What is the politics of the thaw in the spiritual sphere. Thaw" in the spiritual sphere

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art. The first post-Stalin decade was marked by serious changes in spiritual life. The famous Soviet writer I. G. Ehrenburg called this period the “thaw” that came after the long and harsh Stalinist “winter.” And at the same time, it was not “spring” with its full-flowing and free “spill” of thoughts and feelings, but rather a “thaw”, which could again be followed by a “light frost”.

Representatives of literature were the first to respond to the changes that began in society. Even before the 20th Congress of the CPSU, works appeared that marked the birth of a new direction in Soviet literature - renovation. Its essence was to address the inner world of a person, his everyday worries and problems, and unresolved issues of the country's development. One of the first such works was V. M. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature,” published in 1953 in the New World magazine, where he first raised the question that “writing honestly means not thinking about facial expressions.” tall and short readers." The question of the need for the existence of various literary schools and movements was also raised here.

Articles by V. Ovechkin (back in 1952), F. Abramov, and works by I. Ehrenburg (“The Thaw”), V. Panova (“Seasons”), and F. Panferov ( “Volga Mother River”), etc. Their authors moved away from the traditional varnishing of people’s real lives. For the first time in many years, the question was raised about the destructiveness of the atmosphere that had developed in the country. However, the authorities recognized the publication of these works as “harmful” and removed A. Tvardovsky from the management of the magazine.

Life itself raised the question of the need to change the leadership style of the Writers' Union and its relations with the CPSU Central Committee.

Attempts by the head of the Writers' Union A. A. Fadeev to achieve this led to his disgrace and then to suicide. In his suicide letter, he noted that art in the USSR was “ruined by the self-confident and ignorant leadership of the party,” and writers, even the most recognized ones, were reduced to the status of boys, destroyed, “ideologically scolded and called it partisanship.” V. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin (“Seekers”), E. Dorosh (“Village Diary”) spoke about this in their works.

The authorities were looking for new methods of influencing the intelligentsia. Since 1957, meetings between the leadership of the Central Committee and literary and artistic figures have become regular. The personal tastes of Khrushchev, who made long-winded speeches at these meetings, acquired the character of official assessments. The unceremonious intervention did not find support not only among the majority of the participants in these meetings and among the intelligentsia in general, but also among the broadest sections of the population.

After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, ideological pressure was somewhat weakened in the field of musical art, painting, and cinematography. Responsibility for the “excesses” of previous years was assigned to Stalin, Beria, Zhdanov, Molotov, Malenkov and others.

In May 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU issued a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky” and “From the Heart”, which recognized the previous assessments of D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. as unsubstantiated and unfair. Khachaturyan, V. Muradeli, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others. At the same time, calls from the intelligentsia to repeal other decisions of the 1940s. on ideological issues were rejected. It was confirmed that they “played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism” and “retain their current significance.” The policy of “thaw” in spiritual life, therefore, had well-defined boundaries.

A real shock for millions of people was the publication of A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s works “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” and “Matryonin’s Court”, which raised the problem of overcoming the Stalinist legacy in the everyday life of Soviet people.

In an effort to prevent the massive nature of anti-Stalin publications, which affected not only Stalinism, but the entire Soviet system, Khrushchev in his speeches drew the attention of writers to the fact that “this is a very dangerous topic and difficult material” and it is necessary to deal with it, “observing a sense of proportion.” " Official “limiters” also operated in other spheres of culture. Not only writers and poets (A. Voznesensky, D. Granin, V. Dudintsev, E. Evtushenko, S. Kirsanov) were regularly subjected to sharp criticism for “ideological dubiousness”, “underestimation of the leading role of the party”, “formalism”, etc. , K. Paustovsky, etc.), but also sculptors, artists, directors (E. Neizvestny, R. Falk, M. Khutsiev), philosophers, historians.

Nevertheless, in those years, many literary works appeared (“The Fate of a Man” by M. Sholokhov, “Silence” by Yu. Bondarev), films (“The Cranes Are Flying” by M. Kalatozov, “The Forty-First,” “The Ballad of a Soldier,” “Pure sky" by G. Chukhrai), paintings that have received national recognition precisely because of their life-affirming power and optimism, appeal to the inner world and everyday life of a person.

Development of science. Party directives that focused on the development of scientific and technological progress stimulated the development of domestic science. In 1956, the International Research Center was opened in Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research). In 1957, the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was formed with a wide network of institutes and laboratories. Other scientific centers were also created. Only in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences for 1956-1958. 48 new research institutes were organized. Their geography has also expanded (Urals, Kola Peninsula, Karelia, Yakutia). By 1959, there were about 3,200 scientific institutions in the country. The number of scientific workers in the country was approaching 300 thousand.

Among the greatest achievements of Russian science at that time were the creation of the most powerful synchrophasotron in the world (1957); launching of the world's first nuclear icebreaker "Lenin"; launch of the first artificial Earth satellite into space (October 4, 1957), sending animals into space (November 1957), the first human flight into space (April 12, 1961); launch of the world's first jet passenger airliner Tu-104; creation of high-speed passenger hydrofoil ships (“Raketa”), etc. Work in the field of genetics was resumed.

Thus, the scientific and technological achievements of the “Khrushchev era” laid the foundation for achieving military-strategic parity with the United States in the future.

Soviet sport. The years of the “thaw” were marked by triumphant victories of Soviet athletes. Already the first participation of Soviet track and field athletes in the Olympics in Helsinki (1952) was marked by 22 gold, 30 silver and 19 bronze medals. In the unofficial team competition, the USSR team scored the same number of points as the USA team. The first gold medalist of the Olympics was discus thrower N. Romashkova (Ponomareva). The best athlete of the Melbourne Olympics (1956) was the Soviet runner V. Kuts, who became a two-time champion in the 5 and 10 km running. Gold medals at the Rome Olympics (1960) were awarded to P. Bolotnikov (running), sisters T. and I. Press (discus throwing, hurdles), V. Kapitonov (cycling), B. Shakhlin and L. Latynina (gymnastics) , Y. Vlasov (weightlifting), V. Ivanov (rowing), etc. They achieved brilliant results and world fame at the Tokyo Olympics (1964): in the high jump V. Brumel, weightlifter L. Zhabotinsky, gymnast L. Latynina and others. These were the years of triumph for the great Soviet football goalkeeper L. Yashin, who played more than 800 matches during his sports career (including 207 without conceding goals) and became the silver medalist of the European Cup (1964) and the champion of the Olympic Games (1956).

The successes of Soviet athletes caused unprecedented popularity of the competition, which created an important prerequisite for the development of mass sports. Encouraging these sentiments, the country's leadership paid attention to the construction of stadiums and sports palaces, the massive opening of sports sections and children's and youth sports schools. This laid a good foundation for future world victories of Soviet athletes.

Development of education. As the foundations of industrial society were built in the USSR, the system that emerged in the 30s. the education system needed updating. It had to correspond to the prospects for the development of science and technology, new technologies, and changes in the social and humanitarian sphere.

However, this was in conflict with the official policy of continuing extensive economic development, which required new workers every year to develop enterprises under construction.

Education reform was largely conceived to solve this problem. In December 1958, a law was passed according to which a compulsory eight-year polytechnic school was created instead of the seven-year school. Young people received secondary education by graduating from either a school for working (rural) youth without leaving work, or technical schools operating on the basis of an eight-year school, or a secondary three-year labor comprehensive school with industrial training. For those wishing to continue their education at a university, mandatory work experience was introduced.

Memorizing new words

Polytechnic school- a school based on teaching the basics of technology and working professions.

Testing your knowledge

What did the “thaw” policy mean in the spiritual sphere?
Show with examples the limits of the “thaw” in cultural life.
What processes in social life arose under the influence of the “thaw”?
What tasks were the education reform of 1958 supposed to solve?
What do you see as the contradictory nature of the “thaw” in the spiritual sphere?

Learning to be historians

Using the text of this paragraph and materials from other paragraphs of the textbook devoted to culture, science and sports, make a table of the main stages in the development of Soviet science and culture until the mid-1960s.
Watch two films from this period that represent polar genres (e.g. Carnival Night, Amphibian Man). Compare them using your own system of criteria. Display the work done in the form of a presentation.
“Very little time will pass, and both the Manezh and the corn will be forgotten... And people will live in his houses for a long time. The people he freed... And no one will have evil - neither tomorrow nor the day after tomorrow... There are enough villains in our history - bright and strong. Khrushchev is that rare, albeit controversial, figure who personified not only goodness, but also desperate personal courage, which we all can learn from him,” wrote film director M. M. Romm about N. S. Khrushchev. This is the opinion of a representative of part of the intelligentsia. According to modern surveys, the majority of residents of our country evaluate the activities of N. S. Khrushchev negatively. Write a historical essay on the topic “Lessons from Khrushchev’s Thaw.”
Ask your grandfathers, grandmothers, and older people about what events in the life of the country in the 1950s - the first half of the 1960s. they remember which ones seem most important to them. How did they feel about N.S. Khrushchev at that time and how do they feel now? Present these stories in the form of interviews.

March 5, 1953 Stalin died. With the death of Stalin, an entire era in the life of the country ended. Stalin’s heirs, who came to power after his death, on the one hand, understood that preserving or strengthening the system was impossible and even disastrous, but, on the other hand, they were ready to abandon only some of its most odious elements (the cult of the leader’s personality, mass terror and repressions, complete suppression of commodity-money relations, etc.). The first to make proposals for partial rehabilitation of prisoners, revision of the fundamentals of foreign policy, and adjustment of agricultural policy were G. M. Malenkov, who became Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR after the death of Stalin, and L. P. Beria, from the late 30s. in charge of the punitive system. In July 1953, Beria was arrested and soon executed. The First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, N.S. Khrushchev, who was gaining strength, managed to achieve victory over his main competitor, Malenkov, by 1955. By this time, tens of thousands of people had been released from prisons and camps, victims of the “Doctors’ Plot”, “Leningrad Affair”, and military leaders convicted after the Great Patriotic War were rehabilitated. Transformations were promised to agriculture: purchase prices were raised, debts were written off, investment in the collective farm economy was increased, taxes on personal subsidiary plots were reduced, and it was allowed to increase its size fivefold. The development of virgin and fallow lands began in Kazakhstan and Western Siberia (1954).

