The capital of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. In what year did Russia become an empire: the reasons and periods of its greatest prosperity

Russian empire - a state that existed from November 1721 to March 1917.

The empire was created after the end of the Northern War with Sweden, when Tsar Peter the First proclaimed himself emperor, and ended its existence after the February Revolution of 1917 and the last Emperor Nicholas II abdicated his imperial powers and abdicated the throne.

At the beginning of 1917, the population of this huge power was 178 million people.

The Russian Empire had two capitals: from 1721 to 1728 - St. Petersburg, from 1728 to 1730 - Moscow, from 1730 to 1917 - St. Petersburg again.

The Russian Empire had vast territories: from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south, from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east.

The major cities of the empire were St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Odessa, Lodz, Riga, Kyiv, Kharkov, Tiflis (modern Tbilisi), Tashkent, Vilna (modern Vilnius), Saratov, Kazan, Rostov-on-Don, Tula, Astrakhan, Ekaterinoslav (modern Dnepropetrovsk), Baku, Chisinau, Helsingfors (modern Helsinki).

The Russian Empire was divided into provinces, regions and districts.

As of 1914, the Russian Empire was divided into:

a) provinces - Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Bessarabian, Vilna, Vitebsk, Vladimir, Vologda, Volyn, Voronezh, Vyatka, Grodno, Ekaterinoslav, Kazan, Kaluga, Kiev, Kovno, Kostroma, Courland, Kursk, Livonia, Minsk, Mogilev, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod, Olonets, Orenburg, Oryol, Penza, Perm, Podolsk, Poltava, Pskov, Ryazan, Samara, St. Petersburg, Saratov, Simbirsk, Smolensk, Tavricheskaya, Tambov, Tver, Tula, Ufa, Kharkov, Kherson, Kholm, Chernihiv, Estland, Yaroslavl, Volyn, Podolsk, Kiev, Vilna, Kovno, Grodno, Minsk, Mogilev, Vitebsk, Courland, Livonia, Estland, Warsaw, Kalisz, Kieleck, Lomzhinsk, Lublin, Petrokovsk, Plock, Radom, Suwalki, Baku, Elizavetpolskaya (Elisavetpolskaya), Kutaisskaya, Stavropolskaya, Tiflisskaya, Black Sea, Erivanskaya, Yeniseiskaya, Irkutskskaya, Tobolskaya, Tomskaya, Abo-Bjorneborgskaya, Vazaskaya, Vyborgskaya, Kuopioskaya, Nielanskaya (Nylandskaya), St. Michelskaya, Tavastguskaya (Tavastgusskaya), Uleaborgskaya

b) regions - Batumi, Dagestan, Kars, Kuban, Terek, Amur, Transbaikal, Kamchatka, Primorskaya, Sakhalin, Yakut, Akmola, Transcaspian, Samarkand, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Syr-Darya, Turgai, Ural, Fergana, Don Army Region;

c) districts - Sukhumi and Zagatala.

It would be worth mentioning that the Russian Empire in its last years before its collapse included once independent countries - Finland, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia.

The Russian Empire was ruled by one royal dynasty - the Romanovs. Over the 296 years of the empire's existence, it was ruled by 10 emperors and 4 empresses.

The first Russian emperor Peter the Great (reigned in the Russian Empire 1721 - 1725) held this rank for 4 years, although the total time of his reign was 43 years.

Peter the Great set as his goal the transformation of Russia into a civilized country.

Over the last 4 years of his stay on the imperial throne, Peter carried out a number of important reforms.

Peter carried out a reform of public administration, introduced the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire into provinces, created a regular army and a powerful navy. Peter also abolished church autonomy and subordinated

church of the imperial power. Even before the formation of the empire, Peter founded St. Petersburg, and in 1712 he moved the capital there from Moscow.

Under Peter, the first newspaper was opened in Russia, many educational institutions were opened for nobles, and in 1705 the first general education gymnasium was opened. Peter also put things in order in the preparation of all official documents, prohibiting the use of half names in them (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), prohibited forced marriage, removing the hat and kneeling when the king appeared, and also allowed marital divorces. Under Peter, a whole network of military and naval schools was opened for the children of soldiers, drunkenness was prohibited at feasts and meetings, and the wearing of a beard by government officials was prohibited.

