns trimmed along the same line, with trunks open at the bottom. Forms one volume and provides visibility in diagonal directions between the trunks; The technique was used when creating gardens in ancient Rome.

Chinese grove- planting trees, reminiscent of an amphitheater in placement (used at the end of the 18th century in Moscow - in the Sheremetev estate. Ostankino).

Classicism- artistic style of the 18th - early 19th centuries, turning to antiquity and ancient art as the norm and ideal model. In Russian park construction it is identified with the landscape style of planning, the rejection of regular buildings, as contrary to nature. Examples of park structures in the style of classicism - the Temple of Friendship in Pavlovsk, the Cameron Gallery in the Catherine Park in Pushkin, the Flora Pavilion in Sofievka, etc.

Flowerbed- a group of trees and shrubs in open glades in landscape parks. Later, from the middle of the 19th century, K. called a flower garden of a regular geometric (round, convex, flat, concave or rectangular) shape, usually placed in parterre compositions. K. differ both in color scheme and the range of plants planted: K. from annuals, biennials and perennials; simple (from one plant species) and complex (from 2-3 species), single-color and multi-color.

Compartment- a separate landscape gardening composition in gardens and parks of the 17th-18th centuries, from parts of which the entire ensemble was created; for example, a parterre compartment consisting of identical floral carpets symmetrically placed around a sculpture or pool.

Compositional zoning of the park territory- zoning based on the characteristics of planning and architectural and artistic organization based on determining the principle of formation of various sections or areas of the park.

Composition knot- an area or part of a garden or park that unites and links together several areas or parts, resulting in a single composition. For example, a body of water connecting the viewpoints of the banks from which different perspectives, or clearing that unites individual species in the landscape.

Composition in landscape art- construction (structure) of a separate landscape of a garden, park or the entire territory in a certain artistic system, ensuring the interconnection of its constituent parts (plantings, relief, water surfaces), determined by the artistic design and purpose of the object. A variety of means and composition techniques are used; among them - the selection of the main and secondary, scale and proportionality, proportionality, rhythm and change of impressions, symmetry and asymmetry, contrast and similarity, orientation, light and color, material texture, etc. (see Landscape composition; Free layout; Regular style) .

Conservation of ancient monument parks- preservation of the existing planning and spatial composition, valuable vegetation, architectural structures and small forms of the park to prevent further destruction. Measures are being taken to stop the decay of surviving plantings, erosion processes, a protective construction regime is being introduced, etc. Conservation is the first stage of park restoration work.

Contrast- comparison of objects or phenomena that are opposite in their properties, for example, small is contrasted with large, low with high, smooth with rough, dark with light, etc.

In gardening art, when creating the effect of artistic contrast, objects are usually compared that are similar to each other in some features, but opposite in others: the weeping shape of the birch crown is favorably set off by the dense pyramidal shape of the fir or spruce crown. Not only trees of different species are contrasted with each other, but also vegetation of different tiers, buildings, reservoirs, relief lines, etc. The so-called sequential contrasts perceived over time are also taken into account, for example: a wide panorama of the Moskva River valley that opens after a walk along regular garden in Arkhangelsk Park.

Guardhouse- guardhouse building at the entrance to the estate. Often plays the role of the first architectural accent, preparing the sequential perception of the palace and park ensemble along the main compositional axis (Sofievka, Gorenki, etc.).

Cross composition of the plan- a composition based on the intersection of two planning axes and highlighting the center of the ensemble at this intersection or near it. Architectural and landscape construction develops from the periphery to the center in both directions (the main - longitudinal and subordinate - transverse). Widely used in regular gardens (Peterhof).

Red line- a conventional line separating the park territory from the street and buildings. Has regulatory significance.

covered road- see Circumferential road.

Xist- a small space in front of the house in the form of a flat garden divided into squares or rectangles with a clear axial structure, a predominance of lawns and borders.

Backstage- groupings of trees or shrubs (arrays, clumps, groups), located in space parallel to each other in order to create a multifaceted perspective, cover the unimportant or overly conspicuous, reveal the main thing in order to improve the perception of part of the park or the surrounding landscape. They also serve to shade other plants from the sun or protect them from trampling.

Climax-point (place, moment) of the highest rise in the development of the composition. In landscape art, it can mean both the strongest visual impression obtained by sequential movement along the main compositional axis (for example, when entering a spectacular viewing area or suddenly revealing a view of the facade of a building, a complex of fountains, etc.), and the highest degree of development of the ensemble in time, the stage of its greatest architectural and artistic completeness.

Cultural and historical zone of the park-monument- all or part of the park territory in which objects of historical, architectural, artistic or botanical and dendrological value have been preserved or will be restored.

Courdonaire- a front yard in the form of a partially open U-shaped space, surrounded by buildings and separated from the street by a through fence.

Curtain- 1) a separate area of ​​forest, botanical garden, arboretum; 2) a large group of 20-90 or more trees and shrubs of the same species; 3) a bed lined with turf for flower plants.

Labyrinth- intricate passages, appeared in the gardens of the Renaissance, became widespread in Russian parks of the 18th-19th centuries, in parks they are usually made of high trimmed hedges (using hornbeam, linden, laurel). Until the 18th century had a symbolic religious meaning (difficulties on the pilgrim's path), later acquired educational or entertainment meanings (for example, the labyrinths of the Summer Garden with sculptures based on Aesop's fables, built under Peter I).

“This name is given to a part of the garden consisting of a walkway filled with many crooked, twisted and intertwined roads. This walk is usually done with such thoughts in mind that the walker will not be able to reach the middle without great difficulty, and having reached it, it would be impossible to quickly get out without getting confused several times in various moves...

Labyrinths are made of two kinds: the same one is planted in one row with thorns or some other common shrub... Or double, which is planted in rows of two or three different trees, in the middle of which it is planted entirely with shrubs” [Osipov, 1793. Part 2. P. 30-31].

Landscape- 1) natural territorial complex, a section of the earth’s surface limited by natural boundaries, within which natural components (relief, soil, vegetation, water bodies, climate, animal world), as well as artificial, i.e. anthropogenic (buildings, roads, farmland, etc.), interact and are adapted to each other; 2) general view of the area, landscape.

Natural landscape- 1) a landscape that has not been transformed by human activity, and therefore has natural development; 2) relatively little transformed by man. The second meaning of the term is used primarily in relation to suburban and other developed areas where natural landscapes in the full sense of the word have not been preserved. Some botanical gardens and large parks include separate tracts of the natural landscape, for example, a juniper grove (Nikitsky Botanical Garden), an oak grove (Main Botanical Garden), etc. In parks created at the end of the 18th century, the “naturalness” of park paintings was especially emphasized and was even created artificially (for example, in Gatchina).

landscape architecture- architecture of open spaces, a branch of urban planning, the goal of which is to create a favorable external environment for the life and recreation of the population in cities, suburban and resort areas, rural areas taking into account functional, aesthetic, technical and economic requirements. The specificity of the industry is that it deals mainly with natural materials and objects - the relief of the earth's surface, vegetation, reservoirs when designing parks, gardens, public gardens, forest parks, suburban public recreation areas. The tasks of landscape architecture also include landscaping and external improvement of residential courtyards, industrial enterprises, transport and agricultural facilities. Historically it arose at the intersection of landscape gardening art and modern urban planning. Landscape area is a section, part of a landscape area, identified by landscape analysis on the territory, characterized by uniformity of visual appearance. It is determined by the same type of vegetation, species composition of trees and shrubs, age and quality classes, density and layering of plantings, relief, etc.

Forest park- a landscaped forest area, organized into a specific landscape-space-planning system by gradual reconstruction of plantings, organization of roadways, walking alleys, pedestrian paths, lawns, drains, etc.; intended for free short-term recreation of the population in an environment close to nature.

Forest park belt- part of the suburban area adjacent to the city boundaries and used for public recreation. Includes forests, meadows, forest parks, country parks, holiday villages, as well as orchards and some other agricultural land. It has important health, aesthetic, planning, regular and environmental significance for the city.

Loggia- a room open on one or more sides, usually in the form of a large covered balcony decorated with arches, columns, a balustrade or parapet. Connects the interiors of the building with the adjacent garden, park or other open space, often used to place sculptures, mobile flower arrangements, etc. (for example, in the parks of Pavlovsk, Alupka).

Lusthaus- a garden pavilion such as a large gazebo, usually with lush architectural decoration. The term was widely used at the beginning of the 18th century. (for example, the lusthouses of the second Summer Garden in St. Petersburg are known).

Macrorelief- large landforms that characterize the appearance of a large area of ​​the earth’s surface: mountain ranges, ridges, river basins, intermountain plateaus, plateaus, etc. They are often the object of the external spatial orientation of a park composition. For example, parks in Alupka and Gurzuf, Nikitsky Botanical Garden, etc.

Small architectural forms- artificial elements of a landscape gardening composition: gazebos, rotundas, pergolas, trellises, benches, arches, plant sculptures, kiosks, pavilions, playground equipment, canopies, etc. (see Park structures);

Park array- a park area with an area of ​​more than 0.5 hectares, consisting of trees and shrubs of horizontal or vertical density. There are pure (pine, spruce) and mixed forests, for example birch-spruce; In parks, tracts of 0.5-4 hectares are accepted, in forest parks - up to 10 hectares.

Spatial scale- the degree of size of the architectural and natural forms that make up the landscape composition, the degree of correspondence of their size to their purpose, the environment and people. One of the most important means of artistic expression of the ensemble. The spatial scale changes depending on the nature of the environment (some monument parks, surrounded by modern multi-storey buildings, seem to change their architectural scale, for example Ostankino).

Memorial Complex- the territory on which monumental architectural structures are located - mausoleums, pantheons, sculptural groups, obelisks of glory and monuments dedicated to outstanding events from the history of the people. It is usually designed as a park with a strictly regular layout, including large parterres and wide alleys. Trees with a weeping or pyramidal crown shape are often used (for example, Piskarevskoye Cemetery, Field of Mars, etc.).

Menageria- a house for keeping birds. In parks it has not only utilitarian, but also decorative significance; it is usually located on the shore of a reservoir.