On February 25, 1956, at a closed meeting of the 20th Congress of the CPSU, N. S. Khrushchev made a report “On the cult of personality and its consequences.” The report cited Lenin’s “testament” (“Letter to the Congress”), criticizing Stalin, talking about the execution of the overwhelming majority of the delegates of the 17th Congress, Stalin’s behavior in the first days of the war, and the repressions of the 40s. and much more.

Khrushchev's report was accusatory in nature and made a strong impression on the congress delegates. It was decided not to make the contents of the report known to the people; they limited themselves to reading it at meetings of party activists. However, a few days after the congress, the full text of Khrushchev’s report “On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences” appeared in foreign newspapers and was broadcast by Western radio stations. In our country, Khrushchev’s report was published only in 1989.

After the 20th Congress, the process of de-Stalinization went faster. Many political prisoners were released from the camps, and many categories of special settlers were removed from the register. The Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a resolution that improved the legal status of former Soviet prisoners of war. In 1957, the Kalmyk, Kabardino-Balkarian, Karachay-Cherkess, Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Republics were restored. The moral climate was improving and favorable conditions were created for the development of science and culture, which allowed publicists to define this period of Soviet history as the “thaw.” The good name of many scientists and artists was restored, and the banned works of A. A. Akhmatova, M. M. Zoshchenko, and S. A. Yesenin began to be published.

In the second half of the 50s. International cultural ties expanded significantly: foreign film festivals, theatrical tours, and exhibitions of foreign fine arts were held in the USSR. In 1957, the World Festival of Youth and Students took place in Moscow. Soviet scientific and cultural figures began to travel abroad again. Informal circles of student youth emerged in Moscow and Leningrad, whose participants sought to better understand the political mechanism of the Soviet system. In Moscow, young people began to gather at the monument to V.V. Mayakovsky, erected in 1958. Participants in these meetings read their poems, prose, and held political discussions. It was from the student environment that those who later came to be called dissidents emerged.

In 1959, a new charter of the CPSU was adopted, which for the first time spoke about the possibility of internal party discussions, personnel renewal, etc. In 1961, the XXII Congress of the CPSU, having adopted a new party program - the “program for the construction of communism”, adopted a resolution on the reburial of Stalin’s body on Krasnaya square and about intensifying the fight against the cult of personality. Molotov, Kaganovich and others were expelled from the party. Finally, in 1962, Khrushchev proposed to begin developing a draft of a new Constitution.

The social policy pursued by Khrushchev was also a departure from the Stalinist model: the passport system was extended to collective farmers, pensions were streamlined, mass housing construction was launched, and the resettlement of communal apartments began.

However, de-Stalinization was not consistent. In industrial policy, Khrushchev adhered to the priority development of heavy and defense industries and retained command management methods. In the agricultural sector in 1958-1959. there was a return to administrative methods of management. The famous campaign for the forced introduction of corn, the reorganization of machine and tractor stations, and the fight against private farming were manifestations of a directive leadership style and caused enormous harm to agriculture. The consequences of ill-conceived decisions were difficulties in supplying cities with food and bread, and grain purchases began abroad (1963). There was an increase in retail prices for products. The resulting unrest in Novocherkassk was suppressed by force (protest participants were shot).

The course towards de-Stalinization in the sphere of culture, ideology, and spiritual life was inconsistent. The “Thaw” was perceived with caution; it was seen as an undesirable “ferment of minds”, “undermining the foundations”. That is why an ideological campaign was launched against B. L. Pasternak, who published the novel “Doctor Zhivago” abroad, abstract artists were ridiculed, and writers and poets who tried to move away from outdated dogmas were criticized. “I am a Stalinist in culture,” Khrushchev himself said. But at the same time, it was he who gave permission for the publication of A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,” directed against Stalinism.

Khrushchev was relieved of his post as First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR at the Plenum of the Central Committee in October 1964. The totalitarian system inherited from the reign of Stalin underwent some changes, but essentially did not change. The spiritual and cultural life of society during the Khrushchev “thaw” was of a contradictory nature. On the one hand, the process of renewal and liberalization in politics could not but cause a revival of culture, a weakening of ideological control, and the rise of science and education. On the other hand, the general approach to the cultural sphere was distinguished by the previous desire to place it at the service of official ideology. Nevertheless, especially before the beginning of the 1960s, there was a spiritual revival of the creative intelligentsia. The spiritual center of the sixties was the magazine “New World,” headed by A. T. Tvardovsky. The Sovremennik Theater began operating in Moscow under the direction of O. N. Efremov. Many writers, artists, and scientists were able to visit abroad. Memoirs of Soviet military leaders began to be published: in previous years, none of the statesmen and military leaders even dared to write down their memories. In historical science, there was a departure from the dogmas of the “Short Course in the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)”, and the role of Stalin in the history of the Soviet state was revised. New magazines “Yunost”, “Moscow”, “Our Contemporary”, “Young Guard”, “History of the USSR”, “New and Contemporary History”, “Culture and Life”, almanacs and newspapers began to be published. New creative unions were created. In 1958, the CPSU Central Committee adopted a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “The Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “With all my Heart”. A sign of the times was the rehabilitation of some cultural figures convicted under Stalin. Forbidden poems by S. A. Yesenin, D. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva, stories by M. M. Zoshchenko and others were published. During the “thaw”, F. A. Abramov, V. P. first announced themselves. Astafiev, E. A. Evtushenko, R. I. Rozhdestvensky, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, V. P. Aksenov and others. However, the inconsistency of cultural policy made itself felt. Some works of literature and art were received with hostility by N. S. Khrushchev, his advisers and a number of cultural figures (novels by V. D. Dudintsev “Not by Bread Alone”, B. L. Pasternak “Doctor Zhivago”, film by M. M. Khutsiev “ Zastava Ilyich”, etc.). The talented painters E. Belyutin, B. Zhutovsky, and the sculptor E. Neizvestny undeservedly fell into disgrace. There were significant achievements in the development of science and technology, especially in astronautics (the launch of an artificial satellite; the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin; advances in rocket science). A large international research center was created in Dubna - the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Much attention was paid to secondary and higher education: tuition fees at universities, technical schools and senior secondary schools were abolished; instead of seven years, universal compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The number of universities and scientific institutions has increased. The reform of the general education school that began in 1958 (eleven-year instead of ten-year) with an emphasis on industrial training and vocational training of students was not scientifically substantiated. In 1964 it was abandoned. In general, the spiritual emancipation of Soviet people during the period under review was not and could not be complete. In the early 1960s. There was a strengthening of ideological dictates in the field of literature and art, and intolerance towards dissent appeared. These years marked the beginning of the dissident movement.

The “warm wind of change” that blew from the rostrum of the 20th Congress of the CPSU in February 1956 dramatically changed the lives of Soviet people. The writer Ilya Grigorievich Erenburg gave an accurate description of the Khrushchev era, calling it the “thaw.” His novel with the symbolic title “The Thaw” posed a whole series of questions: what should be said about the past, what is the mission of the intelligentsia, what should be its relationship with the party.

In the second half of the 1950s. Society was gripped by a feeling of delight from sudden freedom; the people themselves did not fully understand this new and, undoubtedly, sincere feeling. It was the lack of agreement that gave it a special charm. This feeling dominated in one of the characteristic films of those years - “I Walk Through Moscow”... (Nikita Mikhalkov in the title role, this is one of his first roles). And the song from the film became a hymn to vague delight: “Everything in the world happens well, but you don’t immediately understand what’s going on...”.

The “Thaw” affected, first of all, literature. New magazines appeared: “Youth”, “Young Guard”, “Moscow”, “Our Contemporary”. A special role was played by the magazine “New World”, headed by A.T. Tvardovsky. It was here that the story of A.I. was published. Solzhenitsyn "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich." Solzhenitsyn became one of the “dissidents,” as they were later called (dissidents). His writings presented a true picture of the labor, suffering and heroism of the Soviet people.

The rehabilitation of writers S. Yesenin, M. Bulgakov, A. Akhmatova, M. Zoshchenko, O. Mandelstam, B. Pilnyak and others began. Soviet people began to read more and think more. It was then that the statement appeared that the USSR was the most reading country in the world. A mass passion for poetry became a lifestyle; performances by poets took place in stadiums and huge halls. Perhaps, after the “Silver Age” of Russian poetry, interest in it did not rise as high as in the “Khrushchev decade”. For example, E. Yevtushenko, according to contemporaries, performed 250 times a year. The second idol of the reading public was A. Voznesensky.

The “Iron Curtain” to the West began to open. Magazines began to publish works by foreign writers E. Hemingway, E.-M. Remarque, T. Dreiser, J. London and others (E. Zola, V. Hugo, O. de Balzac, S. Zweig).

Remarque and Hemingway influenced not only the minds, but also the lifestyle of certain groups of the population, especially young people, who tried to copy Western fashion and behavior. Lines from the song: “... He wore tight trousers, read Hemingway...”. This is the image of a dude: a young man in tight trousers, long-toed boots, bent in a strange pretentious pose, imitating Western rock and roll, twist, neck, etc.

The process of the “thaw”, the liberalization of literature, was not unambiguous, and this was characteristic of the entire life of society during Khrushchev’s time. Such writers as B. Pasternak (for the novel “Doctor Zhivago”), V.D. remained banned. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin, A. Voznesensky, I. Erenburg, V.P. Nekrasov. The attacks on writers were associated not so much with criticism of their works, but with changes in the political situation, i.e. with the curtailment of political and social freedoms. At the end of the 1950s. The decline of the “thaw” began in all spheres of society. Among the intelligentsia, voices against N.S.’s policies were becoming increasingly louder. Khrushchev.