To improve the educational level of the nobles, Peter introduced compulsory study of a foreign language (in those days - French). The role of the boyars was leveled, many boyars from yesterday's semi-literate peasants turned into educated nobles.

Peter the Great forever deprived Sweden of the status of an aggressor country, defeating the Swedish army led by the Swedish king Charles XII near Poltava in 1709.

During the reign of Peter the Russian Empire annexed to its possessions the territory of modern Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, as well as the Karelian Isthmus and part of Southern Finland. In addition, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina (the territory of modern Moldova and Ukraine) were included in Russia.

After the death of Peter, Catherine I ascended the imperial throne.

The Empress reigned briefly, only two years (reign 1725 - 1727). However, its power was rather weak and was actually in the hands of Alexander Menshikov, Peter’s comrade-in-arms. Catherine showed interest only in the fleet. In 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, which governed the country under the formal chairmanship of Catherine. During Catherine's time, bureaucracy and embezzlement flourished. Catherine only signed all the papers that were handed over to her by representatives of the Supreme Privy Council. There was a struggle for power within the council itself, and reforms in the empire were suspended. During the reign of Catherine the First, Russia did not wage any wars.

The next Russian Emperor Peter II also reigned briefly, only three years (reign 1727 - 1730). Peter the Second became Emperor when he was only eleven years old, and he died at the age of fourteen from smallpox. In fact, Peter did not rule the empire; in such a short period he did not even have time to show interest in state affairs. Real power in the country continued to be in the hands of the Supreme Privy Council and Alexander Menshikov. Under this formal ruler, all the undertakings of Peter the Great were leveled out. The Russian clergy made attempts to secede from the state; the capital was moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow, the historical capital of the former Moscow principality and the Russian state. The army and navy fell into decay. Corruption and massive theft of money from the state treasury flourished.

The next Russian ruler was Empress Anna (reigned 1730 – 1740). However, the country was really ruled by her favorite Ernest Biron, Duke of Courland.

The powers of Anna herself were greatly curtailed. Without the approval of the Supreme Privy Council, the empress could not impose taxes, declare war, spend the state treasury at her own discretion, promote high ranks above the rank of colonel, or appoint an heir to the throne.

Under Anna, the proper maintenance of the fleet and the construction of new ships were resumed.

It was under Anna that the capital of the empire was returned back to St. Petersburg.

After Anna, Ivan VI became emperor (reigned 1740) and became the youngest emperor in the history of Tsarist Russia. He was placed on the throne at the age of two months, but Ernest Biron continued to have real power in the empire.

The reign of Ivan VI turned out to be short. Two weeks later there was a palace coup. Biron was removed from power. The baby emperor lasted on the throne for just over a year. During his formal reign, no significant events occurred in the life of the Russian Empire.

And in 1741, Empress Elizabeth ascended to the Russian throne (reigned 1741 - 1762).

During the time of Elizabeth, Russia returned to Peter's reforms. The Supreme Privy Council, which for many years replaced the real power of the Russian emperors, was liquidated. The death penalty was abolished. Noble privileges were formalized by law.

During the reign of Elizabeth, Russia took part in a number of wars. In the Russian-Swedish war (1741 - 1743), Russia again, like Peter the Great, won a convincing victory over the Swedes, winning a significant part of Finland from them. Then followed the brilliant Seven Years' War against Prussia (1753-1760), which ended with the capture of Berlin by Russian troops in 1760.

During the time of Elizabeth, the first university was opened in Russia (in Moscow).

However, the empress herself had weaknesses - she often loved to organize luxurious feasts, which significantly emptied the treasury.