"Dead" materials- multi-colored sand, crushed tiles, broken glass, crushed marble, anthracite and other materials with which the design of garden parterres is made in kind. Combined with “living” materials in the form of: lawn grasses, low trimmed bushes, flowers.

Microrelief- small relief elements in the landscape of a park or garden. They occupy small areas up to several hundred square meters. m, with fluctuations and differences in elevations within 1-2 m, for example, the relief of a curtain, flower bed, mound (positive forms); hollow (negative form).

Milovid- in Russian parks of the 18th-19th centuries. a gazebo from which a particularly picturesque panorama opens; observation deck (park in Tsaritsyn).

Mixborder- a type of floral design, characterized by multiple changes in flowering during the growing season, created by selecting beautifully flowering herbaceous, predominantly perennial plants.

Versatility- a series of sequentially changing visual plans in parks, forest parks, separated from each other by scenes and perceived at a sufficient distance.

Modular garden- a technique for designing a flower bed, a small garden space or a fragment of a park, built on a geometric system of modules repeated at certain intervals. For example, squares lined with tiles along the edges, with different or uniform filling (flowers, decorative trees and shrubs, lawn).

Sheet mosaic- the pattern of the arrangement of leaves on the plant, determines the formation of light and shadow effects under the crown of the tree, gives picturesqueness and originality to the appearance of the plant.

Monosads- gardens (rose gardens, georgias, sirengarias, etc.), in which one plant is the leader.

Park bridge- a structure that has not only utilitarian, but also decorative significance as an element of the park landscape and a point from which views open along a river, pond, ravine, etc. Large bridges often play an outstanding role in the landscape ensemble (Marfino, Tsaritsyno, Vasilevo).

“It would be tiresome for the eyes if all bridges were built according to the same model. Nature and art provide many opportunities for the invention of change. Sometimes bridges can be simple and without any embellishment, sometimes elegant and decorated” [Levshin, 1805-1808. Part IV. P. 383].

Nagorny Park- a park located on the slopes of a mountain or hill, characterized by the complexity of its volumetric-spatial solution, the presence of terraces on different levels, on which park structures are located, the connecting element is stairs and ramps that make it possible to overcome the difference in elevations (for example, Vorontsovsky Park in Alupka).

wall garden- a decorative structure made of stacked stones in the form of slopes, retaining walls. Vegetable soil is driven into the crevices between the stones and ornamental herbaceous plants (xerophytes, less commonly, inhabitants of wet rocks) are planted.

National Park - state protected area with strict regime visit, which has exceptional natural features, the presence of rocky mountains, forests with a rich floristic composition, lakes, geysers and other objects representing national value. Designed for nature conservation, tourism, research work. Some national parks include historically established parks and estates within their boundaries (for example, Gauja in Latvia).

Neutral landscape- part of the park area that does not attract attention with its appearance and design.

Nymphaeum- a sacred grove near a source, decorated with sculpture, colonnade, stele, etc. Characteristic of garden art Ancient Greece, where it was considered the habitat of nymphs and muses. In Russian landscape gardening art of the classical era, this form was used, for example, in the works of N. A. Lvov.

Nuance- shade, a barely noticeable transition in shape, color, size, surface texture, design of individual elements that make up the park composition. With the help of nuanced relationships, you can strengthen or weaken the meaning of this or that element, bring it closer to the background, and “dissolve” it in space. With a nuanced solution to a group of trees and shrubs, the differences between them are smoothed out, and the similarities are more pronounced, which makes it possible to emphasize the unified character of this group. Nuanced differences appear differently in different weather conditions, depend on lighting, etc.

Obelisk- a rectangular, usually monolithic stone pillar, tapering upward, with a pyramidal pointed top, was characteristic of Ancient Egypt. It is used as a decorative element of a park composition - a monument in honor of significant events (Kuskovsky, Pavlovsky, Yaropolets parks, etc.).

Deceptions- “deceptive” types. In Russian parks of the 17th century. scenic images, placed at the end of walking alleys and creating the illusion of a distant perspective, the facade of a magnificent architectural structure, etc.

Image of the park- a specific form of reflection of reality inherent in landscape gardening art. In the composition of gardens and parks, the image is created by various means, but most often it is associated with some outstanding monument, structure, expressive and characteristic panorama of the landscape. The symbolic meaning of such an object correlates with one or another meaningful phenomenon, historical event, significant achievement, etc. The originality of the artistic image of the park is determined by the socio-historical context, natural features of the territory, and the specific urban planning situation. For example, the artistic image of the park in Petrodvorets found its most complete expression in the grandiose panorama of the Grand Cascade and its central sculptural composition “Samson Tearing the Lion’s Jaws,” dedicated to Russia’s victory in the war with the Swedes and its access to new maritime frontiers. Here, the architecture of the palace and pavilions, the plasticity of the coastal terraces, the sea canal, water jets, and floral parterres organically merged into a bright, solemn artistic image.

curve road- in Russian gardens and parks of the 18th century. a covered alley built on a frame of wooden arches connected by longitudinal ties, with tree branches (birch, linden, hornbeam, etc.) tied with wire to a wooden base to form a green vault. They were decorated with trellis gazebos and entrance arches.

“As the trees grow, they should be bent between each two pillars into arcs and the branches should be untied along the lattice arc made. After that, cut off the excess and exposed branches and, however, keep the pillars and arches in constant trimming. It is possible, however, to make such galleries from linden, dogwood and other trees; but they come out most beautifully from the grape vines” [Levshin, 1795. Part 8, p. 140].

Garden- one of the names of the garden at a Russian estate of the 15th-17th centuries, in which mainly fruit trees and shrubs, as well as vegetables and flowers were grown.

Garden fence- a structure designed to restrict free access to the territory of a facility for people, animals, and vehicles. In addition to stone, metal, and wood, low fences, trellises and walls of climbing plants are used. Garden and park fences have not only a utilitarian or decorative value, they play a role in the architectural composition as elements that give the first visual idea of ​​the richness of the ensemble as a whole, its stylistic characteristics, and also determine the degree of visual connection between the inside and outside the park space.

Plain ground floor- floral design of the ground floor, characterized by the dominance of one color, the selection of plants with similar shades (for example, light green, green, dark green).

Window- a gap in an array or curtain to make the landscape picturesque. Usually free of trees and shrubs, but with grass covering up to 1 hectare; contributes to a change in impressions when the visitor moves from a closed space to an open one.

Edge- plantings bordering forest areas, clumps, large tree and shrub groups along the perimeter. It is an important element in the composition of lawns and clearings. Requires careful selection and combination of species in order to create color effects and smooth transitions from open to closed spaces.

Greenhouse- a structure under a glass roof with an artificially created climate, designed for growing a collection of subtropical [hence the name “orange” (orange)] and other exotic plants for the purpose of exhibiting them. Sometimes it becomes an important element of the architectural composition of the park (Kuskovo, etc.).

“The name of greenhouses refers to buildings built for the maintenance and cultivation of foreign plants, which cannot withstand the local winter cold without the help of the heat produced by art” [Osipov, 1793. Part 2. P. 107].

Ordinaries- see Solitaires.

Orientation- 1) placement of individual planning elements (alleys, platforms) depending on the exposure of the slope and the position of the longitudinal axis relative to the cardinal points (north-south, east-west, etc.); 2) the spatial orientation of the composition of the park, garden towards objects of the external environment - a river valley, a mountain peak, an outstanding architectural structure, etc.

Axial composition (parka)- such a construction of the system of the main roads of the park, in which one clearly defined direction dominates. The beginning, culmination and completion of the ensemble develop along the main axis; the main architectural structures, front alleys, fountains, pools, sculpture, etc. are concentrated here. Often along the axis there are terraces, balustrades, stairs, marking the elevation of the area to the planning center of the park (palace, main house estates) for example, in Arkhangelskoye, Kachanovka.

"Island"- a place in the park intended for secluded and contemplative relaxation and reflection. A particularly popular technique in romantic parks of the 19th century.

Island (artificial)- an earthen or stone structure placed on a reservoir and serving to enliven the park landscape, creating various perspectives (for example, in a park in Gatchina).

Security zone of the monument park- an area adjacent to the park, designed to create a favorable environment and protect the park from the negative impacts of the urban environment. The boundaries, nature of landscaping and improvement of the protected zone are determined in accordance with the urban planning situation, the size and significance of the monument, and the conditions of its visual perception.

Pavilion- 1) a small covered building in gardens, parks, located in quiet places on sites, turns of alleys; 2) separate exhibition room.

“The summer pavilion should stand on a site lined with trees and located according to the exact rules of good taste, with possible care taken to ensure that the avenue corresponds to it. Dense and cool shadows, pleasant greenery, trees planted in various ways, but always in such an order that they make the vast pond look majestic and noble, and all of them, without any empty decorations, will present a picture that will correspond to the splendor and splendor of this building ... Places and alleys lying nearby should be located so that this building can be seen from everywhere, but always from a different point of view, and if space allows, then it is necessary that you can always look at it only when you approach close to him” [Collection of new thoughts..., 1799. Notebook XIV, description of drawing VI.

Palisade- 1) light wooden trellis fence. Installed along the edges of rectangular or square bosquets; 2) a palisade made of logs buried in the soil is used to secure slopes. Palmetta - stylized palm leaf, one of the elements decoration garden parterre.

Ramp- a structure representing an inclined plane, replacing a staircase and serving for transitions or entrances from one terrace to another, with a longitudinal surface slope of no more than 8°. Introduced in terraced parks of the 17th-18th centuries.

Panorama- a wide (sometimes circular) and multi-dimensional perspective that allows a free view of a large open space, usually from a height. It is calculated on the perception of it in its entirety and sequentially fragment by fragment, which represent separate compositionally complete pictures. The panorama highlights high-altitude dominants, accents, and compositional pauses. With an increase in the vertical angle of view, which depends on the difference in height between the point and the object of observation, the strength of the emotional impact of the panorama increases.

Paradise- an ancient Persian garden, a characteristic feature of which was an abundance of roses, fountains, and ponds.