Boris Pasternak worked for many years on a novel about the revolution and civil war. Poems from this novel were published back in 1947. But he was unable to publish the novel itself, because the censors saw in it a departure from “socialist realism.” The manuscript of Doctor Zhivago went abroad and was published in Italy. In 1958, Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for this novel, which was not published in the USSR. This caused unequivocal condemnation from Khrushchev and the party. A campaign of flagellation against Pasternak began. He was expelled from the Writers' Union. Almost all writers were forced to join this campaign, subjecting Pasternak to insults. The defamation of Pasternak reflected the party's attempts to maintain complete control over society, not allowing any dissent. Pasternak himself wrote a poem during these days that became famous years later:

What did I dare to mess up?

Am I a dirty trickster and a villain?

I made the whole world cry over the beauty of my land.

Society of the Khrushchev period changed noticeably. People began to visit more often; they “missed communication, missed the opportunity to talk loudly about everything that was bothering them.” After 10 days of fear, when conversations even in a narrow and seemingly confidential circle could and did end in camps and executions, the opportunity arose to talk and communicate. A new phenomenon has become heated debates in the workplace after the end of the working day, in small cafes. “... Cafes have become like aquariums - with glass walls for everyone to see. And instead of solid... [titles], the country was strewn with frivolous “Smiles”, “Minutes”, “Veterki”. In the “glasses” they talked about politics and art, sports and matters of the heart. Communication also took organized forms in palaces and cultural centers, the number of which increased. Oral journals, debates, discussions of literary works, films and performances - these forms of communication have become noticeably livelier compared to previous years, and the statements of the participants were distinguished by a certain degree of freedom. “Associations of interests” began to emerge - clubs of philatelists, scuba divers, book lovers, florists, lovers of songs, jazz music, etc.

The most unusual for Soviet times were international friendship clubs, also the brainchild of the Thaw. In 1957, the VI World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Moscow. It led to the establishment of friendly contacts between the youth of the USSR and other countries. On the other hand, this was beneficial for the authorities, because the opportunity arose to propagandize Soviet society abroad. Thus, one newspaper wrote: “The club is preparing a large photo exhibition “Leningrad” as a gift to the Dutch young communists and the Netherlands-USSR friendship society... photographs are selected of both historical architectural monuments of our city and new large-panel housing construction.”

A characteristic feature of the “Khrushchev Thaw” was universal enthusiasm - a reaction to sudden freedom. The audience enthusiastically received the performances of clowns Tarapunka and Shtepsel, Arkady Raikin (M.V. Mironova and A.S. Menaker, P.V. Rudakov and V.P. Nechaev). The country excitedly repeated Raikin’s words “I’m already laughing!” and “It’s done!”

Television was part of people's lives. Televisions were a rarity; they were watched together with friends, acquaintances, neighbors, and lively discussed programs. The game KVN, which appeared in 1961, gained incredible popularity. This game itself in the 1960s. has become a general epidemic. KVN was played by everyone and everywhere: schoolchildren of junior and senior classes, students of technical schools and students, workers and office workers; in schools and red corners of dormitories, in student clubs and palaces of culture, in rest homes and sanatoriums.

In the art of cinema, the policy of filming only undisputed masterpieces was removed. In 1951, the stagnation in cinema became especially noticeable - only 6 full-length feature films were shot during the year. Subsequently, new talented actors began to appear on the screens. Viewers were introduced to such outstanding works as “Quiet Don”, “The Cranes Are Flying”, “The House Where I Live”, “The Idiot”, etc. In 1958, film studios released 102 films. film (“Carnival Night” with I.I. Ilyinsky and L.M. Gurchenko, “Amphibian Man” with A. Vertinskaya, “Hussar Ballad” with Yu.V. Yakovlev and L.I. Golubkina, “Dog Barbos and the Extraordinary cross" and "Moonshiners" by L.I. Gaidai). A high tradition of intellectual cinema was established, which was picked up in the 1960s and 1970s. Many masters of domestic cinema have received wide international recognition (G. Chukhrai, M. Kalatazov, S. Bondarchuk, A. Tarkovsky, N. Mikhalkov, etc.).

Cinemas began to show Polish, Italian (Federico Fellini), French, German, Indian, Hungarian, and Egyptian films. For the Soviet people it was a breath of new, fresh Western life.

The general approach to the cultural environment was contradictory: it was distinguished by the previous desire to put it in the service of the administrative-command ideology. Khrushchev himself sought to attract wide circles of the intelligentsia to his side, but considered them as “automatic machine gunners of the party,” as he directly said in one of his speeches (i.e., the intelligentsia had to work for the needs of the party). Already since the late 1950s. The control of the party apparatus over the activities of the artistic intelligentsia began to increase. At meetings with its representatives, Khrushchev mentored writers and artists in a fatherly manner, telling them how to work. Although he himself had little understanding of cultural issues, he had average tastes. All this gave rise to distrust of the party's policy in the field of culture.

Opposition sentiments intensified, primarily among the intelligentsia. Representatives of the opposition considered it necessary to carry out a more decisive de-Stalinization than was envisaged by the authorities. The party could not help but react to the public speeches of the oppositionists: “soft repressions” were applied to them (exclusion from the party, dismissal from work, deprivation of capital registration, etc.).

What did the “thaw” policy mean in the spiritual sphere?

Answers:

depending on what period you are asking about, but it seems to me that these are most likely reforms that contributed to the improvement and, in the literal sense of the word, of the “thaw” compared to other times.

The works of Western economists began to be published, some scientists were rehabilitated, previously prohibited works began to be carefully published, and films were released. But the thaw was inconsistent: The greatest danger to Khrushchev's communism was the intelligentsia. She had to be restrained and intimidated. And in the last years of Khrushchev in power, wave after wave of denunciations of poets, artists, writers. And again the Jesuitical Stalinist methods: they invite you to a conversation with Khrushchev, and at it they arrange a public execution. Once again the sycophants are in favor. The best representatives of culture are again in disgrace. To intimidate the masses, those close to Khrushchev convinced him of the advisability of starting persecution of the Orthodox Church. Thus, it was decided to leave only 11 churches in Moscow. All KGB agents among the clergy were instructed to publicly renounce their faith. Even the rector of one of the theological academies, a long-time secret police agent, Professor Osipov, publicly announced a break with religion. In one of the famous monasteries, things came to a siege and a battle between the monks and the police. Well, they didn’t stand on ceremony with the Muslim and Jewish religions at all. The campaign against the intelligentsia and religion was the most difficult deed of the last years of Khrushchev’s reign.

What is a “thaw”, as Ilya Ehrenburg began to call that period in the life of the country and literature, the beginning of which was the death of a tyrant, the mass release of innocent people from captivity, cautious criticism of the cult of personality, and the end was embodied in the October resolution (1964). ) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, in the verdict in the case of writers Sinyavsky and Daniel, in the decision to send troops of the Warsaw Pact countries to Czechoslovakia. What was it? The historical, general social and general cultural significance of the thaw lies, first of all, in the fact that it destroyed the myth that had been implanted for decades about the spiritual monolithicity, about the ideological and ideological homogeneity of Soviet society and Soviet literature, when it seemed that there was a single overwhelming majority. The first cracks appeared along the monolith - and so deep that later, in the days and years of stagnation, they could only be covered up, masked, declared either insignificant or non-existent, but not eliminated. It turned out that writers and artists differ from each other not only in “creative manners” and “level of skill,” but also in their civic positions, political beliefs and aesthetic views.

And it was finally discovered that the literary struggle is only a reflection and expression of the processes rapidly taking place in society. After the Thaw literature, many things became morally impossible for a self-respecting writer, for example, the romanticization of violence and hatred, attempts to construct an “ideal” hero, or the desire to “artistically” illustrate the thesis that the life of Soviet society knows only a conflict between the good and the excellent. After the literature thaw, much became possible, sometimes even morally obligatory, and no later frosts were able to distract both real writers and real readers either from attention to the so-called “little” person, or from a critical perception of reality, or from looking at culture as something that opposes power and social routine. The activity of Alexander Tvardovsky as editor-in-chief of the magazine “New World” was significant in its spiritual impact on society, giving the reader many new names and posing many new problems. Many works by Anna Akhmatova, Mikhail Zoshchenko, Sergei Yesenin, Marina Tsvetaeva and others have returned to readers. The revitalization of the spiritual life of society was facilitated by the emergence of new creative unions.

The Union of Writers of the RSFSR, the Union of Artists of the RSFSR, and the Union of Cinematograph Workers of the USSR were formed. A new drama theater “Sovremennik” was opened in the capital. In the literature of the 50s, interest in man and his spiritual values increased (D.A. Granin “I’m Going into a Thunderstorm”, Yu.P. German “My Dear Man”, etc.). The popularity of young poets - Yevtushenko, Okudzhava, Voznesensky - grew. Dudintsev’s novel “Not by Bread Alone” received a wide response from the public, where the topic of illegal repression was first raised. However, this work received a negative assessment from the country's leaders. In the early 60s, exposure of the “ideological vacillations” of literary and artistic figures intensified. Khutsiev’s film “Ilyich’s Outpost” received a disapproving assessment. At the end of 1962, Khrushchev visited an exhibition of works by young artists in the Moscow Manege. In the work of some avant-garde artists, he saw a violation of the “laws of beauty” or simply “daub.” The head of state considered his personal opinion in matters of art to be unconditional and the only correct one. At a later meeting with cultural figures, he harshly criticized the works of many talented artists, sculptors, and poets.

Even before the 20th Congress of the CPSU, journalistic and literary works appeared that marked the birth of a new direction in Soviet literature - renovationism. One of the first such works was V. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature,” published in 1953 in Novy Mir, where he first raised the question that “to write honestly means not to think about the expression of high-ranking faces and not high readers." The question of the vital necessity of the existence of various literary schools and movements was also raised here. New World published articles written in a new key by V. Ovechkin, F. Abramov, M. Lifshits, as well as works by I. Ehrenburg (“Thaw”), V. Panova (“Seasons”), F. Panferova (“Mother Volga River”), etc. In them, the authors moved away from the traditional varnishing of the real life of people in a socialist society. For the first time in many years, the question was raised here about the destructiveness of the atmosphere that had developed in the country for the intelligentsia. However, the authorities recognized the publication of these works as “harmful” and removed A. Tvardovsky from the management of the magazine.