The next Russian emperor, Peter III, reigned for only 186 days (reign year 1762). Peter was energetically involved in state affairs; during his short stay on the throne, he abolished the Office of Secret Affairs, created the State Bank and for the first time introduced paper money into circulation in the Russian Empire. A decree was created prohibiting landowners from killing and maiming peasants. Peter wanted to reform the Orthodox Church according to the Protestant model. The document “Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility” was created, which legally established the nobility as a privileged class in Russia. Under this tsar, nobles were exempted from forced military service. All high-ranking nobles exiled during the reign of previous emperors and empresses were released from exile. However, another palace coup prevented this sovereign from further working properly and reigning for the good of the empire.

Empress Catherine II (reigned 1762 – 1796) ascends the throne.

Catherine the Second, along with Peter the Great, is considered one of the best empresses, whose efforts contributed to the development of the Russian Empire. Catherine came to power through a palace coup, overthrowing her husband Peter III from the throne, who was cold towards her and treated her with undisguised disdain.

The period of Catherine's reign had the most tragic consequences for the peasants - they were completely enslaved.

However, under this empress, the Russian Empire significantly moved its borders to the west. After the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Eastern Poland became part of the Russian Empire. Ukraine also joined it.

Catherine carried out the liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire victoriously ended the war with the Ottoman Empire, taking Crimea from it. As a result of this war, Kuban also became part of the Russian Empire.

Under Catherine, there was a massive opening of new gymnasiums throughout Russia. Education became available to all city residents, except peasants.

Catherine founded a number of new cities in the empire.

During the time of Catherine, a major uprising took place in the empire led by

Emelyan Pugachev - as a consequence of further enslavement and enslavement of the peasants.

The reign of Paul I that followed Catherine did not last long - only five years. Paul introduced cruel cane discipline in the army. Corporal punishment for nobles was reintroduced. All nobles were required to serve in the army. However, unlike Catherine, Paul improved the situation of the peasants. Corvée was limited to only three days a week. The grain tax in kind from peasants was abolished. The sale of peasants along with land was prohibited. It was forbidden to separate peasant families during sale. Fearing the influence of the recent Great French Revolution, Paul introduced censorship and banned the import of foreign books.

Pavel died unexpectedly in 1801 from apoplexy.

His successor, Emperor Alexander I (reigned 1801 - 1825), during his time on the throne, led a victorious Patriotic War against Napoleonic France in 1812. During the reign of Alexander, the Georgian lands - Megrelia and the Imeretian kingdom - became part of the Russian Empire.

Also during the reign of Alexander the First, a successful war was fought with the Ottoman Empire (1806-1812), which ended with the annexation of part of Persia (the territory of modern Azerbaijan) to Russia.

As a result of the next Russian-Swedish war (1806 - 1809), the territory of all of Finland became part of Russia.

The Emperor died unexpectedly of typhoid fever in Taganrog in 1825.

One of the most despotic emperors of the Russian Empire, Nicholas the First (reigned 1825 - 1855), ascends the throne.

On the very first day of Nicholas's reign, the Decembrist uprising took place in St. Petersburg. The uprising ended disastrously for them - artillery was used against them. The leaders of the uprising were imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg and were soon executed.

In 1826, the Russian army had to defend its distant borders from the troops of the Persian Shah who unexpectedly invaded Transcaucasia. The Russian-Persian War lasted two years. At the end of the war, Armenia was taken from Persia.

In 1830, during the reign of Nicholas I, an uprising against the Russian autocracy took place in Poland and Lithuania. In 1831, the uprising was suppressed by Russian regular troops.

Under Nicholas the First, the first railway from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo was built. And by the end of his reign, the construction of the St. Petersburg-Moscow railway was completed.

During the time of Nicholas I, the Russian Empire waged another war with the Ottoman Empire. The war ended with the preservation of Crimea as part of Russia, but the entire Russian navy, according to the agreement, was removed from the peninsula.

The next emperor, Alexander II (reigned 1855 - 1881), completely abolished serfdom in 1861. Under this tsar, the Caucasian War was carried out against detachments of Chechen highlanders under the leadership of Shamil, and the Polish uprising of 1864 was suppressed. Turkestan (modern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan) was annexed.

Under this emperor, Alaska was sold to America (1867).