A park- a vast (usually more than 10-15 hectares) green area, landscaped and artistically decorated for open-air recreation. The term entered the Russian language in the 18th century. from England and originally meant a natural grove or area of ​​forest with picturesque alleys, clearings, ponds of free outlines, gazebos, sculpture, etc. Currently, parks are considered as the most important element of the city-wide system of landscaping and recreation; they perform health-improving, cultural-educational, aesthetic, and environmental functions. Parks are divided by purpose into cultural and recreational parks, children's, sports, recreational, memorial, and museum parks; by location and use by the population - citywide, regional, suburban; according to the nature of the terrain - floodplain, ravine, mountainous, etc.

Park of Culture and Recreation- a new socialist type of park, city or district, a cultural and educational institution in the open air among plantings. The main purpose is mass recreation along with political and educational events, exchange of best practices, and cultural entertainment. The layout of the recreation center includes a green theater, a library, a sports complex, a dance floor, and a children's sector. The planning basis of the entire territory consists of plantings, clearings, ponds, and lawns. The first parks and parks were opened in our country in the 20-30s, many of them on the basis of estates and other historically established parks (named after Gorky in Moscow, named after S. M. Kirov in Leningrad, etc.).

Park-monument- an ancient park that has memorial, historical, architectural, artistic, and scientific significance. Subject to protection and restoration by methods of conservation, restoration or reconstruction.

Manor park- a historically established park at a city or country estate. The ensemble of an estate park usually includes the main house of the estate (palace, mansion), residential outbuildings, outbuildings, ponds, orchards, etc. It is smaller in size compared to the palace and park complex.

"Parnassus"- a bulk hill in a park with a viewing path and a platform at the top, open to the surrounding area, the symbolic abode of Apollo and the muses - patrons of the arts and sciences (for example, in the park in Ostankino).

Parterre- a decorative open geometrically constructed composition of low plants in a horizontal plane, forms the front part of a regular park, is located near the main buildings, monumental structures and monuments. Great place allocated to a lawn, a flower garden of carpet plants, which in combination with ponds, sculpture, decorative paving, etc. form a single ensemble. Characterized by strict lines and shapes.

“A parterre is a kind of flower garden, lying on level ground and decorated with flowers, herbs, bushes and other things. In reasoning, its distinctions are divided into many different kinds. The grass parterre, consisting of low grasses, is considered the best and most convenient due to its simplicity and the little labor required for it. As for the arrangement of the stalls in general, an oblong quadrangle is much more convenient for it than others, and it should be twice as long as it is wide, but never three times as long. Parterres are usually made in gardens at the first entrance and occupy an entire area. Paths should be made near the ground floor, two-thirds the width of a real garden path. Their decoration depends on the will and taste of the owner or gardener, but the simpler it is, the better” [Osipov, 1793. Part 2. P. 119].

“Since the real place for them is near the house, their width should be at least the entire length of the building’s facade, and their length should be commensurate with the visibility so that from the windows of the house the entire pattern of their outline can be discerned with the eye. If space permits, the length of the parterres should be twice or three times their width: for oblong forms are quite reduced in the eyes with distance and are more pleasing to the appearance of perfect quadrangles. Moreover, it is necessary to give the stalls a figure and shape appropriate to the location and structure of the house, cutting them into two or four parts...” [Levshin, 1795. Part 8, pp. 14, 15].

Lace parterre- a type of garden parterre with a complex pattern made from “dead” materials, usually against a background of sand. Characteristic of the heyday of classical garden art at the end of the 17th - early XVIII V.

Parterre set-ornamental- a type of lace parterre, combined with the surfaces of a mowed lawn. The background was usually crushed tiles.

English ground floor- a type of classic garden parterre, characterized by a relatively simpler pattern, made using lawn and sand, sometimes using flowers.

Parterre split- a type of classic garden parterre, in which the main importance is flowers against the background of sand (for example, at Monplaisir in the Lower Park of Petrodvorets).

Parterre garden- a regular style garden with a dominance of lawn areas, flower beds and ponds. Trees and shrubs are usually located along the periphery of curtains and flower beds; plants are regularly trimmed, they are shaped into a ball, cube, square, etc.

Patio- a small garden of Spanish-Moorish origin, enclosed by walls or high stone fences. Compositionally connected with the interiors of buildings and includes elements such as a fountain, decorative pool, stone paving, etc.

Scenery- a general view of the area, a visually perceived part of the landscape, park, limited by certain limits, evokes sensations and moods similar to the artist’s canvas. According to the spatial principle, it is classified into open, semi-open, semi-closed, closed.

Landscape art- the art of creating garden and park compositions, usually based on a natural, free landscape layout. In a broader sense, it is the architectural and artistic organization of urban and suburban landscapes, improving the appearance of the area by operating mainly with natural landscape components (vegetation, water, relief, as well as roads and individual structures).

Landscape layout- a technique in landscape gardening art, which originated in the ancient gardens of China and Japan, and developed in England, France, Russia and other countries of the 18th-19th centuries, is distinguished by the picturesque groups of trees placed in clearings and lawns, the tortuosity of paths, and the free outlines of reservoirs , watercourses, preserving (or simulating) the natural, rural character of the area.

“A man truly with taste, who lives in order to live, and who enjoys himself, knows how to arrange a garden for himself so that he can like it and be pleasant at all hours of the day; but together it would be so simple and natural that it would seem that they had done nothing here; it connects earth, water, shadows and chills, for nature also connects all this. He does not produce symmetry anywhere, because it is the enemy of nature and multi-reason” [Bolotov, 1786. P. 93].

Landscape park- a park (or part of it) for walking and contemplating pictures of “natural” nature. It is characterized by a free arrangement of roads, alleys and other planning elements; it usually includes extensive reservoirs, clearings, groves, organized into a specific spatial system. Many palace and estate parks (Pavlovsk, Gatchina, Tsaritsyno) and arboretums (Trostyanets, etc.) can be classified as landscape parks.

Pergola- a garden building consisting of a wooden or metal frame, with a flat or vaulted surface supported by pillars or stone columns; entwined with climbing plants (vines), forming a closed gallery. Placed at the entrance to the garden, above part of the alleys, etc.

Flow of spaces- in gardening art, a technique of compositional connection of adjacent spaces (for example, meadows), in which one of them naturally and imperceptibly for the viewer passes into another. This technique was especially widely used in landscape-type parks (for example, in Sofievka, Trostyanets, Voronovo, Bogoroditsky, etc.).

Peristyle- a courtyard with a swimming pool, a fountain and a flower garden, surrounded by a colonnade, characterized by a regular composition and enclosure. In Ancient Rome, the walls of the peristyle were often painted with park landscapes to create an illusory space.

Aerial perspective- the property of the ground layer of air to color more distant objects in cold (bluish, blue) tones, to soften their actual color and outline. With the appropriate selection of plants, you can illusorily enhance the depth of space, for example, by using in the background of a landscape painting a variety of trees with bluish-green foliage, needles, or with soft and smooth outlines of crowns (Weymouth pine). The opposite effect is achieved when trees with lightly colored silver or golden foliage are used.

Perspective linear- visual reduction of objects as they move away from the observer. This is the basis for the construction of deep multi-dimensional views of the park landscape along the visual axis. In the past, park designers used the technique of illusory perspective, when alleys and clearings seemed longer than they actually were (the side rows of trees were planted not on parallel, but on gradually converging rays). The distance between the viewer and a distant object is reduced if the terrain lying between them is hidden; on the contrary, the creation of new visual plans between observers and the object seems to distance it. Large objects that needed to be hidden were covered with smaller ones, but closer to the point of view. These techniques were used to create parks in Pushkin, Pavlovsk, Kuskovo, etc.

Pylons- monumental pillars or columns at the entrance to the park, in the central square and in other ceremonial places.

Layout of the park, garden- territorial structure of the object, its spatial and functional structure, placement of centers, roads, plantings, entrances, etc. Determined by specific landscape, social, architectural, construction, economic, engineering and other conditions.

Platband- floral frame of the garden parterre.

“Platbands, or flower hails, serve to surround the stalls, which are decorated with flowers, yew and other low-growing trees, so as not to obscure the drawings of the stalls. In view of this, many advise establishing platforms between the house and the ground floor, in this case leading out of them with light figures, such as shells, sheets and the like, as if scattered over a place strewn with sand. Small platforms are made one and a half arshins wide, while large ones are two and three arshins..." [Levshin, 1795. Part 8. P. 19].

Glade- an open space in a park or forest, mostly free of trees and large shrubs, but with grass. They are divided into small, medium and large (the width is 1.5-2; 2-4; 4-6 times the height of the surrounding tree and shrub vegetation, respectively). They are united into groups, enfilades and “chains”. The space of large clearings and the exits to them are marked by tapeworms and groups of highly decorative trees. The outlines of clearings in plan are usually given rugged contours (scenes). For better insolation, they tend to position the longitudinal axis of the clearing in a direction close to the meridional (clearings in Pavlovsk, Voronov, Tsaritsyn).

Portico- an open gallery protruding in front of the facade of the building, formed by columns supporting the ceiling, usually marks the main entrance to the building and supports the pediment or attic. Plays the role of a transitional link, compositionally connecting the interiors of the building with the front courtyard - court d'honneur, street, square or adjacent park; often is the architectural completion of the spatial axis passing through the central part of the palace and park complex (Mikhailovsky Garden in Leningrad, Ostankino, etc.).

Belt Road- a road along the perimeter of the park, a circular walking route. Typical for urban gardens and parks half of the 19th century V.

Natural Park- a territory characterized by pronounced landscape features of the area (forest, steppe, mountains, rocks, river, waterfalls, interesting flora and fauna), subject to special protection and at the same time accessible to tourists and vacationers.

Propylaea- monumental gates in the form of a colonnade, arcade or group of structures marking the main entrance to an architectural ensemble, palace and park complex (for example, in Pushkin, Sofievka, Ostankino, Marfin).