During the ongoing rehabilitation of the victims of political repression, books by M. Koltsov, I. Babel, A. Vesely, I. Kataev and others were returned to the reader. Life itself raised the question of the need to change the style of the leadership of the Writers' Union and its relations with the CPSU Central Committee. A. Fadeev’s attempt to achieve this through the withdrawal of ideological functions from the Ministry of Culture led to his disgrace and then his death. In his suicide letter, he noted that art in the USSR was “ruined by the self-confident and ignorant leadership of the party,” and writers, even the most recognized ones, were reduced to the status of boys, destroyed, “ideologically scolded and called it partisanship.”

I don’t see the opportunity to live any longer, since the art to which I gave my life was ruined by the self-confident and ignorant leadership of the party, and now can no longer be corrected. The best cadres of literature - in numbers not even dreamed of by the royal satraps - were physically exterminated or died thanks to the criminal connivance of those in power; the best people in literature died at a premature age; everything else that was more or less capable of creating true values died before reaching 40-50 years of age. Literature is the holy of holies - given over to be torn to pieces by bureaucrats and the most backward elements of the people... V. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin (“Seekers”), E. Dorosh spoke about this in their works (“Village Diary”). The inability to act by repressive methods forced the party leadership to look for new methods of influencing the intelligentsia. Since 1957, meetings between the leadership of the Central Committee and literary and artistic figures have become regular. The personal tastes of N. S. Khrushchev, who made numerous speeches at these meetings, acquired the character of official assessments. Such unceremonious intervention did not find support not only among the majority of the participants in these meetings and the intelligentsia in general, but also among the broadest sections of the population.

In a letter addressed to Khrushchev, L. Semenova from Vladimir wrote: “You should not have spoken at this meeting. After all, you are not an expert in the field of art... But the worst thing is that the assessment you expressed is accepted as mandatory due to your social status. But in art, decreeing even absolutely correct provisions is harmful.” At these meetings it was openly said that, from the point of view of the authorities, only those cultural workers who find an inexhaustible source of creative inspiration in “the politics of the party, in its ideology” are good. After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, ideological pressure was somewhat weakened in the field of musical art, painting, and cinematography. Responsibility for the “excesses” of previous years was assigned to Stalin, Beria, Zhdanov, Molotov, Malenkov and others. In May 1958, the CPSU Central Committee issued a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “The Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky” and “From with all my heart,” in which the previous assessments of D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. Khachaturian, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others were recognized as unsubstantiated and unfair. Thus, the Stalinist the stigma of representatives of the “anti-people formalist trend”. At the same time, in response to calls among the intelligentsia to repeal other decisions of the 40s. on ideological issues it was stated that they “played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism” and in their “main content they retain relevant significance.” This indicated that, despite the appearance of new works in which the sprouts of free thought appeared, in general the policy of the “thaw” in spiritual life had well-defined boundaries. Speaking about them at one of his last meetings with writers, Khrushchev said that what had been achieved in recent years “does not mean at all that now, after the condemnation of the cult of personality, the time has come for gravity... The Party has carried out and will consistently and firmly carry out... Lenin’s course, uncompromisingly opposing any ideological vacillations.”

One of the striking examples of the permissible limits of the “thaw” in spiritual life was the “Pasternak case.” The publication in the West of his novel Doctor Zhivago, banned by the authorities, and the awarding of the Nobel Prize to him put the writer literally outside the law. In October 1958, he was expelled from the Writers' Union and forced to refuse the Nobel Prize to avoid deportation from the country. This is what M. N. Yakovleva, a contemporary of those events, a representative of the intelligentsia, translator, and children's writer, writes about the persecution of Boris Pasternak after he was awarded the Nobel Prize for the novel “Doctor Zhivago.” “...Now one incident has clearly shown me - as well as everyone who reads newspapers - what a single person can come to in our time. I mean the case of the poet Pasternak, which was written about in all the newspapers and talked on the radio more than once at the end of October and beginning of November. ...He had hardly appeared in literature for 15 years; but in the 20s everyone knew him, and he was one of the most popular poets. He always had a tendency towards loneliness, towards proud solitude; He always considered himself above the “crowd” and retreated more and more into his shell. Apparently, he completely broke away from our reality, lost touch with the era and with the people, and this is how it all ended. I wrote a novel that was unacceptable for our Soviet magazines; sold it abroad; received the Nobel Prize for it / and it is clear to everyone that the prize was awarded to him mainly for the ideological orientation of his novel /. A whole epic began; enthusiasm, immoderate, from journalists in capitalist countries; indignation and curses / perhaps also immoderate and not fair in everything / on our part; as a result, he was expelled from the Writers' Union, covered in mud from head to toe, called Judas the traitor, and even proposed to expel him from the Soviet Union; he wrote a letter to Khrushchev in which he asked not to apply this measure to him. Now, they say, he is sick after such a shake-up.

Meanwhile, I am sure, as far as I know Pasternak, that he is not such a scoundrel, and not a counter-revolutionary, and not an enemy of his homeland; but he lost touch with her and, as a result, allowed himself to be tactless: he sold abroad a novel that was rejected in the Union. I think he’s having a really hard time right now.” This suggests that not everyone had an unambiguous view of what was happening. An interesting fact is that the author of this entry was herself repressed and subsequently rehabilitated. It is also important to note that the letter is addressed to a military man (censorship is possible). It is difficult to say whether the author supports the actions of the Government, or is simply afraid to write too much... But it can definitely be noted that she does not adhere to any side when analyzing the situation. And even from the analysis, we can say that many understood that the actions of the Soviet leadership were at least inadequate. And the author’s softness towards the Authority can be explained by low awareness (if not fear). Official “limiters” also operated in other spheres of culture. Not only writers and poets (A. Voznesensky, D. Granin, V. Dudintsev, E. Evtushenko, S. Kirsanov, K. . Paustovsky, etc.), but also sculptors, artists, directors (E. Neizvestny, R. Falk, M. Khutsiev), philosophers, historians. All this had a restraining influence on the development of domestic literature and art, showed the limits and true meaning of the “thaw” in spiritual life, created a nervous atmosphere among creative workers, and gave rise to distrust in the party’s policy in the field of culture. Architecture also developed in complex ways. Several high-rise buildings were built in Moscow, including Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. In those years, metro stations were also considered as a means of aesthetic education of people.

At the end of the 50s, with the transition to standard construction, “excesses” and elements of the palace style disappeared from architecture. In the fall of 1962, Khrushchev spoke in favor of revising Zhdanov’s resolutions on culture and at least partially abolishing censorship. A real shock for millions of people was the publication of A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s works “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” and “Matrenin’s Yard”, which fully posed the problems of overcoming the Stalinist legacy in the everyday life of Soviet people. In an effort to prevent the massive nature of anti-Stalinist publications, which affected not only Stalinism, but also the entire totalitarian system, Khrushchev specifically in his speeches drew the attention of writers to the fact that “this is a very dangerous topic and difficult material” and it is necessary to deal with it, “respecting the feeling measures". Khrushchev wanted to achieve the rehabilitation of prominent party figures who were repressed in 1936-1938: Bukharin, Zinoviev, Kamenev and others. However, he failed to achieve everything, since at the end of 1962 the orthodox ideologists went on the offensive, and Khrushchev was forced to go on the defensive. His retreat was marked by a number of high-profile episodes: from the first clash with a group of abstract artists to a series of meetings between party leaders and cultural representatives. Then for the second time he was forced to publicly renounce most of his criticism of Stalin. This was his defeat. The defeat was completed by the Plenum of the Central Committee in June 1963, which was entirely devoted to problems of ideology. It was stated that there was no peaceful coexistence of ideologies, there is no and there cannot be. From that moment on, books that could not be published in the open press began to circulate from hand to hand in typewritten versions. Thus was born “samizdat” - the first sign of a phenomenon that would later become known as dissidence. From then on, pluralism of opinions was doomed to disappear.

“Thaw” in the spiritual sphere of life of Soviet society (2nd half of the 50s and early 60s) 3-9

Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964. 10-13

List of used literature 14

“Thaw” in the spiritual sphere of life of Soviet society .

Stalin's death occurred at a time when the political and economic system created in the 30s, having exhausted the possibilities for its development, gave rise to serious economic difficulties and socio-political tension in society. N.S. became the head of the Secretariat of the Central Committee. Khrushchev. From the very first days, the new leadership took steps to combat the abuses of past years. The policy of de-Stalinization began. This period of history is usually called the “thaw”.

Among the first initiatives of the Khrushchev administration was the reorganization in April 1954 of the MGB into the State Security Committee under the USSR Council of Ministers, which was accompanied by a significant change in personnel. Some of the leaders of the punitive agencies were put on trial for fabricating false “cases” (former Minister of State Security V.N. Merkulov, Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs V. Kobulov, Minister of Internal Affairs of Georgia V.G. Dekanozov, etc.), prosecutorial supervision was introduced over State Security Service. In the center, in the republics and regions, it was placed under the vigilant control of the relevant party committees (Central Committee, regional committees, regional committees), in other words, under the control of the partyocracy.

In 1956-1957 Political charges against repressed peoples are dropped and their statehood is restored. This did not affect the Volga Germans and Crimean Tatars at that time: such charges were dropped from them in 1964 and 1967, respectively, and they have not gained their own statehood to this day. In addition, the country's leadership did not take effective measures for the open, organized return of yesterday's special settlers to their historical lands, did not fully resolve the problems of their fair resettlement, thereby laying another mine under interethnic relations in the USSR.