The next war with the Ottoman Empire (1877-1878) ended with the liberation of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro from the Ottoman yoke.

Alexander II is the only Russian emperor to die a violent unnatural death. A member of the Narodnaya Volya organization, Ignatius Grinevetsky, threw a bomb at him while he was walking along the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg. The emperor died on the same day.

Alexander III becomes the penultimate Russian emperor (reigned 1881 - 1894).

Under this tsar, the industrialization of Russia began. Railways were built throughout the European part of the empire. The telegraph became widespread. Telephone communication was introduced. In large cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg) electrification was carried out. A radio appeared.

Under this emperor, Russia did not wage any wars.

The last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (reigned 1894 - 1917), took the throne at a difficult time for the empire.

In 1905-1906, the Russian Empire had to fight with Japan, which captured the Far Eastern port of Port Arthur.

Also in 1905, an armed uprising of the working class took place in the largest cities of the empire, which seriously undermined the foundations of autocracy. The work of the Social Democrats (future communists) led by Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin unfolded.

After the revolution of 1905, tsarist power was seriously limited and transferred to local city Dumas.

The First World War, which began in 1914, put an end to the further existence of the Russian Empire. Nicholas was not ready for such a protracted and exhausting war. The Russian army suffered a number of crushing defeats from the troops of the Kaiser's Germany. This accelerated the collapse of the empire. Cases of desertions from the front have become more frequent among the troops. Looting flourished in the rear cities.

The Tsar's inability to cope with the difficulties that arose in the war and within Russia provoked a domino effect, in which within two or three months the huge and once powerful Russian Empire was on the verge of collapse. In addition to this, revolutionary sentiments intensified in Petrograd and Moscow.

In February 1917, a provisional government came to power in Petrograd, staging a palace coup and depriving Nicholas II of real power. The last emperor was asked to leave Petrograd with his family, which Nicholas immediately took advantage of.

On March 3, 1917, at Pskov station in the carriage of his imperial train, Nicholas II officially abdicated the throne, deposing himself as the Russian emperor.

The Russian Empire quietly and peacefully ceased to exist, giving way to the future empire of socialism - the USSR.

There were many empires in the world that were famous for their wealth, luxurious palaces and temples, conquests and culture. Among the greatest of them are such powerful states as the Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Holy Roman, Ottoman, and British empires.

Russia on the historical world map

The empires of the world collapsed, disintegrated, and in their place separate independent states were formed. The Russian Empire, which existed for 196 years, from 1721 to 1917, did not escape a similar fate.

It all started with the Principality of Moscow, which, thanks to the conquests of princes and kings, grew to include new lands in the west and east. Victorious wars allowed Russia to take possession of important territories that opened the country's path to the Baltic and Black Seas.

Russia became an empire in 1721, when Tsar Peter the Great accepted the imperial title by decision of the Senate.

Territory and composition of the Russian Empire

In terms of the size and extent of its possessions, Russia ranked second in the world, second only to the British Empire, which owned numerous colonies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory of the Russian Empire included:

78 provinces + 8 Finnish;
21 regions;
2 districts.

The provinces consisted of counties, the latter were divided into camps and sections. The empire had the following administrative-territorial administration:

Many lands were annexed to the Russian Empire voluntarily, and some as a result of aggressive campaigns. The territories that became part of it at their own request were:

Georgia;
Armenia;
Abkhazia;
Tyva Republic;
Ossetia;
Ingushetia;
Ukraine.

During the foreign colonial policy of Catherine II, the Kuril Islands, Chukotka, Crimea, Kabarda (Kabardino-Balkaria), Belarus and the Baltic states became part of the Russian Empire. Part of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states went to Russia after the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern Poland).

Russian Empire Square

The territory of the state stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea and from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, occupying two continents - Europe and Asia. In 1914, before World War I, the area of the Russian Empire was 69,245 square meters. kilometers, and the length of its borders was as follows:

Let's stop and talk about individual territories of the Russian Empire.

Grand Duchy of Finland

Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, after a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which it ceded this territory. The capital of the Russian Empire was now covered by new lands, which protected St. Petersburg from the north.