Proportionality- proportionality, a harmonious relationship between the components of the park ensemble, an important condition for achieving its compositional unity. Proportionality is predetermined by the general proportions of the plan, the sizes of alleys, parterres, clearings, arrays and other open and closed spaces. In regular parks (for example, in Petrodvorets), the so-called golden ratio was widely used, which is an equation where the larger straight line segment is related to the smaller one in the same way as their sum is to the larger segment.

Pseudogothic- artistic style, a type of romanticism that spread in Europe at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. She influenced the architecture of park buildings that imitated medieval Gothic buildings - “knightly” castles, fortresses, etc. (for example, in Alexander Park in Pushkin, in Alupka). In Russia it acquired specific features under the influence of ancient Russian architecture (in the park in Tsaritsyn, etc.)

Rabatka- a flower garden in the form of a narrow long strip placed along alleys and paths; arranged by multi-row planting of one or several types of summer bulbs.

Equilibrium- one of the principles of constructing natural landscape paintings, according to which objects on one side of the visual axis must in one way or another be balanced by objects on the opposite side. A regular layout is characterized by symmetrical balance, while a landscape layout is characterized by asymmetrical or dynamic balance. In this case, in addition to the aesthetic value of objects and their semantic meaning, the visible sizes of objects, their color and illumination, density of texture, etc. are also taken into account. For example, a powerful oak tree is balanced by a young birch grove. The construction of balanced landscape paintings involves fixing certain viewpoints.

Radial star composition of the park- the intersection of several planning axes at one point, at which the center of the park ensemble (or one of the park areas) is formed. Architectural and landscape construction develops in all radial directions from the periphery to the center. Usually, ring connections are organized that connect the planning axes with each other (Pavlovsky Park).

Garden of Eden- the name of a small garden inside the walls of the monastery, which in ancient times had a symbolic meaning and was planted with “paradise” plants - apple trees, grapes, fragrant flowers and herbs.

Angle- an unusual angular perspective on an object, when the axis of vision is directed from below, above or to the side of it, creates the impression of dynamism in a landscape landscape. Several sequentially revealing angles make it possible to more fully connect architectural structures, monuments, individual groups of trees, etc. with the surrounding background.

Plant community- a collection of plants that occupy a homogeneous area of ​​the earth’s surface and are in close interaction with each other and environmental conditions (phytocenosis).

Regular layout- a technique in landscape gardening art that originated in ancient times (in Babylon) and was widely developed in the 16th-18th centuries. first in the gardens of Italy, France, Spain, later in other European countries and Russia, it is distinguished by the use of correct geometric contours, straight alleys, roads, symmetrical compositions, terraces, row plantings of trimmed trees, an abundance of sculpture, water features (Upper Park in Petrodvorets, in Kuskov and others).

Regular garden- the basis for the solution of such a garden is the technique of regular planning.

Redina- a parkland with a low vertical density of crowns and no undergrowth; used when transitioning to open space (for example, around a clearing).

Reconstruction of ancient monument parks- partial reconstruction of the planning and spatial composition and individual structures in accordance with the new purpose of the park. The surviving green spaces are being updated and new green spaces are being created, developing the spatial organization of the park in relation to modern use. In addition to the old ones, new roads and alleys, utility networks, reclamation systems are being laid, reservoirs are being improved, etc. The appearance of the park is being restored based on existing elements of the composition, special archaeological research, available descriptions and iconographic materials.

Recreational area- a specially designated area in a suburban area, in a city, intended for recreation in order to restore strength and health. Urban recreational areas include gardens and parks; suburban: forest parks, recreation areas. They are also considered as “buffer”, i.e. protective territories that reduce excessive recreational load from intensively visited historical parks and monuments (in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Riga, Tallinn and other cities).

Restoration of ancient park-monuments- restoration, if possible in its original form, of the overall planning and spatial composition of the park, its green spaces, architectural structures and small forms of historical value. Alleys and roads are being recreated with the organization of sightseeing routes and improved surfaces, water spaces and partially preserved plant compositions are being restored. If necessary, instead of destroyed elements, new ones similar to them are created.

Rhythm- uniform alternation of composition elements, the order of repeated visual and other impressions when moving through the park or sequentially contemplating a landscape painting. The simplest manifestation of spatial rhythm is the alternation of trees, bushes, sculptures, benches along the path of a pedestrian. The methods for enriching the rhythmic pattern are varied - increasing the number of elements involved in multiple repetition (including both natural and artificial components), introducing a complex rhythm in which the repetition is accompanied by a gradual increase or decrease in one or more characteristics, the use of unpredictable compositional effects that “knock down” the usual order of arrangement of objects, etc. Although in parks with a landscape layout rhythmic structures are less noticeably expressed than in regular ones, they manifest themselves there too by alternating glades, groves, characteristic bends of the river, and hills. For example, a certain compositional rhythm is “read” when moving along the banks of the river. Slavyanka in Pavlovsk Park, where architectural accents are linked to the natural environment.

Rose garden- 1) a collection or decorative area (part of a park, garden), intended for growing and exhibiting various types and varieties of roses; 2) a thicket of wild rose hips.

Rosetta- stylized drawing of a flower in a classic garden parterre.

Rose Garden- a garden in which roses are the dominant feature; The layout of such a garden is decided in a regular style. Known since ancient times (Persian paradises).

Rockery- a garden and park structure, which is a rocky area of ​​the park where ornamental plants are combined with stones.

Romanticism- a style in landscape art that imitates idyllic rural and “heroic” landscapes. Romantic parks are characterized by artificial ruins, stone “chaos”, “antique”, “Gothic” buildings. Reflected in gardens and parks of the 18th-19th centuries. in Russia (Pushkin, Pavlovsk, Tsaritsyno, and somewhat later - Sofievka, Alupka, etc.).

Rotunda- a round structure, covered with a dome and supported by stone or wooden columns. An element of the design of landscape gardens and parks (for example, in the Nikolskoye estate).

Grove- an array of plantings, an element of a park landscape with an area of ​​1-1.5 hectares, consisting of trees predominantly of one species (pine, beech, oak, birch groves), taking into account the mandatory visibility of the space between the trunks.

“Pleasure woods serve as a great decoration for the garden, and no garden can be called perfect, unless it has one or more... Pleasure woods serve not only to decorate the garden, but also to cool off during the great heat of the sun: for they provide shade when in the hottest hours of the day other parts of the garden are inconvenient for a walk” [Levshin, 1805-1808. Part I. P. 28].

Ruin- an element in the design of landscapes of romantic parks of the 18th century, representing artificially created (rarely “real”) ruins of ancient temples, tombs and other buildings (for example, in parks in Tsaritsyn, Sofievka).

“Ruins are objects that make up great beauty in gardens and very expressively, especially contribute a lot to it in combination with other random decorations, consisting of various piles, representing the irregularity of the surveyor, which when they are disordered make considerable beauty: the composition of their decorations includes trees and little forests, and their discontinuity also provides another benefit... In general, be that as it may, the ruins arouse in us curiosity about the ancient state of the building. The imagination of an ancient dwelling brings to mind the immaculate pleasures that were enjoyed in those centuries” [Lem, 1818. Part III. P. 8].

“Nothing arouses our thoughts so conveniently, nothing makes our solitary reflections so useful, as the sight of such a structure, which time could not yet completely destroy” [Collection of new thoughts..., 1799. Notebook VI, description of drawing I ].

Rust- rough-hewn stone, widely used in monumental garden and park structures. Rustic masonry - “rustic” - resembles natural stone and thereby brings architecture closer to the natural environment.

Garden- area with cultivated plants. In its modern meaning, a landscaping object, which is an area of ​​at least 5-10 hectares, occupied by trees and shrubs, alleys, lawns, flower beds, and small architectural forms. Usually includes a stage, playgrounds, children's sector, ponds; represents a certain planning composition. Designed for short-term recreation.

Winter garden- space in the interior of buildings (hall, extension, heated galleries), artistically decorated with various, mainly tropical, plants in tubs, containers or planted in the ground or special trays; also includes decorative elements: ceramics, stone, miniature pools, sculpture (for example, the winter garden in the Vorontsov Palace near Alupka).

Garden of Continuous Bloom- a specially designated area in a park or botanical garden in which plants are arranged - herbaceous perennials, shrubs, trees, selected according to flowering times throughout the year.

Gardening system- a territorially and compositionally interconnected group of parks, gardens, forest parks, reservoirs, embankments and other open spaces that, together with the surrounding buildings, form a single architectural and landscape ensemble (for example, a park in Ostankino, the Main Botanical Garden of the USSR Academy of Sciences, VDNKh, a television center complex, etc.) in Moscow, Summer Garden, Field of Mars, Mikhailovsky Garden, etc. in Leningrad; water-green “diameter” of Kyiv). Monument parks often become the historical core of a developing landscape gardening system.

Landscape art- the art of designing and creating parks, forest parks, gardens, squares, boulevards and other landscaping objects. Based on the ability to use the laws of composition, perspective, theory of light and color when using natural (plant, soil, water, stone) and other materials; how the field of art expresses a certain ideological content in artistic images.

“Garden art captivates our attention with a multitude of pleasant objects arranged according to a contour connected with beauty: alleys, portals, idols, sculpted statues, gazebos, grottoes and other decorations produce such effects in us that the garden seems to extend beyond the actual objects... Skillful the gardener, when arranging plants, imitating nature, produces beauty by his disposal, which, captivating us, delights us” [Lem, 1818. Part III. S. 1].

“The art of decorating nature purely achieves its goal, whether it can at the same time excite thoughts in us. The most beautiful solitude has its disadvantages: our weakness and lack of strength require that we mix rest after long-term discussions with those feelings that the spectacle of nature instills in us” [Collection of new thoughts..., 1799. Notebook VI, description of drawing I] .

Landscape gardening- a type of cultural or natural landscape transformed as a result of directed human activity, within which spatially organized natural elements (relief, water, vegetation, soil) in combination with artificial (small architectural forms and structures), rationally placed, form an interconnected and interdependent unity .

Gardens are portable, mobile- landscaping objects, representing small areas decorated with portable containers, vases made of ceramics and concrete of various sizes with plants planted in them, mainly annuals, climbing plants, and shrubs.