In September 1953, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, by a special decree, opened the possibility of revising the decisions of the former collegiums of the OGPU, the “troikas” of the NKVD and the “special meeting” under the NKVD-MGB-MVD, which had been abolished by that time. By 1956, about 16 thousand people were released from the camps and rehabilitated posthumously. After the 20th Congress of the CPSU (February 1956), which debunked the “personality cult of Stalin,” the scale of rehabilitation was increased, and millions of political prisoners gained their long-awaited freedom.

In the bitter words of A. A. Akhmatova, “two Russias looked into each other’s eyes: the one that imprisoned, and the one that was imprisoned.” The return of a huge mass of innocent people to society has confronted the authorities with the need to explain the reasons for the tragedy that befell the country and people. Such an attempt was made in N. S. Khrushchev’s report “On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences” at a closed meeting of the 20th Congress, as well as in a special resolution of the CPSU Central Committee adopted on June 30, 1956. Everything, however, came down to the “deformation” of socialism due to the peculiarities of the post-revolutionary situation and the personal qualities of J.V. Stalin; the only task put forward was the “restoration of Leninist norms” in the activities of the party and the state. This explanation was, of course, extremely limited. It diligently avoided the social roots of the phenomenon, superficially defined as the “cult of personality,” its organic connection with the totalitarian-bureaucratic nature of the social system created by the communists.

And yet, the very fact of public condemnation of the lawlessness and crimes of senior officials that had been happening in the country for decades made an exceptional impression, marked the beginning of fundamental changes in public consciousness, its moral cleansing, and gave a powerful creative impulse to the scientific and artistic intelligentsia. Under the pressure of these changes, one of the cornerstones in the foundation of “state socialism” began to shake - the total control of the authorities over the spiritual life and way of thinking of people.

At the readings of N. S. Khrushchev’s closed report in primary party organizations held since March 1956 with the invitation of Komsomol members, many, despite the fear that had been instilled in society for decades, openly expressed their thoughts. Questions were raised about the party’s responsibility for violations of the law, about the bureaucracy of the Soviet system, about the resistance of officials to eliminating the consequences of the “cult of personality,” about incompetent interference in the affairs of literature, art, and about many other things that had previously been forbidden to discuss publicly.

Student circles began to emerge in Moscow and Leningrad, where their participants tried to comprehend the political mechanism of Soviet society, actively spoke out about their views at Komsomol meetings, and read out abstracts they had prepared. In the capital, groups of young people gathered in the evenings at the monument to Mayakovsky, recited their poems, and held political discussions. There were many other manifestations of the sincere desire of young people to understand the reality around them.

The “thaw” was especially noticeable in literature and art. The good name of many cultural figures - victims of lawlessness - is being restored: V. E. Meyerhold, B. A. Pilnyak, O. E. Mandelstam, I. E. Babel, etc. After a long break, books by A. A. Akhmatova and M. began to be published. M. Zoshchenko. A wide audience gained access to works that were undeservedly suppressed or previously unknown. Poems by S. A. Yesenin were published, distributed after his death mainly in lists. Almost forgotten music of Western European and Russian composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries began to sound in conservatories and concert halls. At an art exhibition in Moscow, organized in 1962, paintings from the 20s and 30s were exhibited, which had been collecting dust in storage rooms for many years.

The revival of the cultural life of society was facilitated by the emergence of new literary and artistic magazines: “Youth”, “Foreign Literature”, “Moscow”, “Neva”, “Soviet Screen”, “Musical Life”, etc. Already famous magazines, previously in total "New World" (editor-in-chief A. T. Tvardovsky), which turned into a tribune of all democratically minded creative forces in the country. It was there that in 1962 the short story, but strong in humanistic sound, by former Gulag prisoner A. I. Solzhenitsyn about the fate of a Soviet political prisoner, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,” was published. Shocking millions of people, it clearly and impressively showed that those who suffered most from Stalinism were the “common man” whose name the authorities swore for decades.

From the second half of the 50s. International connections of Soviet culture are noticeably expanding. The Moscow Film Festival was resumed (first held in 1935). The International Competition of Performers named after. Tchaikovsky, regularly held in Moscow since 1958. An opportunity has opened up to get acquainted with foreign artistic creativity. The exhibition of the Museum of Fine Arts was restored. Pushkin, on the eve of the war, transferred to the reserves. Exhibitions of foreign collections were held: the Dresden Gallery, museums in India, Lebanon, paintings by world celebrities (P. Picasso, etc.).

Scientific thought also intensified. From the beginning of the 50s to the end of the 60s. State spending on science increased almost 12 times, and the number of scientific workers increased six times and amounted to a quarter of all scientists in the world. Many new research institutes were opened: electronic control machines, semiconductors, high-pressure physics, nuclear research, electrochemistry, radiation and physicochemical biology. Powerful centers for rocket science and space exploration were established, where S.P. Korolev and other talented designers worked fruitfully. Institutions engaged in biological research in the field of genetics arose in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

The territorial location of scientific institutions continued to change. At the end of the 50s. A large center was formed in the east of the country - the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. It included the Far Eastern, West Siberian and East Siberian branches of the USSR Academy of Sciences, institutes of Krasnoyarsk and Sakhalin.

The works of a number of Soviet natural scientists have received worldwide recognition. In 1956, the Nobel Prize was awarded to the development by Academician N. N. Semenov of the theory of chemical chain reactions, which became the basis for the production of new compounds - plastics with properties superior to metals, synthetic resins and fibers. In 1962, the same prize was awarded to L. D. Landau for studying the theory of liquid helium. Fundamental research in the field of quantum radiophysics by N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov (Nobel Prize 1964) marked a qualitative leap in the development of electronics. In the USSR, the first molecular generator was created - a laser, and color holography was discovered, giving three-dimensional images of objects. In 1957, the world's most powerful particle accelerator, the synchrophasotron, was launched. Its use led to the emergence of a new scientific direction: high and ultra-high energy physics.

Scientists in the humanities have received greater scope for scientific research. New journals are appearing in various branches of social science: “Bulletin of the History of World Culture”, “World Economy and International Relations”, “History of the USSR”, “Questions of the History of the CPSU”, “New and Contemporary History”, “Questions of Linguistics”, etc. In scientific Part of the previously hidden works of V. I. Lenin, documents of K. Marx and F. Engels were introduced into circulation. Historians have gained access to the archives. Documentary sources, historical studies on previously taboo topics (in particular, on the activities of the socialist parties of Russia), memoirs, and statistical materials were published. This contributed to the gradual overcoming of Stalinist dogmatism, the restoration, albeit partially, of the truth regarding historical events and repressed figures of the party, state and army.

Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964.

After Stalin's death, there was a turn in Soviet foreign policy, expressed in recognition of the possibility of peaceful coexistence of the two systems, granting greater independence to socialist countries, and establishing broad contacts with third world countries. In 1954, Khrushchev, Bulganin and Mikoyan visited China, during which the parties agreed to expand economic cooperation. In 1955, Soviet-Yugoslav reconciliation took place. The easing of tensions between East and West was facilitated by the signing of an agreement with Austria by the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France. The USSR withdrew its troops from Austria. Austria has pledged neutrality. In June 1955, the first meeting of the leaders of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France since Potsdam took place in Geneva, which, however, did not lead to the conclusion of any agreement. In September 1955, during the visit of German Chancellor Adenauer to the USSR, diplomatic relations were established between the two countries.

In 1955, the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the German Democratic Republic concluded the defensive Warsaw Pact. The countries pledged to resolve conflicts arising between them by peaceful means, cooperate in actions to ensure the peace and security of peoples, and consult on international issues affecting their common interests. United armed forces and a common command were created to direct their activities. A Political Advisory Committee was formed to coordinate foreign policy actions. Speaking at the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev emphasized the importance of international detente and recognized the diversity of ways to build socialism. De-Stalinization in the USSR had a contradictory impact on socialist countries. In October 1956, an uprising broke out in Hungary, aimed at establishing a democratic regime in the country. This attempt was suppressed by the armed forces of the USSR and other Warsaw Pact countries. Beginning in 1956, a rift emerged in Sino-Soviet relations. The Chinese communist leadership, led by Mao Zedong, was unhappy with the criticism of Stalin and the Soviet policy of peaceful coexistence. Mao Zedong's opinion was shared by the Albanian leadership.

In relations with the West, the USSR proceeded from the principle of peaceful coexistence and simultaneous economic competition between the two systems, which in the future, according to the Soviet leadership, should have led to the victory of socialism throughout the world. In 1959, the first visit of a Soviet leader to the United States took place. N. S. Khrushchev was received by President D. Eisenhower. On the other hand, both sides actively developed their weapons program. In 1953, the USSR announced the creation of a hydrogen bomb, and in 1957 it successfully tested the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. The launch of the Soviet satellite in October 1957 in this sense literally shocked the Americans, who realized that from now on their cities were within the reach of Soviet missiles. Early 60s turned out to be particularly stressful.

First, the flight of an American spy plane over the territory of the USSR was interrupted in the Yekaterinburg area by an accurate missile hit. The visit strengthened the international prestige of the USSR. At the same time, West Berlin remained an acute problem in relations between East and West. In August 1961, the East German government erected a wall in Berlin, violating the Potsdam Agreements. The tense situation in Berlin continued for several more years. The deepest crisis in relations between the great powers after 1945 arose in the fall of 1962. It was caused by the deployment of Soviet missiles capable of carrying atomic weapons in Cuba. After negotiations, the Cuban missile crisis was resolved. The easing of tensions in the world led to the conclusion of a number of international treaties, including the 1963 agreement in Moscow banning nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, space and under water. In a short time, over a hundred states joined the Moscow Treaty. The expansion of political and economic ties with other countries and the development of personal contacts between heads of state led to a short-term easing of the international situation.

The most important tasks of the USSR in the international arena were: the speedy reduction of the military threat and the end of the Cold War, the expansion of international relations, and the strengthening of the influence of the USSR in the world as a whole. This could only be achieved through the implementation of a flexible and dynamic foreign policy based on powerful economic and military potential (primarily nuclear).

The positive shift in the international situation that emerged from the mid-50s reflected the process of formation of new approaches to solving complex international problems that accumulated over the first post-war decade. The renewed Soviet leadership (from February 1957, for 28 years, A.A. Gromyko was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR) assessed Stalin's foreign policy as unrealistic, inflexible and even dangerous.

Much attention was paid to the development of relations with the states of the “third world” (developing countries) India, Indonesia, Burma, Afghanistan, etc. The Soviet Union provided them with assistance in the construction of industrial and agricultural facilities (participation in the construction of a metallurgical plant in India, the Aswan Dam in Egypt and etc.). During N.S.'s stay Khrushchev as head of state, with financial and technical assistance from the USSR, about 6,000 enterprises were built in different countries of the world.

In 1964, the policy of reforms carried out by N.S. ended. Khrushchev. The transformations of this period were the first and most significant attempt to reform Soviet society. The desire of the country's leadership to overcome the Stalinist legacy and renew political and social structures was only partially successful. The reforms initiated from above did not bring the expected effect. The deterioration of the economic situation caused dissatisfaction with the reform policy and its initiator N.S. Khrushchev. In October 1964 N.S. Khrushchev was relieved of all his posts and dismissed.

Bibliography:

History of the Soviet state N. Vert. M. 1994.

Chronicle of the foreign policy of the USSR 1917-1957 M. 1978

Our Fatherland. Experience of political history. Part 2. - M., 1991.

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev Materials for the biography of M. 1989

From thaw to stagnation. Sat. memories. - M., 1990.

Light and shadows of the “great decade” N. S. Khrushchev and his time. M. 1989.

Reference manual for high school students and applicants V.N. Glazyev-Voronezh, 1994

N.S. Khrushchev Political biography Roy Medvedev M., 1994

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art, the development of science, Soviet sports, the development of education.

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art.

The first post-Stalin decade was marked by serious changes in spiritual life. The famous Soviet writer I. G. Ehrenburg called this period the “thaw” that came after the long and harsh Stalinist “winter.” And at the same time, it was not “spring” with its full-flowing and free “spill” of thoughts and feelings, but rather a “thaw”, which could again be followed by a “light frost”.

Representatives of literature were the first to respond to the changes that began in society. Even before the 20th Congress of the CPSU, works appeared that marked the birth of a new direction in Soviet literature - renovation. Its essence was to address the inner world of a person, his everyday worries and problems, and unresolved issues of the country's development. One of the first such works was V. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature,” published in 1953 in the journal “New World,” where he first raised the question that “to write honestly means not to think about the expression of high and short readers." The question of the need for the existence of various literary schools and movements was also raised here.

Life itself raised the question of the need to change the leadership style of the Writers' Union and its relations with the CPSU Central Committee. Attempts by the head of the Writers' Union A. A. Fadeev to achieve this led to his disgrace and then to suicide. In his suicide letter, he noted that art in the USSR was “ruined by the self-confident and ignorant leadership of the party,” and writers, even the most recognized ones, were reduced to the status of boys, destroyed, “ideologically scolded and called it partisanship.” V. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin (“Seekers”), E. Dorosh (“Village Diary”) spoke about this in their works.

Space exploration and the development of the latest technology have made science fiction a favorite genre among readers. Novels and stories by I. A. Efremov, A. P. Kazantsev, brothers A. N. and B. N. Strugatsky and others lifted the veil of the future for the reader, allowing them to turn to the inner world of a scientist and a person. The authorities were looking for new methods of influencing the intelligentsia. Since 1957, meetings between the leadership of the Central Committee and literary and artistic figures have become regular. The personal tastes of Khrushchev, who made long-winded speeches at these meetings, acquired the character of official assessments. The unceremonious intervention did not find support not only among the majority of the participants in these meetings and among the intelligentsia in general, but also among the broadest sections of the population.

In May 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU issued a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky” and “From the Heart”, which recognized the previous assessments of D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. as unsubstantiated and unfair. Khachaturyan, V. Muradeli, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others. At the same time, calls from the intelligentsia to repeal other decisions of the 40s. on ideological issues were rejected. It was confirmed that they “played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism” and “retain their current significance.” The policy of the “thaw” in spiritual life, therefore, had very definite boundaries.

From N. S. Khrushchev’s speeches to literary and artistic figures

This does not mean at all that now, after the condemnation of the cult of personality, the time has come for things to take their course, that the reins of government have been weakened, that the social ship is sailing at the will of the waves and everyone can be willful and behave as they please. No. The party has and will firmly pursue the Leninist course it developed, uncompromisingly opposing any ideological vacillation.

One of the striking examples of the permissible limits of the “thaw” was the “Pasternak case”. The publication in the West of his banned novel Doctor Zhivago and the awarding of the Nobel Prize put the writer literally outside the law. In October 1958, B. Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union. He was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize to avoid deportation from the country. A real shock for millions of people was the publication of A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s works “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” and “Matrenin’s Court”, which raised the problem of overcoming the Stalinist legacy in the everyday life of Soviet people.

In an effort to prevent the massive nature of anti-Stalin publications, which affected not only Stalinism, but also the entire totalitarian system, Khrushchev in his speeches drew the attention of writers to the fact that “this is a very dangerous topic and difficult material” and it is necessary to deal with it, “observing a sense of proportion.” " Official “limiters” also operated in other spheres of culture. Not only writers and poets (A. Voznesensky, D. Granin, V. Dudintsev, E. Evtushenko, S. Kirsanov) were regularly subjected to sharp criticism for “ideological dubiousness”, “underestimation of the leading role of the party”, “formalism”, etc. , K. Paustovsky, etc.), but also sculptors, artists, directors (E. Neizvestny, R. Falk, M. Khutsiev), philosophers, historians.

Nevertheless, during these years, many literary works appeared (“The Fate of a Man” by M. Sholokhov, “Silence” by Yu. Bondarev), films (“The Cranes Are Flying” by M. Kalatozov, “The Forty-First,” “The Ballad of a Soldier,” “Pure sky" by G. Chukhrai), paintings that have received national recognition precisely because of their life-affirming power and optimism, appeal to the inner world and everyday life of a person.

Development of science.

Party directives that focused on the development of scientific and technological progress stimulated the development of domestic science. In 1956, the International Research Center was opened in Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research). In 1957, the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was formed with a wide network of institutes and laboratories. Other scientific centers were also created. Only in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences for 1956-1958. 48 new research institutes were organized. Their geography has also expanded (Urals, Kola Peninsula, Karelia, Yakutia). By 1959, there were about 3,200 scientific institutions in the country. The number of scientific workers in the country was approaching 300 thousand. Among the greatest achievements of Russian science of this time are the creation of the most powerful synchrophasotron in the world (1957); launching of the world's first nuclear icebreaker "Lenin"; launch of the first artificial Earth satellite into space (October 4, 1957), sending animals into space (November 1957), the first human flight into space (April 12, 1961); launch of the world's first jet passenger airliner Tu-104; creation of high-speed passenger hydrofoil ships (“Raketa”), etc. Work in the field of genetics was resumed.

However, as before, priority in scientific developments was given to the interests of the military-industrial complex. Not only the country's largest scientists (S. Korolev, M. Keldysh, A. Tupolev, V. Chelomey, A. Sakharov, I. Kurchatov, etc.), but also Soviet intelligence worked for his needs. Thus, the space program was only an “addendum” to the program for creating means of delivering nuclear weapons. Thus, the scientific and technological achievements of the “Khrushchev era” laid the foundation for achieving military-strategic parity with the United States in the future.

The years of the “thaw” were marked by triumphant victories of Soviet athletes. Already the first participation of Soviet track and field athletes in the Olympics in Helsinki (1952) was marked by 22 gold, 30 silver and 19 bronze medals. In the unofficial team competition, the USSR team scored the same number of points as the USA team. The first gold medalist of the Olympics was discus thrower N. Romashkova (Ponomareva). The best athlete of the Melbourne Olympics (1956) was the Soviet runner V. Kuts, who became a two-time champion in the 5 and 10 km running. Gold medals at the Rome Olympics (1960) were awarded to P. Bolotnikov (running), sisters T. and I. Press (discus throwing, hurdles), V. Kapitonov (cycling), B. Shakhlin and L. Latynina (gymnastics) , Y. Vlasov (weightlifting), V. Ivanov (rowing), etc.

Brilliant results and world fame were achieved at the Tokyo Olympics (1964): in the high jump V. Brumel, weightlifter L. Zhabotinsky, gymnast L. Latynina and others. These were the years of triumph of the great Soviet football goalkeeper L. Yashin, who played for the sports team a career of more than 800 matches (including 207 without conceding goals) and becoming a silver medalist of the European Cup (1964) and champion of the Olympic Games (1956).

Development of education.

As the foundations of industrial society were built in the USSR, the system that emerged in the 30s. the education system needed updating. It had to correspond to the prospects for the development of science and technology, new technologies, and changes in the social and humanitarian sphere.

However, this was in conflict with the official policy of continuing extensive economic development, which required new workers every year to develop enterprises under construction.

Education reform was largely conceived to solve this problem. In December 1958, a law was passed according to which, instead of a seven-year plan, a compulsory eight-year plan was created polytechnic school. Young people received secondary education by graduating from either a school for working (rural) youth on the job, or technical schools that operated on the basis of an eight-year school, or a secondary three-year comprehensive labor school with industrial training. For those wishing to continue their education at a university, mandatory work experience was introduced.

Thus, the severity of the problem of labor influx into production was temporarily removed. However, for enterprises this created new problems with staff turnover and low levels of labor and technological discipline among young workers.

Source of the article: Textbook by A.A Danilov “History of Russia”. 9th grade

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23.09.2019

What did I dare to mess up?

Am I a dirty trickster and a villain?

I made the whole world cry over the beauty of my land.

A characteristic feature of the “Khrushchev Thaw” was the development of satire. The audience enthusiastically received the performances of clowns Oleg Popov, Tarapunka and Shtepsel, Arkady Raikin, M.V. Mironova and A.S. Menakera, P.V. Rudakov and V.P. Nechaeva. The country excitedly repeated Raikin’s words “I’m already laughing!” and “It’s done!”

Cinemas began to show Polish, Italian (Federico Fellini), French, German, Indian, Hungarian, and Egyptian films. For the Soviet people it was a breath of new, fresh Western life.

The Khrushchev Thaw period is the conventional name for a period in history that lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. A feature of the period was a partial retreat from the totalitarian policies of the Stalin era. The Khrushchev Thaw is the first attempt to understand the consequences of the Stalinist regime, which revealed the features of the socio-political policy of the Stalin era. The main event of this period is considered to be the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which criticized and condemned Stalin’s personality cult and criticized the implementation of repressive policies. February 1956 marked the beginning of a new era, which aimed to change social and political life, change the domestic and foreign policies of the state.

Events of the Khrushchev Thaw

The period of the Khrushchev Thaw is characterized by the following events:

The process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began, the innocently convicted population was granted amnesty, and relatives of “enemies of the people” became innocent.
The republics of the USSR received more political and legal rights.
The year 1957 was marked by the return of Chechens and Balkars to their lands, from which they were evicted during Stalin's time due to accusations of treason. But such a decision did not apply to the Volga Germans and Crimean Tatars.
Also, 1957 is famous for the International Festival of Youth and Students, which in turn speaks of the “opening of the Iron Curtain” and the easing of censorship.
The result of these processes is the emergence of new public organizations. Trade union bodies are undergoing reorganization: the staff of the top level of the trade union system has been reduced, and the rights of primary organizations have been expanded.
Passports were issued to people living in villages and collective farms.
Rapid development of light industry and agriculture.
Active construction of cities.
Improving the standard of living of the population.

One of the main achievements of the policy of 1953 - 1964. there was the implementation of social reforms, which included solving the issue of pensions, increasing incomes of the population, solving the housing problem, and introducing a five-day week. The period of the Khrushchev Thaw was a difficult time in the history of the Soviet state. In such a short time (10 years), many transformations and innovations have been carried out. The most important achievement was the exposure of the crimes of the Stalinist system, the population discovered the consequences of totalitarianism.

Results

So, the policy of the Khrushchev Thaw was superficial and did not affect the foundations of the totalitarian system. The dominant one-party system was preserved using the ideas of Marxism-Leninism. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev did not intend to carry out complete de-Stalinization, because it meant admitting his own crimes. And since it was not possible to completely renounce Stalin’s time, Khrushchev’s transformations did not take root for long. In 1964, a conspiracy against Khrushchev matured, and from this period a new era in the history of the Soviet Union began.

The change of power in the Kremlin in 1953 marked the beginning of a new period in the life of our country. Along with criticism of Stalin's personality cult, small democratic transformations appeared in the country, partial liberalization of public life was carried out, which significantly revived the creative process. The era of Khrushchev was called the “thaw”.

The most rapid changes began to occur in Soviet literature. The rehabilitation of some cultural figures repressed under Stalin was of great importance. The Soviet reader rediscovered many authors whose names were hushed up in the 30s and 40s: S. Yesenin, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova re-entered literature. A characteristic feature of the era was mass interest in poetry. At this time, a whole galaxy of remarkable young authors appeared, whose work constituted an era in Russian culture: the “sixties” poets E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, R. I. Rozhdestvensky. The genre of art song has gained wide popularity. Official culture was wary of amateur songs; publishing a record or performing on radio or television was rare. The bards' works became widely available in tape recordings, which were distributed in the thousands throughout the country. The real rulers of the thoughts of youth were B. Sh. Okudzhava, A. Galich, V. S. Vysotsky. In prose, Stalinist socialist realism was replaced by an abundance of new themes and the desire to depict life in all its inherent fullness and complexity. In works dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, heroically sublime images are replaced by depictions of the severity of military everyday life.

An important role in the literary life of the 60s. literary magazines played. In 1955, the first issue of the magazine “Youth” was published. Among the magazines, Novy Mir stands out, which, with the arrival of A. T. Tvardovsky as editor-in-chief, gained particular popularity among readers. It was in the “New World” in 1962, with the personal permission of N. S. Khrushchev, that A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” was published, in which for the first time literature touched upon the topic of the Stalinist Gulag. In the 50s “samizdat” arose - the so-called typewritten magazines in which young writers and poets who had no hope of publication in official publications published their works. The emergence of “samizdat” became one of the manifestations of the dissident movement that was emerging among the intelligentsia in opposition to the Soviet state.

However, complete freedom of creativity during the “thaw” years was far from complete. In criticism, accusations of “formalism” and “alienity” were still heard from time to time against many famous writers. Boris Leonidovich Pasternak was subjected to severe persecution. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The Soviet authorities immediately demanded that L. B. Pasternak abandon it. He was accused of being anti-national and contempt for the “common man.” To top it all off, he was expelled from the USSR Writers' Union. In the current situation, B. L. Pasternak had to refuse the award.

The renewal processes also affected the fine arts. The sixties were the time of the formation of the “severe style” in Soviet painting. On the canvases, reality appears without the usual one in the 40s and 50s. varnishing, deliberate festivity and pomp. However, not all innovative trends find support from the country's leadership. In 1962, N. S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of Moscow artists in the Manege. Avant-garde painting and sculpture caused a sharply negative reaction from the First Secretary of the Central Committee. As a result, artists were deprived of the right to continue working and exhibiting. Many were forced to leave the country.

Sculptors are working to create memorial complexes dedicated to the Great Patriotic War. In the 60s a monument-ensemble to the heroes of the Battle of Stalingrad was erected on Mamayev Kurgan, a memorial at the Piskarevskoye cemetery in St. Petersburg, etc.

The theater is developing. New theater groups are being created. Among the new theaters that emerged during the “thaw”, it should be noted that Sovremennik, founded in 1957, and the Taganka Drama and Comedy Theater. Military themes still occupy a significant place in cinema.

Serious reforms were carried out in the field of education. In 1958, the law “On strengthening the connection between school and life and on the further development of the public education system in the USSR” was adopted. This law marked the beginning of school reform, which included the introduction of compulsory 8-year education. “The connection between school and life” was that everyone who wanted to receive a complete secondary education and subsequently enter a university had to work two days a week in industrial enterprises or in agriculture during the last three years of study. Along with the matriculation certificate, school graduates received a certificate of working specialty. To enter a higher education institution, at least two years of work experience in production was also required.

Great successes in the late 50s and early 60s. achieved by Soviet scientists. Physics was at the forefront of the development of science, becoming a symbol of scientific and technological progress in the minds of people of that era. The works of Soviet physicists gained worldwide fame. The world's first nuclear power plant was launched in the USSR (1954), and the world's most powerful proton accelerator, the synchrophasotron, was built (1957). Under the leadership of the scientist and designer S.P. Korolev, rocketry was developed. In 1957, the world's first artificial satellite was launched, and on April 12, 1961, Yu. A. Gagarin made the first flight into space in the history of mankind.

The achievements of the “thaw” period are difficult to underestimate. After absolute totalitarian control of all life, society received, albeit small, freedom, which became a breath of fresh air for cultural figures. And although this was a short-term phenomenon, it allowed Soviet society to maintain leading positions in some sectors of activity. However, both the party itself and individual state leaders continued to have a great influence on society, and the connection with ideology remained.

2.2. Culture of the Brezhnev “stagnation” era

After the end of Khrushchev’s “thaw,” a certain period of “stagnation” began in the country. There was not a sufficiently active person in power, whose personal qualities also affected the state of the country. Brezhnev was not as active as Khrushchev, which is why in comparison with him his period was called “stagnation.” At this time, mainly quantitative indicators grew, and there were few absolutely new achievements, some of them were rooted in the period of relative freedom of Khrushchev, but they still existed, so “stagnation” is a relative assessment.

In the 70s, culture was divided into official and “underground”, not recognized by the state. During the Stalin years, a culture not recognized by the state could not exist, and objectionable figures were simply destroyed. But now they are dealt with differently. It was possible to put pressure on an undesirable person by depriving him of access to the viewer, the reader. It was possible not to shoot, but to force him to go abroad and then declare him a traitor; the time of the most severe repressions stopped, which endeared Brezhnev to himself. A new wave of emigration began. The creativity of the “second wave” continued the traditions of the culture of the Russian diaspora that arose after the October Revolution, making up a special page of it.

Among the writers whose work did not cause a negative reaction from the state and whose works were widely published, Yu.V. enjoyed the greatest reader interest. Trifonov, V.G. Rasputin, V. I. Belov, V. P. Astafiev . However, the majority did not have the opportunity to publish freely. Much of what was written during the years of “stagnation” was published only during the era of “perestroika.” The only way to reach the reader completely freely, without any censorship, was “samizdat” ».

After the memorable publication, permitted by the personal order of N. S. Khrushchev, during the stagnant years, the Soviet press no longer published Solzhenitsyn, and moreover, the authorities forcibly expelled him from the country. The poet I. A. Brodsky, whose poems did not contain any political motives, also had to leave. Forced emigration awaited many representatives of the creative intelligentsia. In addition to those mentioned, writers V. Aksenov, V. Voinovich, poet N. Korzhavin, bard A. Galich, director of the Taganka Theater Yu. Lyubimov, artist M. Shemyakin, sculptor E. I. Neizvestny had to leave the country.

There were also many unfounded prohibitions in the visual arts. So in 1974 In Moscow, an exhibition of avant-garde artists (“bulldozer exhibition”) was destroyed, but already at the end of September, seeing that this event caused a great public outcry, the official authorities allowed another exhibition to be held, in which the same avant-garde artists took part. Long years of the dominance of socialist realism in painting led to the degradation of the taste and artistic culture of the mass Soviet audience, who were unable to perceive anything more complex than a literal copy of reality. Alexander Shilov, a portrait artist who worked in the manner of “photographic realism,” gained enormous popularity in the late 70s.

Cinema is developing rapidly. Literary classics are being filmed. Bondarchuk’s monumental film “War and Peace” was an epoch-making phenomenon in the development of Russian cinema. Comedies are being filmed. In 1965, the film “Operation Y” by L. I. Gaidai, which became extremely popular, was released on the screens of the country; Gaidai’s characters became national favorites. The director’s works that followed this film enjoyed constant success with audiences (“Prisoner of the Caucasus” 1967, “The Diamond Arm” 1969, “Ivan Vasilyevich Changes Profession” 1973). E. A. Ryazanov makes remarkably light, witty comedies, many of them (for example, “The Irony of Fate or Enjoy Your Bath” 1976) do not lose popularity to this day. Films with melodramatic content were no less popular. However, not all made it to mass release. For a long time, many of them remained unknown to the general public.

Pop music played a huge role in the cultural life of Soviet people. Western rock culture unwittingly seeped out from under the Iron Curtain, influencing Soviet popular music. A sign of the times was the appearance of “via” - vocal and instrumental ensembles (“Gems”, “Pesnyary”, “Time Machine”, etc.).

Tape recordings became a kind of musical and poetic “samizdat”. The widespread use of tape recorders predetermined the widespread dissemination of bard songs (by V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Yu. Vizbor), which was seen as an alternative to official culture. The songs of the Taganka Theater actor V. S. Vysotsky were especially popular. The best of them are original little dramas: genre pictures; monologues spoken on behalf of some fictitious mask (an alcoholic, a medieval knight, a mountain climber, and even a fighter plane); reflections of the author himself about life and time. Together they give a vivid picture of the time and the people in it. The rough “street” manner of performance, almost conversational and at the same time musical, is combined with an unexpected philosophical content - this creates a special effect.

The most important achievement of the Soviet school was the transition to universal secondary education, completed by 1975. Ninety-six percent of Soviet youth entered life by completing a full course of secondary school or a special educational institution, where they entered after the eighth grade and where, along with training for a profession, compulsory completion of general education subjects in the amount of complete secondary ten-year education. The acceleration of scientific and technological progress has led to the complication of school curricula. The study of the basics of science began to begin not from the fifth, as before, but from the fourth grade. Difficulties that children had with mastering the material sometimes led to a decrease in interest in classes and, ultimately, to a deterioration in the level of training. However, quantitative indicators in higher education are growing: the number of students and higher education institutions is increasing. In the early 70s, a campaign was launched to transform pedagogical institutes in the autonomous republics, territories and regions into universities. By 1985, there were 69 universities in the USSR.

The successes of domestic science were concentrated mainly in the field of fundamental research: Soviet physicists and chemists still occupy leading positions in the world, and the Soviet Union still holds the leadership in space exploration. Funds continue to be invested in science with the aim of direct connection with production. At the same time, the lack of interest of industry representatives in intensifying production led to the fact that all the brilliant achievements of scientific and engineering thought did not find practical application in the national economy. Applied fields of science developed poorly: the Soviet Union remained far behind developed countries in the development of computer equipment, and lags began in mechanical engineering. Compared to the time of Khrushchev, the Soviet Union lost its position a little.

Chapter 3

Perestroika"

The years of “perestroika” were like another revolution. Gorbachev, just like the Bolsheviks in his time, wanted changes in all spheres of society. But it was assumed that the transformations would no longer be aimed at building, but at improving socialism. Such concepts as openness and pluralism were introduced, which were actively assimilated by society. But in essence, his reforms took people further and further away from the socialist beginning. Glasnost served to destroy the socialist ideology and became the reason for the revival of socio-political life. A period of rethinking began; the entire history and culture of the Soviet people began to be questioned and often shown only as negative. The truth was revealed to people that everything in the country was decided only by the party, which asserted its power through force and did not allow any dissent. The culture of “perestroika” changed people’s ideas and tastes; a desire for their own benefit appeared, due to which the quality and level of “cultural products” suffered. Ideological culture was replaced by mass and low-grade culture, which led to the spiritual devastation of society.

Since the mid-80s, fundamental changes in the education system began. The “Fourth School Reform” was prepared and adopted, the basis of which was the following principles: democratization, pluralism, openness, diversity, continuity, humanization and humanization of education. The proposed school reform was only part of the overall education reform in Russia, which affected all levels of the system.

Noticeable changes have occurred in science. Everyone was shocked by the publication of new documentary materials, research on collectivization, industrialization, the cultural revolution, the Red Terror, and the Great Patriotic War. The source base was supplemented by memoirs of prominent political figures (N. Bukharin, L. Trotsky, A. Shlyapnikov, A. Kerensky, V. Savinkov, I. Sukhanov, I. Tsereteli), representatives of the liberal intelligentsia (L. Milyukov, P. Struve), leaders white movement (A. Denikin, A. Wrangel). For the first time the work of L.N. saw the light of day. Gumilev, creator of the theory of ethnogenesis.

Soviet scientists continue space exploration. Flight duration increases. International crews are increasingly storming outer space. At the same time, scientists are studying the possibilities of mass and permanent work in space, which was dreamed of by K.E. Tsiolkovsky.

However, Soviet science continues to experience great difficulties and an acute lack of funds. The first attempts are being made to switch to self-financing.

Fine art is finally parting with socialist realism. However, instead of freedom of creativity, strife begins in the work, clashes between conservatives and reformers, and the division of “property” by composers, artists, writers, and actors. All this ends up on the pages of the press, on radio and television, without at all contributing to the spiritual renewal of society.

As a result of the policy of glasnost, literature takes society to a new level of historical thinking. The most pressing historical and political problems (about democracy, reforms, the state of Russian culture) are discussed in the works of writers, poets, publicists, and critics. There is an extremely heated debate about the war, about the fate of the village, about the future of our youth. Bold critical articles are appearing more and more often; works show the truth of life. A whole stream of works that were previously published abroad and banned here are returning to the country.

Television was at the epicenter of the struggle. A huge number of documentaries and historical programs appear on the screens. “Shelf” films, previously unavailable works of world cinema, were released. But the more freedom there was, the more obvious the desire to make cinema purely commercial became. Along with documentaries and historical films, Western low-quality films with violence, pornography, glorifying crime and disdain for laws poured onto the screens.

At the beginning of perestroika, the theater experienced a real upsurge, a feeling of freedom. The public's interest was extremely high, as evidenced by the constant crowds at the box office and the packed halls. However, very soon the theater found itself in a difficult situation, or rather in a state of deep crisis. He was unable to cover the costs. There began to be a shortage of good directors, and interest in the theater began to decline.

Perestroika was one of the most controversial phenomena in our history. It destroyed the usual human views, broke the Soviet system and, perhaps, caused the collapse of an entire state. It shocked those who truly believed in socialism and changed the lives of millions. At the same time, it opened up new opportunities for the further development of a completely new state, opened people’s eyes to the entire Soviet history and showed in a different light those people whom more than one generation had looked up to.

Conclusion

The cultural transformations of Soviet power carry many controversial assessments and still cause debate about their significance for our country. It is undeniable that Soviet culture brought many positive aspects that glorified our country: Soviet society became one of the most educated in that period of time, Soviet people glorified themselves in the field of science by conquering outer space for the first time, Russian cultural figures shone throughout the world. Thanks to the Soviet government and its cohesive leadership system, the USSR reached unprecedented levels of development in many spheres of public life, which even the most ardent opponents of the Soviet system cannot but agree with.

But let's not forget about the methods for achieving such results. How many human lives were ruined during the Stalinist repressions, forcibly expelled from the USSR, deprived of the opportunity to live peacefully in their own country, how many minds left Russia during Gorbachev’s perestroika. These were huge losses, which even outstanding achievements could hardly overcome. Soviet society was completely under the control of the official ideology, which placed people in cruel limits, from which the most courageous part of the population tried to get rid of them. But when the system collapsed, complete confusion occurred in the minds of people; that part of foreign culture penetrated into our country, which contributed to the impoverishment of spiritual life.

In the public life of the 20th century in Russia, the ideology of Marxism was established, a totalitarian system was created, which led to the destruction of dissent, which of course affected cultural development. A special socialist culture had developed in the country, to which there was no alternative.

Bibliography

· History of Russia: textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional/I90 A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina.-M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006 - 528 p.

· History of Russia, 20th – early 21st centuries. 11th grade: educational. for general education institutions: profile. level / V.A. Shestakov; edited by A.N. Sakharov; Ross. acad. Sciences, Ross. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". – 5th ed. – M.: Education, 2012. – 399 p.

· Gurevich P.S. Man and culture M.: “Bustard”, 1998.

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art, the development of science, Soviet sports, the development of education.

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art.

Representatives of literature were the first to respond to the changes that began in society. Even before the 20th Congress of the CPSU, works appeared that marked the birth of a new direction in Soviet literature - renovation. Its essence was to address the inner world of a person, his everyday worries and problems, and unresolved issues of the country's development. One of the first such works was V. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature,” published in 1953 in the journal “New World,” where he first raised the question that “to write honestly means not to think about the expression of high and short readers." The question of the need for the existence of various literary schools and movements was also raised here.

In May 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU issued a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky” and “From the Heart”, which recognized the previous assessments of D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. as unsubstantiated and unfair. Khachaturyan, V. Muradeli, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others. At the same time, calls from the intelligentsia to repeal other decisions of the 40s. on ideological issues were rejected. It was confirmed that they “played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism” and “retain their current significance.” The policy of the “thaw” in spiritual life, therefore, had very definite boundaries.

From N. S. Khrushchev’s speeches to literary and artistic figures

Development of science.

Development of education.

However, this was in conflict with the official policy of continuing extensive economic development, which required new workers every year to develop enterprises under construction.

Source of the article: Textbook by A.A Danilov “History of Russia”. 9th grade

“Thaw” in the spiritual sphere of life of Soviet society (2nd half of the 50s and early 60s) 3-9

Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964. 10-13

List of used literature 14

“Thaw” in the spiritual sphere of life of Soviet society .