When Finland became part of the Russian Empire, it retained great autonomy, despite Russian absolutism and autocracy. It had its own constitution, according to which power in the principality was divided into executive and legislative. The legislative body was the Sejm. Executive power belonged to the Imperial Finnish Senate; it consisted of eleven people elected by the Diet. Finland had its own currency - Finnish marks, and in 1878 received the right to have a small army.

Finland, as part of the Russian Empire, was famous for the coastal city of Helsingfors, where not only the Russian intelligentsia, but also the reigning house of the Romanovs loved to relax. This city, which is now called Helsinki, was chosen by many Russian people, who happily vacationed at resorts and rented dachas from local residents.

After the strikes of 1917 and thanks to the February Revolution, the independence of Finland was declared and it seceded from Russia.

Annexation of Ukraine to Russia

Right-bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II. The Russian empress first destroyed the hetmanate, and then the Zaporozhye Sich. In 1795, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was finally divided, and its lands went to Germany, Austria and Russia. Thus, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire.

After the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774. Catherine the Great annexed the territory of modern Dnepropetrovsk, Kherson, Odessa, Nikolaev, Lugansk and Zaporozhye regions. As for Left Bank Ukraine, it voluntarily became part of Russia in 1654. Ukrainians fled from social and religious repression of the Poles and asked for help from the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. He, together with Bogdan Khmelnitsky, concluded the Pereyaslav Treaty, according to which Left Bank Ukraine became part of the Muscovite kingdom with autonomy rights. Not only Cossacks took part in the Rada, but also ordinary people who made this decision.

Crimea - the pearl of Russia

The Crimean Peninsula was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1783. On July 9, the famous Manifesto was read out at the Ak-Kaya rock, and the Crimean Tatars expressed their consent to become subjects of Russia. First, the noble Murzas, and then ordinary residents of the peninsula, took an oath of allegiance to the Russian Empire. After this, festivities, games and celebrations began. Crimea became part of the Russian Empire after the successful military campaign of Prince Potemkin.

This was preceded by difficult times. The Crimean coast and Kuban were the possessions of the Turks and Crimean Tatars from the end of the 15th century. During the wars with the Russian Empire, the latter gained a certain independence from Turkey. The rulers of Crimea changed quickly, and some occupied the throne two or three times.

Russian soldiers more than once suppressed revolts organized by the Turks. The last Khan of Crimea, Shahin-Girey, dreamed of making a European power out of the peninsula and wanted to carry out military reform, but no one wanted to support his initiatives. Taking advantage of the confusion, Prince Potemkin recommended that Catherine the Great incorporate Crimea into the Russian Empire through a military campaign. The Empress agreed, but on one condition: that the people themselves express their consent to this. Russian troops treated the residents of Crimea peacefully and showed them kindness and care. Shahin-Girey abdicated power, and the Tatars were guaranteed freedom to practice religion and observe local traditions.

The easternmost edge of the empire

Russian exploration of Alaska began in 1648. Semyon Dezhnev, a Cossack and traveler, led an expedition that reached Anadyr in Chukotka. Having learned about this, Peter I sent Bering to check this information, but the famous navigator did not confirm Dezhnev’s facts - the fog hid the coast of Alaska from his team.

It was only in 1732 that the crew of the ship St. Gabriel first landed in Alaska, and in 1741 Bering studied the coast of both it and the Aleutian Islands in detail. Gradually, exploration of the new area began, merchants arrived and formed settlements, built a capital and called it Sitka. Alaska, as part of the Russian Empire, was not yet famous for its gold, but for its fur-bearing animals. The furs of various animals were mined here, which were in demand both in Russia and in Europe.

Under Paul I, the Russian-American Company was organized, which had the following powers:

she ruled Alaska;
could organize an armed army and ships;
have your own flag.

Russian colonialists found a common language with the local people - the Aleuts. The priests learned their language and translated the Bible. The Aleuts were baptized, girls willingly married Russian men and wore traditional Russian clothes. The Russians never made friends with another tribe, the Koloshi. It was a warlike and very cruel tribe that practiced cannibalism.