Chiaroscuro- the ratio of light and shadow on objects, revealing their shape and affecting the perception of the landscape as a whole. The necessary relationships between light and shadow are achieved by the appropriate arrangement of tree and shrub groups, individual trees, lawns, ponds, and buildings. Water areas, glades, flower beds form light spots, trees (for example, spruce, fir) contribute to the creation of dark spots. The combination of light and dark spaces, the distribution of falling and own shadows leave a certain imprint on the nature of the composition, emphasizing or hiding elements of the landscape. The correct organization of chiaroscuro is one of the leading tasks of creating a park (for example, a statue illuminated by the sun at the end of a dark alley, a wide shadow of a tree on the lawn as a frame for a distant landscape illuminated by the sun). There are morning and evening lighting conditions, radically different from each other (in the length and direction of shadows, lighting intensity, tonality, etc.).

Open plan- planning of gardens and parks; characterized by the free placement of plantings and structures in space with maximum use of the terrain, reservoirs, and vegetation; it assumes a landscape style as a whole, but may also include elements of regular compositions.

Serpentine- winding road layout on steep slopes, in forested areas, parks, on pass areas of hills and mountains.

Nurse- a garden chair for secluded observation of nature in Russian gardens of the 17th century. Forged iron chairs - “sofas”, “thrones” were preserved in park use in the 18th-19th centuries.

Silhouette- a generalized outline, the outline of individual specimens of plants, groups, curtains against the background of the sky, water surface or urban development.

Symmetry- the technique of such a balanced arrangement of elements of an ensemble in space, in which one half of it is, as it were, a mirror image of the other. It assumes the presence of a central axis in the form of alleys, parterres, canals, etc., which usually connects the space of a garden or park with the main building. Particularly characteristic of compositions in the regular style (for example, in Petrodvorets). In landscape parks, the technique of dynamic symmetry is more often used, when the elements of the ensemble are balanced without mirroring the sides.

Sculpture- a type of spatial art that creates a three-dimensional image carved from stone, cast from bronze, etc. In parks it has not only decorative, but often also symbolic meaning, spiritualizing the landscape, giving it a certain ideological and artistic meaning (for example, in the Old Sylvia in Pavlovsky Park). Some types of sculpture are specific to parks, including fountain complexes and figures made from topiary plants (see Topiary art).

“Touching monuments excite us. love of the arts constitutes the best decoration of gardens; but in choosing and using them one must act very judiciously. It is necessary that the objects surrounding the monument and the location it occupies correspond exactly to the feelings that it can arouse in us. And therefore, only in gardens of extraordinary size, replete with various paintings, can several such monuments be erected, but where there are too many of them, we will always notice unpleasant and often funny counter-thoughts” [Collection of new thoughts..., 1799. Notebook VIII, description of the drawing IV].

Change of aspects is seasonal- changes in the appearance and condition of plantings during the season, for example, the colors of leaves from the beginning of their blossoming to the autumn leaf fall.

Tapeworm- a technique for placing single plantings in open space (trees, shrubs or large herbaceous plants), which stand out for their architectonics or attract special attention.

“One standing tree, distant from the others, has the greatest value in the eyes of the artist, for trees are the most important materials that he must put into action to form his landscapes. Trees can be interesting individually, both in their diversity of size, thickness, beauty and flexibility, as well as in color, growth, and vibration. Each tree, in addition to its inherent beauty, borrows a new pleasantness from the place in which it grows, and itself imparts beauty to the place itself. The benefit that one tree can provide to an artist is not limited to this; here it connects distant places in the landscape and covers them with its shadow, there it covers unsightly and uneven avenues or stops the viewer’s distracted gaze; there it gives diversity to a large meadow, there it separates pieces of trees and connects them again. Many trees, planted near each other or one after the other not so close as to almost represent a group, make different appearances, depending on the place in which they are planted, and pleasant decorations of a spacious meadow; and for this you don’t need a meter or a rope. Curved lines in this case are preferred to all others; for they produce variety. A majestic tree standing apart from others, surrounded by young trees of the same kind, can make a pleasant impression on us” [Collection of new thoughts..., 1799. Notebook XVIII, description of drawing I].

Style- in landscape gardening art, currently predominant historical period a stable set of compositional, planning, construction and agrotechnical principles and techniques. It reflects the aesthetic ideals and artistic tastes of society. It is customary to distinguish between two main traditional styles: regular and landscape (“French” and “English”).

Texture- characteristics of the foliage cover of trees and shrubs, determined by their size and location, method of attachment to shoots and branches, and leaf shape. Big leaves form a coarse texture (oak, some poplars), leaves are small, cut, palmate, pinnate - a finer and more elegant texture (willow, honey locust, sophora, ash, white acacia, larch). The degree of leaf mobility also affects the nature of the texture (aspen, willow). Textural differences between plants allow them to be grouped using contrasting or nuanced comparisons (trees with finely textured leaves against foliage with a coarse texture and vice versa, their alternation, equilibrium arrangement, etc.).

Terrace- a horizontal or slightly inclined platform of natural origin or artificially constructed, forming a ledge on a slope; characteristic of ancient gardens, Renaissance and Baroque parks, located on slopes along ravines, in mountainous conditions (on topography).

“Terraces in gardens are called planes and places raised upward to a certain elevation, the edges of which, instead of a ledge and slope, are surrounded by a stone wall in the case of steepness, and in flat ones they are covered and entwined with turf. These walls are made partly for beauty, and partly so that the scarf does not take up space, which is sometimes very necessary. If there is to be a ledge not of stone, but of earth, then it should be made of clayey, not sandy earth, and it should be much more difficult to kill; and then, having mowed it, properly cover it with turf, and mow it more often” [Osipov, 1793. Part 2, pp. 175-176].

Identity- one of the means of harmonizing a landscape gardening ensemble, in which the complete similarity of commensurable features, linear and volumetric dimensions of a specific spatial composition comes to the fore. The identical alternation of architectural and other components of the park (for example, sculptures, fountains, molded trees along the alley, the design of flower beds, etc.) establishes their metric pattern in space and gives the composition the properties of balance and staticity. It is used mainly in the central and most solemn parts of garden and park ensembles, designed in a regular style.

Topiary art- the art of topiary cutting of trees and shrubs, which arose in ancient times, giving them geometric and fantastic shapes (for example, animals, architectural structures, etc.). For example, bay laurel, biota, privet and other plants with a fine crown texture that tolerate pruning are used.

Point of perception- see view point

Herbalist- apothecary garden of the 17th century. (often near the walls of the monastery)

Trellis- vertical plane support (frame) for climbing plants (roses, clematis, etc.) Made in the form of an openwork lattice made of wood, metal with different sizes of nests; length and height depend on the type of entwining plant and the nature of its use; installed in gardens, on streets, along bridges, stairs, and at the same time serves as a fence.

Mustache- a small detail in the design of a garden parterre, having the appearance of a stylized stem, an elongated and curved leaf.

Crown texture- feature, structure of the surface of a tree, bush. Depends on the size of the leaves and their placement on the branches. For example, the fine texture of the crown is characterized by boxwood and snowberry; large - catalpa, gray walnut, fragrant sumac.

Physiognomic principle of composition of plant material- a harmonious combination of shape, texture, color and other external characteristics of plants included in certain compositions, as a result of which they are distinguished by aesthetic unity. When selecting plants based on physiognomic principles, their environmental compatibility is also taken into account. In this case, one of the species should occupy a dominant position, and the others - accompanying or subordinate.

Flanking- symmetrical placement of any objects on the sides of the central compositional axis (for example, garden pavilions at the main house of the estate). The technique was widely used in regular park compositions.

Fleuron- one of the leading motifs in the design of a classic garden parterre, it resembles a whimsically curved branch of a plant and is located in the central part of the parterre.

Background- a surface or space on which the main elements of the composition, the external environment, the environment of the object are highlighted (in a park, architecture is revealed against the background of trees, a flower garden - against the background of a lawn, etc.). An important compositional requirement is, on the one hand, sufficient color and texture contrast of the background in relation to the object, and on the other, its relative homogeneity, which makes it possible to reveal the silhouette of the object and emphasize its meaning without distracting the viewer from the main thing.

Molding- a type of pruning, shearing in order to give the plant a certain habit that is not inherent to the plant (haircut in the shape of a ball, cube, one-three-row stepped hedge).

French style- see Regular style.

Functional organization of the territory- dividing a park and recreation area into parts intended for different types of use (see Zoning).

"Chaos"- a disorderly accumulation of wild rocks and large boulders. In romantic parks of the 18th-19th centuries. symbolized the abyss, the initial state of the material world from which everything that exists (for example, the Greater and Lesser Chaos in Alupka Park).

Floral arrays- large-scale flower arrangements with an area of ​​80-150 m2 and up to 1000 m2 in clearings and meadows, created from perennials. Arrays are usually made in one tone (fiery red, white, golden yellow). Contrasting combinations of 2-3 tones are practiced. They are often located in the ground floor of the park, in front of public buildings.

Cyclopean masonry- masonry of large stones, gigantic blocks of stone. Monumental compositions using such masonry are typical for parks of the Romantic period of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. (Sofievka, Vasilevo, Mitino, etc.).

Circumpferences- low (sometimes semicircular) buildings for service purposes, surrounding the front yard in front of the palace and separating it from the park or street (for example, at the Catherine Palace in Pushkin).

Tea garden- the garden adjacent to the tea house is adapted for relaxation and tea ceremonies (originally in Japan and China).

Attic (in Russian gardens of the 17th century)- an open wooden garden gazebo, usually on pillars.

Chalet- a rural house in the romantic parks of the 18th century, a garden pavilion that added a pastoral touch to the landscape (Pavlovsk).

Trellis- a row of densely planted low-growing trees or shrubs, trimmed into a wall or on supports. The support is a wooden or metal lattice or a wire stretched in several rows and attached to posts.

“Trellises, both high and low, are a necessary thing in gardens. Can be made from different trees and shrubs; and the more different and varied trellises there are in the garden, the better. Tall trellises are best than spruce ones, because they do not lose their greenery in winter. They are followed by linden, which are more common than all others, and then birch and rowan, made from acacia or pea wood and sometimes from bird cherry. Finally, they can be made from the most fruitful trees, that is, apple and pear trees, and they require special education, supervision and effort. All trellises are planted in dug ditches, and usually from young trees, which are cut very low to create a dense base for the trellis. However, in order to quickly obtain a trellis in all its perfection, one must use trees of two ages and plant a tall tree with a short one, and then cut off their tops equally, that is, the tall ones are higher, and the short ones are lower... This cutting must be repeated every year without fail , and both in the top and in the thickness, do not allow them to grow; because otherwise it will not be possible to deal with them soon. The whole beauty of the trellises depends on clean and diligent cutting” [Osipov, 1793. Part 2. P. 203, 204].

Stamb- leafless and cleared of branches part of the trunk from the root collar to the first skeletal branch of the crown. As a rule, standard trees are formed for alley plantings or as tapeworms.

Cracker- an entertainment device in the form of a fountain with a “surprise”, was especially popular in Russian gardens of the 18th century. (for example, at the Monplaisir Palace).

Exotic- a term used in relation to introduced plants (usually subtropical or tropical) that do not grow wild in a given area and are distinguished by valuable decorative qualities (for example, araucaria in Alupka Park).

Emblematic sculpture- a sculpture that has an allegorical, conventional (sometimes moralizing) meaning, a symbolic image of some abstract concept, idea, natural phenomenon, etc. In the gardens of the 17th-18th centuries. it was customary to install entire complexes of such sculptures, for example in the form mythological creatures, naked human figures (for example, in the Summer Garden, Peterhof, Pavlovsk).

Hermitage- a structure characteristic of the era of development of landscape gardening and palace art of the 17th-18th centuries, representing an architectural structure located in the depths of the park, away from the palace, the main house of the estate and intended for secluded relaxation, reflection, as well as meetings, display of collections, organizing concerts, etc. The original meaning of the term is the habitat of a hermit.

Esplanade- wide undeveloped space in front of public buildings in squares and large parks. Parterres and wide alleys with fountains and sculptures are arranged on the esplanade.

Ephemerides- temporary light structures in parks of the 18th century, designed for an illusory or fleeting effect (for example, a tent depicting a stone building, a pedestrian bridge made of living trees, etc.).

Japanese garden- a traditional work of landscape gardening art, characterized by the symbolic reproduction of nature in small spaces, fine elaboration of details, creating a certain state of contemplation in the visitor.

The culture of various peoples and countries is expressed in the architecture and art objects of their cities. For thousands of years, builders, architects and artists created a unique image of each city. Conveying their efforts in photographs is the topic of this lesson.

Photographing landmarks and architecture

A city is a single entity that includes street architecture, monuments, temples, parks, embankments, people and animals. Of course, every city, and especially cities with a rich
historical past, have their own unique character and a certain “melody”. The cities of the East are characterized by one rhythm, small European towns - another,
huge megacities - the third... In fact, people and buildings are a single living organism, but in order to get good “city photographs”, first of all you need to capture the Mood of the City.

For some, it’s easier to spot something interesting in an unfamiliar place as soon as they drop their suitcase at a hotel, while others need to take a closer look at the life of a metropolis or small town for some, perhaps a long, time.

Of course, first it is advisable to get to know the place where you are going in person. To do this, in addition to obtaining general information about those places, you can look at photographs of the city in advance and decide on “points” that might be of interest to you. This does not mean that you need to “trace” someone’s photos, but still, you should not forget: most cities have attractions - and there are their traditional advantageous angles, which, of course, there is no need to ignore.

It is imperative to take into account climatic features, since, for example, in many Asian cities it can be very hot and dusty during the day, in addition, so many people can gather on the streets that this will make filming very difficult. As a rule, it is best to local peculiarities described in guidebooks for free travelers (Lonely Planet and other similar publications).

Light

As in any other photography, the main thing in urban photography is light. Lighting features can make the most ordinary place extraordinary, especially if you find yourself there at an unusual time.

I know from personal experience: the best time for city photography, especially in Asia, is the very early morning. Not only is lighting during regular hours (some time before sunrise and a couple of hours after it) interesting in itself - at this time, as a rule, there are very few people on city streets, that is, the space is at your complete disposal! Even if it’s hellishly hot during the day, the streets are usually quite cool in the morning; only rare people are busy with their own affairs. In Europe, residents do not always respond well to filming, so you will not disturb them, and they will not disturb you. Although, one cannot help but notice, the presence of a small number of people in the frame greatly enlivens the picture: we are talking about “history”, the uniqueness of the moment...

Also, one of the most interesting lighting options for urban photography is night photography and evening turning into night. During this magical time, European cities and megalopolises are beautifully illuminated, so they present a completely different spectacle at night than during the day. The best time here comes at the moment when the lights are already turned on, but the night has not yet completely “descended” on the city.

In Asia, the nights are very dark and start quite early. The main attractions are usually not illuminated, so shooting has certain peculiarities - in the evening it is better to switch to shooting illuminated details.

Often, when darkness falls in cities - for example, in Kathmandu - dim lights turn on in numerous small shops or workshops. Despite the lack of full evening lighting, the city turns into a kind of “Tale of 1001 Nights” - wherever you look, everywhere, in small arches, shops, street cafes, there is some kind of life going on that looks very attractive: it seems to “shine up” from the darkness small lamps...

But, I must say, for such shooting you need a fast telephoto lens and a modern camera that allows you to shoot at high sensitivity (ISO) in order to get a fairly short shutter speed (to avoid blur) for moving objects in dim light.

During the day, in bright sunlight, modern office buildings look good in the photo. Contrasting sunlight only emphasizes the sharp edges of modern design. If the building is glass, then its many windows can reflect very interesting scenes.

At this time, you can also take interesting photographs inside, in the interiors of temples or other old buildings, where bright sunlight breaks through the few windows on the walls.

Of course, unusual weather phenomena are also interesting for city photography - for example, a full moon, a pre-storm sky, pre-dawn haze or thick fog, which can make photographs of the most popular tourist places unusual.

As for the technical side of city photography, since the contrast when shooting is usually high, you need to set the exposure for the important details that you focus on. If it is necessary to convey the details of an object in the shadows, the exposure is set according to the shadow areas. At the same time, keep an eye out for possible knockouts in the light (overexposed areas). Perhaps they will appear, but if they are small and not in the main storylines, then it is not so scary.

Rule of thirds

For a balanced composition of a cityscape, as in a regular landscape, use shutter speed related to the rule of the “golden ratio” - the “rule of thirds”, placing important compositional elements at the intersections of lines drawn at a distance of a third from the edges of the frame.

Using a tripod and available tools

For daytime photography and night photography, you will definitely need a tripod. The need to carry it with you, of course, somewhat complicates moving around the city, but eliminates possible blurring during long exposures. By the way, if your lens is equipped with a stabilizer, then it is better to turn it off when shooting from a tripod, since it will not be able to help you in this type of shooting, but it can easily hinder you...

With a tripod, the shutter speed practically doesn’t matter to you (in the city, 30 seconds is usually enough for night photography: you don’t need a special remote control) - you can apply interesting effects. For example, you can tighten the aperture to 11-14: the light sources in the photo will turn into small stars with rays.

Also, at a long shutter speed, shooting road traffic will give traces of beautiful tracks from car headlights. To use this technique, it is better to choose a higher shooting point.

You can also get very interesting photos from a tripod when shooting fountains. If the shutter speed is short, the water drops will freeze; if it is long (2-3 seconds), the fountain will turn into long matte jets. The fountains are very beautifully illuminated in the evenings - you will most likely need a tripod here too. Try experimenting by filming the entire fountain, separately, and its parts.

When shooting from a tripod, always put a lens hood on the lens so as not to catch the so-called “hares”: these are side lights from other light sources, of which there are usually a lot in the city. As with night photography of any other landscape, you must use the automatic timer to release the shutter (unless you are using a special remote control or cable), otherwise moving your finger on the shutter button will blur the image.

Sometimes the camera's autofocus may not focus on the point you want. Then either switch the camera to manual mode focus and focus manually, or illuminate the subject with a flashlight to help autofocus focus. If there is not enough light for handheld photography, and you don’t have a tripod with you, use the means at hand: you can put the camera on a fence, lean it against a tree trunk or embankment fence; A bag of cereal can serve as a good improvised tripod.

When shooting interiors in dark buildings without a tripod (like this Buddhist monastery, for example), you can use the ability of wide-angle lenses to capture
maximum space. That is, you can place the camera on the floor or a very low shooting point, slightly lift the lens up (this can be achieved by, for example, removing the lens hood and placing it under the lens) and shoot with a delayed shutter release, as when shooting at night. Not a bad option for When shooting in a dark room without a tripod, the trick is to shoot in series - several frames from a long series may well turn out to be sharp.

Fragments of architecture

Photographing the city will be incomplete if you do not photograph the architectural details - they can be very interesting. Here, of course, the key rule will be to look around carefully: you need to turn into a kind of radar, since some elements are not so easy to notice. The ability to find and isolate from the big picture unusual details They develop well with experience in shooting.

Of interest may be ancient lanterns, balconies, elements of embankments, temples, shop signs, arches, temple domes, unexpectedly encountered small monuments in unusual places - and even elements of city communications! Often the handles on the doors of ancient buildings, ancient doors and windows look very unusual.

The combination of old and new looks interesting - for example, the reflection of an image old church in the glass walls of an office building.

Sometimes an expressive fragment of a building can say more about it than the general plan. In ancient buildings, for example, there are often interesting stone carvings or small sculptures on the facades. In addition to observation, the ability to remove unnecessary details from such a frame, leaving the main thing, will be very important.

Although, of course, to complete a photo report about the place you visited, you need both fragments and general plans.

When photographing fragments, close the aperture to get greater depth of field.

Rhythmic frame pattern

Having found elements that are similar in color, texture and shape, you can catch the graphic rhythm by arranging these elements so that they repeat. This is a very popular technique in urban photography. Such elements can be lanterns on the embankment, windows in a building, elements of grilles, temple arches, trees, pillars or cars in the parking lot (and the shadows from them).

A telephoto lens is best for photographing rhythmic patterns, given its ability to “compress” distance. At the same time, the graphic rhythm is well emphasized when shooting not from the front, but from the side. Such photos look very interesting in black and white.

Excursions Taking photographs on excursions, you can take many interesting photos. True, there is also a not very pleasant moment in such a shooting: since you are most likely not alone on it (two are almost an ideal option), other members of the group will interfere with you. You can avoid this if you overtake the guide a little and take the best point first. Or vice versa: wait until the main part of the group takes a photo of what they wanted and moves on.

You shouldn’t overuse pictures like “Me and the fountain”, “Me and the temple”, “Me and the statue”: these pictures, as a rule, will end up in the hands of most of your group... and what meaning do they carry? Show that you were really there? Or is the goal to definitely post the photo on a social network? If you really want to be photographed against a beautiful background in an interesting place, take several such photos, but do not turn it into a boring endless series. Remember: the main goal of artistic photography (if you want to really get it) artistic photo) - take photographs that are interesting not only to you or those who know you, but to interest those who do not know the backstory that connects you with this place.

If your goal is to show in the photo that you “were in this place,” it is better to take a photo or photograph your loved ones in front of a sign with the name of a famous street or some popular attraction.

Optics and geometric distortions

When shooting with wide-angle lenses, geometric distortions such as buildings “falling” towards the center of the frame are not uncommon. If this really bothers you, these distortions can now be corrected quite well when post-processing photos using Photoshop or any popular RAW converter. Although the best option would be to artistically play these distortions to your advantage.

The longer the focal length, the smaller these distortions, that is, when shooting buildings, people or streets in the distance with a telephoto lens, they will not fall into the center of the frame.

The ideal option would be to shoot with two cameras, one with a wide-angle lens and the other with a telephoto lens: this will give you greater efficiency. If this option does not suit your budget, then a universal zoom lens with a large range of focal lengths and an optical stabilizer will be very convenient for city photography.

Panoramas

For large views, use panoramic photography. At the same time, as in a natural landscape, it is better to shoot such scenes from the highest possible shooting point.

Examples of photos on the topic of the lesson

As in any other photography, the main thing in urban photography is light. Features of lighting can make the most banal place extraordinary, especially if you find yourself in it in
non-standard time.

This photo of Prague was taken on a partly cloudy day. The city looked gray under a veil of clouds, but after waiting fifteen minutes, an interesting strip of light appeared that brought the photo to life. Prague. Czech Republic.

The presence of even a small number of people in the frame greatly enlivens it, giving it some history, the uniqueness of the moment. Without people this street would be too empty. Czech krumlov.

One of the most interesting lighting options for city photography is shooting at night and evening turning into night. During this magical time, European cities and megalopolises are beautifully illuminated and at night they present a completely different spectacle than during the day. Better time here it comes when the city lights are already turned on, but the sky is not yet black, night has not yet completely descended on the city.

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Inside temples or other old buildings, you can take interesting photographs during the day, when bright sunlight breaks through the few windows on the walls. Prague. Czech Republic.

With a tripod, you are practically unlimited in shutter speed (in the city, 30 seconds for night photography is usually enough and you don’t need a special remote control) and you can apply interesting effects. For example, you can tighten the aperture to 11-14 and the light sources in the photo will turn into small stars with rays. Moscow. Russia.

Just like when photographing any other landscapes at night, you must use an automatic timer to release the shutter (if you are not using a special remote control or cable). Otherwise, moving your finger on the shutter button can blur the image. Moscow. Russia.

When shooting interiors without a tripod in dark buildings, such as this Buddhist monastery, you can take advantage of the ability of wide-angle lenses to capture
maximum space. That is, you can place the camera on the floor or a very low shooting point, slightly lift the lens up (this can be achieved by removing, for example, the lens hood from
lens and placing it under the lens) and shoot with a shutter delay, as when shooting at night. This is exactly how this photo was taken, using a lens hood placed under the lens. Tyangboche Monastery. Nepal

Photographing a city will be incomplete without photographing architectural details - they can be very interesting. Here, of course, the key rule will be to carefully look around, turning into a kind of radar, because some elements are not so easy to notice. The ability to find and isolate unusual details from the overall picture develops well with experience in photography. Prague. Czech Republic.

Of interest may be ancient lanterns, balconies, elements of embankments, temples, shop signs, arches, temple domes, unexpectedly encountered small monuments in unusual places, and even elements of city communications. Often the handles on the doors of ancient buildings, ancient doors and windows look very unusual.

Prague. District "Prague Castle". Czech Republic.

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Sometimes, an expressive fragment of a building or sculpture can say more about it than the general plan. In addition to observation, the ability to remove unnecessary details from such a frame, leaving the main thing, will be very important. Close-up of the head of the statue of one of the incarnations of Shiva - “Black Bairab” in Durbar Square -
square in Kathmandu, Nepal.

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Although, of course, for a full-fledged photo report about the place you visited, you need both fragments and general plans. General view of the statue of one of the incarnations of Shiva - “Black Bayrab” on
Durbar Square in Kathmandu, Nepal.

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Having found elements that are similar in color, texture and shape, you can catch the graphic rhythm by arranging these elements so that they repeat. This is a very popular technique in urban photography. Such elements can be lanterns on the embankment, windows in a building, elements of grilles, temple arches, trees, even pillars or cars in the parking lot or shadows from them. Here the rhythm is created by the repetition of the shapes of the arches inside the Catholic church. Kutna Hora. Czech Republic.

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The longer the focal length, the less geometric distortion. That is, when shooting buildings, people or streets in the distance with a telephoto lens, they will not fall into the center of the frame. Prague. Czech Republic.

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For large views, use panoramic photography. At the same time, as in a natural landscape, it is better to shoot such scenes from the highest possible shooting point.
Panorama of two horizontal frames. Czech krumlov. Czech Republic.

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Light is critical to taking a good photograph. It makes the moment unique, non-repetitive. The photo shows a brief moment of a short winter sunset on a frosty evening. Moscow. Russia

Lesson assignments

Learning to shoot architecture Well, it's time to practice shooting architecture. Try to find interesting scenes for shooting in the city and send two of the best photos taken at different times of the day.

Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers USSR adopted a resolution “On the master plan for the development of Moscow”. This resolution provides for a huge range of work aimed at making the capital of our Motherland an exemplary communist city. Particular attention in the resolution is paid to improving the architectural and artistic quality of the city's development and to such a solution to urban ensembles that will preserve the originality of the historically established architectural appearance of Moscow.

Our special correspondents V. Demidov and V. Levin addressed the head of architectural and planning workshop No. 1 of the Research and Design Institute of the Moscow General Plan Simon Matveevich Matveev with a request to talk about specific activities developed by the master plan in this area.

Preservation of architectural monuments in Moscow is one of the main tasks set by the master plan for the development of the city. It's about about the continuation and development of progressive historical and architectural traditions of more than eight centuries of life in Moscow. And here it is not enough just to take into account historical values. Any building, no matter how it is protected, will be dead if it is excluded from the life of the city.

Monuments, as museum values ​​only, do not live in cities. They can live when people use them, when they become participants in today's everyday life. One can imagine separate architectural reserves- buildings, so to speak, in preserved museum form - but not on the streets of the city. The functional purpose (use) of each monument must be found - and this is sometimes a task of extreme complexity.

Outstanding buildings of past eras do not interfere, but rather help shape the architectural appearance of the city. Remember the famous ensembles of Leningrad. One building in them could have been built 100-150 years earlier than another, but today they appear before us absolutely intact and are perceived as works created by “one breath,” because the buildings in them did not turn into dead exhibits. Architects of subsequent eras measured their plans against those already implemented.

And further. Moscow would not be the capital if its very appearance did not reflect the centuries-old history of the country. Therefore, for us, the issue of preserving architectural monuments is not only a matter of architecture, it is also a matter of patriotic education.

Many architectural monuments that had a religious purpose have long lost it. They are perceived today as the embodied history of the people, as a symbol of the level of material culture, as a certain imaginative thinking of a certain era. The Church in Fili, St. Basil's Cathedral, or the Donskoy Monastery, or the Novodevichy Monastery are historical and cultural images of their era. They correspond to the views of a certain time and reflect their development. And by preserving them, we preserve the links of the living connection of times. It is in this direction that the issue of protecting architectural monuments is considered in the master plan with the aim of actively including cultural heritage into the life of the city, into its architectural and planning structure.

What is being done now to achieve this goal? Firstly, the task is not to limit ourselves to the existing list of Moscow architectural monuments under state protection, but to identify new ones. More than 450 such “candidates” for architectural monuments were identified already at the stage of development of the general plan.

In addition, the general plan for the first time raised the question of considering not only individual buildings as a monument, but also entire streets, blocks, and the very layout of the central part of Moscow, which is of great historical value. The classical radial-ring system of Moscow, which is a rare phenomenon in world urban planning in such a clearly expressed form, did not develop spontaneously: its roots are in the structure of ancient Russian cities with the fortifications that surrounded them, in the place of which ring highways subsequently arose. The area of ​​the Garden Ring, the streets approaching the Kremlin, several squares that enclose the ensemble of the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod in a semi-ring - all this is unique in its layout, just as the ancient Moscow alleys and many architectural elements are unique, without which our city cannot be imagined. ..

Is it possible to preserve all this in an unshakable form, especially considering that the development that has developed in different eras is unequal? Of course not. For example, more than half a million people now live within the Garden Ring. Even after disaggregation, this area will have about 300 thousand inhabitants. And it is necessary now to ensure that their living conditions fully meet world standards. But in this area there are not only architectural monuments, but also residential buildings that simply cannot be modernized or adapted to modern (and even more so to tomorrow’s) housing standards. Therefore, some modern construction and changes in housing stock will take place. But we need to do it in such a way - and the general plan provides for this - that new construction in these areas does not change their traditional flavor.

It is necessary to preserve the scale, the charm of curvilinear Moscow streets and alleys, even, if you want, to preserve the silence of the unique “Moscow courtyards”, their intimacy. Their natural contrast with the turbulent modern life of the large arteries and districts of today's and tomorrow's Moscow will, as it were, emphasize the dynamics of the entire architectural appearance of the city, which has always been inherent in our capital.

What can be classified as such areas? Well, for example, Vorovskogo Street or Kropotkinskaya Street are typically Moscow streets, very beautiful, cozy, intimate in nature.

(In the general plan of 1935, Kropotkin Street was supposed to be widened to ensure traffic flow. Now the question is being raised about maintaining its width on the basis of creating other transport arteries.) Solutions are being sought for such streets as Old Arbat, Ordynka, Chernyshevsky, Bogdan Khmelnitsky streets, and are being developed plans to preserve the color of Ivanovskaya Gorka (the area between Nogin Square, Solyanka, Boulevard Ring, Chernyshevsky Street).

Until the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Moscow had a very rich silhouette - the high points of religious buildings created a very dynamic and picturesque image of the city, fused with the landscape, with the relief, with the water surfaces, which amazed all travelers. Suppressed by the blocks of so-called apartment buildings during the development of capitalism in Russia, Moscow has largely lost this appearance. And the task of our time is to revive the best urban planning traditions of the famous Russian Moscow architects. It is no longer possible to do this by resuming the active sound of only ancient buildings. It is necessary to revive traditions with modern buildings, because the appearance of the city and its picturesqueness have always been determined by buildings that correspond to the spirit and character of their time.

Yes, now Moscow as a city has long ago gone beyond the Garden Ring. And yet, according to the prospects outlined by the general plan, the future Moscow should, as it were, continue the traditions of ancient Moscow. In what specific ways is this supposed to be achieved? The structure of Moscow provides for the creation of a number of new public centers in the city, dividing the city into eight zones, a kind of “cities within a city,” with a population of up to a million inhabitants in each. And, figuratively speaking, each such “city” will have its own “Kremlin” - those magnificent architectural ensembles, actively connected with the landscape, with parks, relief, which constitute the pride of Russian culture. Their combination with modern ensembles, those that will be erected, should give that sense of continuity, without which the city crumbles into separate buildings. For example, the Southern zone of Moscow. It includes a large community Center, which will be located between two historical ensembles: Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyn, whose park and architectural complexes seem to embrace the new center and at the same time do not interfere with each other. Each has its own task, its own role, its own territory. It will be a huge architectural chain, spread out in a magnificent landscape along the high bank of the Moscow River, a chain of historical monuments and modern buildings. An ensemble such as the Poklonnaya Gora area will apparently be no less attractive. Here, from the Arc de Triomphe of 1812 to the Rublevskoye Highway, the center of the Western zone will pass. It will, as it were, absorb all the historical values ​​that are here. The triumphal arch, on the flank is the church in Fili, then Poklonnaya Hill itself - all this is like the road to the field of glory, to the Borodino field. The south-eastern center will continue the Kuzminki ensemble, a historically very interesting landscape park, and will go directly to the Moscow River.

Have the scientific principles of such a conscious, purposeful combination of the old, modern and future of Moscow been developed when preparing its general plan? Yes. Although there are no and cannot be any ossified dogmas in this area, where everything is decided by the individual skill of the architect. Architecture is not only a science, it was, is and will remain an art. But the basic principles have certainly been formulated.

Each architectural monument makes—precisely makes—specific demands on the architects of subsequent eras. We need to understand what kind of environment a particular monument needs. It is necessary to determine what can be built near this or that architectural monument so that it corresponds to modern times and at the same time actively includes this monument in the new environment. It is necessary to identify - and very accurately - the architectural, large-scale characteristics of the monument and, in this regard, understand what can be built nearby.

The following “protection zones” are formulated in the master plan.

1. A site of an architectural monument is an area that cannot be occupied by new buildings at all. This is a taboo, breaking which means irreparably spoiling the creation of ancient masters.

2. The zone of protection of an architectural monument is the zone within which construction, generally speaking, is also prohibited, but if permission is obtained for the construction of some extremely necessary building, then only after a thorough study of the issue: as a new building in a functional, thematically and architecturally it corresponds to an architectural monument.

3. Zone of influence of the architectural monument. During modern construction in this zone, it is necessary to first find out: what kind of architectural landscape should be formed near a given monument, what heights are permissible at different distances from the monument, and how to build so as not to obscure the architectural monument, so that the best “view points” taken into account when -the builders of this structure. The zone of influence is the zone in which the construction strategy must take into account the significance and influence of the monument.

I repeat once again - all these are not dry paragraphs of some unshakable rules. And just observing them does not guarantee against irreparable mistakes. The best intentions can be overturned by construction practices. The history of world urban planning shows that you can skillfully place next to an ancient building a completely new modern thing, contrasting with the monument, and suddenly all together they become a magnificent ensemble. On the other hand, you can build a building in the spirit of a neighboring monument - and the result will be impossibly bad, an eclectic mismatch, an obvious fake. This means that it is impossible to separate all of the above from the problems of mastery.

Here is a brief summary of the main tasks set by the master plan for the protection and organic inclusion of historical heritage into the living fabric of today's and tomorrow's Moscow.

Architecture in a broad sense covers a large sphere of human activity, in which landscape architecture occupies a special place as a separate section.

Landscape architecture includes the process of creating and optimally organizing the surrounding space, which helps to aesthetically design gardens and parks.

The main material for working in landscape architecture is vegetation and the surrounding landscape.

The concepts of landscape design and architecture are often equated. But you need to understand that they carry different meanings. Architecture here is the organization of a favorable surrounding space, an external environment for the daily life of the population, as well as recreation. Elements of landscape architecture can be seen both in city parks and in rural areas, on a private plot. This area of ​​human life must meet aesthetic, functional and economic requirements.

To put it simply, landscape architecture is a way of designing parks, gardens, and recreational areas for the population in such a way that a person will feel as comfortable as possible, and his aesthetic requirements will be fully satisfied.

Architectural specialists achieve their goals with the help of water, green spaces, stone, and special terrain.

Landscape design is a more general concept that includes landscape architecture. Today it is difficult to separate one concept from another, since in fact they are inextricably linked. Modern educational institutions train wide-ranging specialists - construction designers, landscape architects, who are engaged not only in landscaping the areas of city parks or private gardens, but also participate in the development of construction projects.

In recent years, the demand for the services of specialists in the field of landscape architecture has been steadily growing. This is due to the fact that an increasing number of people are striving to live in landscaped estates, parks, and courtyards. In Europe, landscape architecture and design are at the highest level; domestic specialists can learn a lot from foreign colleagues and adopt a lot of techniques and ideas.

Modern landscape architecture should be environmentally oriented. This means that the pristine landscape must be preserved as much as possible. It is important to highlight its beauty with architectural objects and techniques using environmentally friendly building materials.

In our country, the term “landscape architecture” first began to be used in the 70s of the 20th century. Then, in 1961, the first All-Union Conference on Landscape Architecture was organized.

Landscape architecture objects

There are many approaches by which landscape architecture objects can be classified. The traditional approach highlights the following elements:

• functional objects, for example, historical, cultural (reserves), as well as recreation parks;
• objects of landscape-genetic origin, such as natural parks formed naturally and preserved by humans as parks and water areas;
• urban planning objects - zones or corners of nature with a natural landscape in the city or in a suburban area.

Today, almost all landscape architecture objects are located in cities. Most of them are presented in the form of city parks, which can be divided into:

• multifunctional, which are used by several categories of the population both for recreation and for holding various cultural and sports events;
• specialized, performing one specific function (botanical gardens and parks; zoological parks; complex exhibition parks consisting of ponds, exhibition pavilions, green spaces; open-air museum; parks with an ethnographic focus that show the life of different peoples; arboretums).

Not a single landscape object can do without a communication network. For the convenience of visitors, transport roads, pedestrian paths, paths for cyclists and walks are organized.

Since any object of landscape architecture involves transformation and change of the surrounding natural environment to a greater or lesser extent, we distinguish:

• macro-level objects that occupy large areas on a national scale. They are of regional importance, and their design is carried out taking into account the rational use of natural resources. Typically, such objects remain virtually unchanged. For the convenience of visitors, a communications network is laid in them. These are national parks, nature reserves, urban landscaping, reservoirs;
• meso-level objects. They are located within a specific locality. Parks, hydroparks, gardens. Designed for public recreation, entertainment and sports events;
• micro-level objects. Their design is carried out based on reference to a specific architectural object - a building or structure. These are gardens, squares, areas of various establishments, terraces, boulevards, embankments.

Directions of landscape architecture

Modern landscape architecture consists of the following areas:

Landscape construction, its main task is the construction of landscape objects around which there will be green spaces. These are reservoirs created artificially, alpine slides, waterfalls, rock gardens.

Landscape planning involves the organization and transformation of the natural environment on a national scale, which allows it to be preserved as much as possible in its original form.

Landscape design is a more detailed description of what future objects of a landscaped area will look like.

The main objectives of landscape architecture are:

• preservation of the natural landscape in its original form;
• protection of natural monuments;
• improving the landscape and transforming it for the most convenient and safe human use.

Styles in landscape architecture

In architectural design, it is customary to distinguish two main styles:

Regular style, which is characterized by the presence of a main smooth axis. It is around it that all the main elements and objects will be located.

Mirror symmetry is often used. For communications, I use straight paths or those made on the plan using a ruler and compass. The regular style is characterized by the presence of strict geometrically correct lines, shapes and proportions. Circle or square shapes are often used. When choosing plants for plantings, preference is given to those species that are easy to trim and form the necessary shapes from them. Most often these are shrubs or small trees. When planting them, they focus on the alley type. In every corner of the garden, designed in a regular style, there are decorative elements in the form of fountains, sculptures, pools, gazebos and arches.

Landscape style, the main task of which is the maximum preservation of the pristine natural appearance and features of the area. All natural elements are only emphasized with the help of landscape objects and are ennobled to make them convenient to visit. There are no clear and regular geometric shapes and lines. The only requirement is that the final landscape must be complete