Why did they sell Alaska?

These vast territories were sold to the United States for $7.2 million. The agreement was signed in the US capital - Washington. The reasons for the sale of Alaska have recently been called different.

Some say that the reason for the sale was the human factor and the reduction in the number of sable and other fur-bearing animals. There were very few Russians living in Alaska, their number was 1000 people. Others hypothesize that Alexander II was afraid of losing the eastern colonies, so, before it was too late, he decided to sell Alaska for the price that was offered.

Most researchers agree that the Russian Empire decided to get rid of Alaska because there were no human resources to cope with the development of such distant lands. The government was thinking about whether to sell the Ussuri region, which was sparsely populated and poorly managed. However, the hotheads cooled down, and Primorye remained part of Russia.

The Russian Empire began its existence in 1721, during the reign of.

Russia became an Empire after completion, the results of which assigned Russia new lands, access to the Baltic Sea, various economic benefits, and other privileges. The capital of the Russian Empire became the city of St. Petersburg, the creation of Petrovo.

In the period from 1728 to 1730, Moscow was again the capital of Russia. From 1730 to 1917, the main city was again St. Petersburg. The Russian Empire was a large state whose lands were vast.

In world history, it was the third state in terms of area that has ever existed (the Mongolian and British Empires hold the palm in this category).

The Empire was ruled by the EMPEROR, a monarch whose power was unlimited by anything except Christian tenets. In 1905, after the first revolution, the State Duma appeared, which limited the power of the monarch.

On the eve of 1917, Russian agriculture was at the peak of its development. Land reform had a largely beneficial effect. Between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the First World War, the grain harvest in Russia doubled.

Russia harvested one-third more grain than Canada, the United States and Argentina combined. For example, the harvest of rye from the fields of the Russian Empire in 1894 yielded a harvest of 2 billion poods of grain, and in the last pre-war year (1913) - 4 billion.

During the reign of Nicholas II, it provided all of Europe with agricultural products.Between 1894 and 1911, cotton production in Russia increased by 388%.

During the period 1890-1913, industry quadrupled (!!!) its productivity. The income received by the Russian Empire from industrial enterprises was equal to the treasury's income from such an industry as agriculture.

Goods produced at Russian enterprises covered 4/5 of the domestic market demand for industrial products. Four years before, the number of established joint stock companies in Russia increased by 132%.

Capital invested in joint stock companies has quadrupled.

The main principle of budget planning was the absence of deficits. The ministers also did not forget about the need to accumulate gold reserves. Government revenues in the last years of life

The Russian Empire began its existence in 1721, during the reign of.

In the period from 1728 to 1730, Moscow was again the capital of Russia. From 1730 to 1917, the main city was again St. Petersburg. The Russian Empire was a large state whose lands were vast.

In world history, it was the third state in terms of area that has ever existed (the Mongolian and British Empires hold the palm in this category).

During the reign of Nicholas II, it provided all of Europe with agricultural products.Between 1894 and 1911, cotton production in Russia increased by 388%.

Capital invested in joint stock companies has quadrupled.

The main principle of budget planning was the absence of deficits. The ministers also did not forget about the need to accumulate gold reserves. Government revenues in the last years of life

As a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721, the powerful Swedish army was defeated and the Russian lands captured by Sweden at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries were returned. The city of St. Petersburg is built at the mouth of the Neva, where the capital of Russia is moved in 1712. The Moscow state became the Russian Empire in 1721, headed by the All-Russian Emperor.

Of course, Russia took a long time to create an empire, and not only the victory in the Northern War contributed to this.

Long haul

At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' consisted of about 15 principalities. However, the natural course of centralization was interrupted by the Mongol invasion (1237-1240). The further unification of Russian lands took place in difficult foreign policy conditions and was dictated primarily by political prerequisites.

In the 14th century, most of the Russian lands were united around Vilna - the capital of the emerging Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. During the XIII-XV centuries, the principalities of Goroden, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Kiev, as well as most of the Chernigov region, Volyn, Podolia, Smolensk region and a number of other Russian lands came into the possession of the great Lithuanian princes from the Gediminovich family. Thus, the individual rule of the Rurikovichs and the clan unity of Rus' became a thing of the past. The annexation of lands took place both military and peacefully.

The end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries became a kind of boundary, after which the lands annexed to Russia formed a single whole with it. The process of annexing the rest of the inheritance of Ancient Rus' lasted for another two centuries, and by this time its own ethnic processes had gained strength.

In 1654, Left Bank Ukraine joined Russia. The lands of Right Bank Ukraine (without Galicia) and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1793.

“The Russian kingdom (both conceptually, ideologically, and institutionally) had two sources: the “kingdom” (Khanate) of the Golden Horde and the Byzantine Orthodox kingdom (empire).”

One of the first to formulate a new idea of the royal power of the Moscow princes was Metropolitan Zosima. In the essay “Exposition of Paschal,” submitted to the Moscow Council in 1492, he emphasized that Moscow became the new Constantinople thanks to Rus'’s loyalty to God. God Himself appointed Ivan III - “the new Tsar Constantine to the new city of Constantine - Moscow and the entire Russian land and many other lands of the sovereign.” Thus, Ivan IV was the first Tsar crowned king. This happened on January 16, 1547.

Under Ivan IV, Russia managed to significantly expand its possessions. As a result of the campaign against Kazan and its capture in 1552, it gained the middle Volga region, and in 1556, with the capture of Astrakhan, the lower Volga region and access to the Caspian Sea, which opened up new trade opportunities with Persia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. At the same time, the ring of hostile Tatar khanates that constrained Rus' was broken, and the road to Siberia was opened.

V. Surikov "Conquest of Siberia by Ermak"

The era of Ivan the Terrible also marked the beginning of the conquest of Siberia. A small detachment of Cossacks Ermak Timofeevich, hired by the Ural industrialists Stroganovs to protect against the attacks of the Siberian Tatars, defeated the army of the Siberian Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk. Despite the fact that due to the attacks of the Tatars, few of the Cossacks managed to return alive, the collapsed Siberian Khanate was never restored. A few years later, the royal archers of the governor Voeikov suppressed the last resistance. The gradual development of Siberia by Russians began. Over the next decades, forts and trading settlements began to emerge: Tobolsk, Verkhoturye, Mangazeya, Yeniseisk and Bratsk.

Russian empire

P. Zharkov "Portrait of Peter I"

On August 30, 1721, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded between Russia and Sweden, according to which Russia received access to the Baltic Sea, annexed the territory of Ingria, part of Karelia, Estland and Livonia.

Russia became a great European power. Peter I accepted the titles “Great” and “Father of the Fatherland” from the Senate, he was proclaimed emperor, and Russia - an empire.

The formation of the Russian Empire was accompanied by a number of reforms.

Public Administration Reform

Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.

The public administration system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

At the first stage of the reform, Peter I divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.

There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.

Military reforms

The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction using the “Table of Ranks” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.

With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform

The institution of the patriarchate was virtually eliminated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.

The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. The kopeck becomes the main coin. Transition to poll tax.

Increase in treasury revenues several times. But! It was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population, and most of this income was stolen.

Culture and life

Peter I led the fight against external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

N. Nevrev "Peter I"

A number of measures were taken to develop education: on January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, and mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools created by decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to “ teach children of all ranks literacy, numbers and geometry" It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created for the training of priests in 1721. Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death; most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

Peter I created new printing houses.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Academy of Sciences, which was opened after his death.

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the Tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc. have changed.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts.

S. Khlebovsky "Assemblies under Peter I"

Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad.

On December 30, 1701, Peter issued a decree that ordered full names to be written in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the Tsar, and in winter, in the cold, to wear a hat in front of the house in which king, don't take it off. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king...”.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.”

The transformations of the era of Peter I led to the strengthening of the Russian state, the creation of a modern European army, the development of industry and the spread of education among the upper classes of the population. An absolute monarchy was established, headed by the emperor, to whom the church was also subordinate (through the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod).