Founder of hedonism. Introduction, hedonism - the philosophy of ancient Greece
Ushakov's Dictionary
Hedonism
gedoni zm, hedonism, pl. No, husband.(from Greek hedone - pleasure) ( Philosopher). An ethical teaching, most clearly expressed in ancient Greece, based on the position that man always strives for pleasure and avoids suffering.
Modern economic dictionary. 1999
HEDONISM
(from Greek hedone - pleasure)
Culturology. Dictionary-reference book
Hedonism
(Greek hedone - pleasure)
ethical teaching, originally developed by the ancient Greek Cyrene school of philosophy and Epicurus; recognizes pleasure as the purpose of life and the highest good; defines good as that which brings pleasure, and evil as that which entails suffering.
an ethical position that affirms pleasure as the highest good and criterion of human behavior and reduces to it all the variety of moral requirements. The desire for pleasure in hedonism is considered as the main driving principle of a person, inherent in him by nature and predetermining all his actions. As a normative principle, hedonism is the opposite of asceticism.
Pedagogical terminological dictionary
Hedonism
(from Greek hedone - pleasure)
1. a type of ethical teachings in which all moral definitions (the concepts of good and evil, etc.) are derived from pleasure (positive) and suffering (negative). As a type of ethical teaching, G. originates from Aristippus of Cyrene. In the teachings of the Cyrenaics, philosophy emerges as a type of worldview that upholds the priority of the needs of the individual over social institutions as conventions that limit his freedom. It is among the Cyrenaics that the duality of G. as a practical teaching is revealed: on the one hand, to the extent that G. affirmed the intrinsic value of the individual, humanistic features are obvious in it (fully manifested in the teachings of Epicureanism, eudaimonism, utilitarianism), on the other hand, in that to the extent that it was assumed that pleasure is the highest value and its obtaining is permissible by any means, G. turned out to be a possible basis for the apology of evil and immorality. Criticizing G., Aristotle expressed the following arguments:
a) pleasure in itself is not actually good,
b) not every pleasure is worthy of choice,
c) there are some pleasures that are worthy of election in themselves, but differ in type or source.
This position predetermined the modulation in G.’s argumentation, which was developed in eudaimonism. Such is G. Epicurus, who considered the real good not the sensual pleasures of the body, but the genuine and sublime pleasures of the soul (see). There was no place for G.'s ideas in the Christian medieval tradition; and only in the Renaissance did they find new supporters. In modern European thought of the 17th-18th centuries. G.'s ideas, on the one hand, turn out to be embodied more or less fully and adequately in most philosophical and ethical teachings (T. Hobbes, B. Spinoza, D. Hume, C.A. Helvetius), and this tradition finds direct continuation in the classical utilitarianism, and on the other hand, over time they move into the contexts of rationalistic perfectionism and social organization, in one case, and the utopia of immoral permissiveness, in the other, which ultimately led to the crisis of G. as a philosophical worldview. K. Marx, Z. Freud and others, from different positions, formulated the provisions regarding pleasure as a practical-behavioral and explanatory-theoretical principle that conceptually formulated this crisis. In Marxism - in the order of socio-philosophical criticism of humanity - it was shown that it is not pleasures and suffering that determine human activity, which is of a social nature, but, on the contrary, a person’s social connections, within the framework of which his activity unfolds, determine the method and content of pleasure. From a psychological point of view, Freud showed that pleasure, being initial, cannot be a universal principle of behavior of a social individual. In the light of such criticism, G. could no longer be perceived as a theoretically serious and reliable ethical principle. Pleasure becomes the subject of special consideration of special sciences, for example psychology or consumer theory.
2. A system of moral principles, according to which good is pleasure, and evil is suffering.
(Bim-Bad B.M. Pedagogical encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 2002. P. 50)
an ethical and psychological doctrine that arose in antiquity, asserting that pleasure is the highest good, the goal of the individual, the criterion of truth and expediency, the main motive of its behavior. The predominance of a person’s hedonistic inclinations is undesirable in professional selection for teaching. educational establishments.
(Kodzhaspirova G.M. Pedagogical dictionary. - M., 2005. P. 27)
Dictionary of economic terms
Hedonism
(from Greek hedone- pleasure)
the desire of an individual to increase his well-being in the name of maximizing the pleasure received from life.
Terms of Film Semiotics
HEDONISM
(Greek hedone - pleasure) - the principle of substantiation of moral requirements, according to which good is defined as that which brings pleasure and relief from suffering, and evil - as that which entails suffering... In Greece, followers of the ethics of Aristippus were called hedonists. HEDONISM reached its most developed form in the teachings of Epicurus. The ideas of HEDONISM occupy a central place in the utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) and Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) (Philosophical Dictionary).
Philosophical Dictionary (Comte-Sponville)
Hedonism
Hedonism
♦Hedonisme
A doctrine that regards pleasure (hedone) as the highest good or moral principle. It is reflected in the views of Aristippus (***), Epicurus (although his hedonism is accompanied by eudaimonism), and among the newest researchers - in the views of Michel Onfray (***). Hedonism is not necessarily associated with selfishness, because it is able to take into account the pleasure of other people, and with materialism, because there are also spiritual pleasures. As a matter of fact, this is the weak point of hedonism. As a theory, it is acceptable only if the term “pleasure” is interpreted so broadly that it loses its clear meaning. Of course, I would very much like to think that a person who dies under torture, but does not betray his comrades, acts out of pleasure (trying to avoid even more cruel suffering from the consciousness of his betrayal, which would lead to the torture of his comrades, or from the consciousness of defeat). But then we will have to recognize hedonism as a theory that is suitable for all cases of life and does not have its own distinctive characteristics as a virtue. If everything in the world is explained by hedonism, why distinguish hedonism as a separate doctrine?
The motto of hedonism was most accurately formulated by Chamfort (***): “Enjoy and give pleasure; do not harm either yourself or others - this, in my opinion, is the whole essence of morality” (“Maxims”, Chapter V). A very attractive formula and even, for the most part, correct, it’s just a pity that it’s too short. She elevates the pleasure principle (purely descriptive) into a moral principle (which is normative). But is the pleasure principle, with all its universal simplicity, sufficient? It is necessary to answer the question of what kind of pleasures and for whom can justify suffering, and which ones. We have to choose between pleasures, as Epicurus put it, and it is very doubtful that the moral content of pleasure itself is sufficient for this choice. Are there not enough scoundrels in the world who enjoy life? What about admirable suffering? Or, for example, consider deception that does not harm anyone and even brings pleasant moments to others. Let's say you boast about a feat that you have never accomplished, and your listeners, listening to your story, experience almost the same pleasure as you yourself. But does this make your deception any less contemptible? It will be objected to me that contempt is a type of displeasure, therefore, the above example speaks not against, but in favor of hedonism. So be it, but then I want to treat hedonism with even greater caution. Hedonism is as irrefutable as it is unsatisfactory - avoiding the trap of paradox, it immediately falls into tautology.
Aristippus (2nd half of the 5th century BC - early 4th century BC) - ancient Greek philosopher from Cyrene in North Africa, a student of Socrates, founder of the Cyrene school, one of the founders of hedonism.
Michel Onfray (born in 1959) is a French writer and philosopher, the author of one of the theories of hedonism, who studied the relationship between ethics and aesthetics, moral hedonism and political anarchism, the creation of philosophical mythology, and the influence of modern natural sciences on the human worldview. Author of the works “The Womb of Philosophy. Criticism of Dietary Reason”, “The Art of Pleasure for the Materialist and Hedonist”, “Forms of Time. Theory of Sauternes" and "The Sanity of a Gourmet. Philosophy of taste."
Sebastien-Roch-Nicolas Chamfort (1741–1794) - French moralist writer, playwright, author of the collection “Maxims and Thoughts, Characters and Anecdotes.” Chamfort is often called one of the wittiest men of the wittiest century.
Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms
Hedonism
♦ (ENG
Hedonism
m.
A direction in ethics that recognizes pleasure as the highest good, the purpose of life;
desire for pleasure, enjoyment.
Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron
Hedonism
or Idonism(from the Greek ηδονή - pleasure) - an ethical teaching that recognizes sensual pleasures as the highest good and purpose of life. See Cyrene school.
Russian language dictionaries
The emergence of hedonism as an ethical and psychological doctrine dates back to Ancient Greece. It is believed that the founder of hedonism was the ancient Greek philosopher Aristippus (435 - 355 BC). What does this concept mean and who can be called a hedonist?
What is hedonism?
The meaning of definitions from various scientific sources comes down to the concept of hedonism as an ethical doctrine, according to which the meaning of a person’s life lies in the constant desire to receive pleasure and all kinds of pleasures from literally everything that surrounds him.
This teaching considers sensual joy, pleasure, enjoyment as the main goal, motivation for life, or proof of morality.
A hedonistic lifestyle involves human behavior that is aimed at getting pleasure, and pleasure both on the physical level (from eating delicious food, intimacy with a partner, living in comfortable conditions, wearing comfortable and high-quality clothes, etc.) and on the spiritual level (from reading books, visiting theaters, listening to music and etc.).
Most often, a representative of hedonism - a hedonist - strives to get more pleasure from physical things and activities.
Hedonism in philosophy
Hedonism was introduced by its founder, Aristippus, who argued that the human soul has a dual character: on the one hand, this is pleasure, as a manifestation of softness, tenderness, and on the other hand, pain, as a manifestation of rudeness, harshness of the soul. Thus, Aristippus believed that the path to happiness lies in obtaining maximum pleasure from one’s life and avoiding unpleasant situations, that is, pain. According to Aristippus, true pleasure can be obtained precisely on the physical level.
Speaking about individual manifestations of the philosophy of hedonism, it should be noted such a famous thinker as Epicurus, who, although he was not an ardent propagandist of this ethical-philosophical trend, however, his scientific views have many similarities with it. The philosophy of Epicurus was called eudaimonism, in which pleasure was defined as the principle of a successful life and the goal of eudaimonism (and partly hedonism), according to him, is getting rid of suffering and unhappiness, and not receiving pleasure itself.
The highest pleasure, as Epicurus argued, lies in complete freedom from pain and suffering. Therefore, a state of happiness can be achieved simply by freeing oneself from pain and anxiety and through the moderate use of earthly goods - ataraxia.
In the era of absolutism, hedonism was one of the brightest life principles adhered to by the aristocracy of the 18th century in Europe. Hedonistic ideas most fully took hold of the representatives of this era precisely in France, during the reign of Louis XV. However, the concept of hedonism in this period of history was reduced mainly to the desire to receive the simplest pleasures (that is, pleasures at the physical level, which was often considered a manifestation of immoral behavior).
The revival of a comprehensive philosophical approach to hedonism occurred in the 19th century and is associated with the name of the British lawyer and philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Bentham was known for being the founder of the idea of utilitarianism - an ethical theory built on such basic postulates as:
- obtaining pleasure and getting rid of suffering are the meaning of human activity;
- the usefulness of a person and his affairs for society is the most significant criterion for assessing all phenomena;
- the main criterion of morality is the focus on achieving happiness for the largest number of members of society;
- the constant desire to expand universal benefit through achieving harmony of individual and public interests as the main chain of human development.
In other words, Bentham believed that a person should have “hedonic prudence” in everyday life.
Who are hedonists?
These are people who adhere to the principles of hedonism throughout their lives. The primary goal for them is to obtain all kinds of pleasures and pleasures; they strive in every possible way to reduce suffering.
All efforts of hedonists are aimed at enjoying life here and now, ignoring the potential negative consequences of their actions in the future.
A fulfilling life, according to a hedonist, is a combination of pleasant sensations.
If at the moment something gives him pleasure, this is an undoubted reason to devote all his attention and free time to this activity until a new hobby replaces the old one. This is someone who with great interest makes new acquaintances for friendship or love, but as soon as their novelty fades, he immediately finds new attachments. Because for a hedonist only what is happening to him at the moment is valuable, for the sake of momentary pleasure, he is ready to perform such actions that can subsequently bring him a lot of sadness.
Of course, another distinctive feature of hedonists is excessive demonstrativeness of their behavior And desire to be the center of attention. And this is proof of that:
- They attach excessive importance to their own appearance; not a single fashion trend, not only current, but also in the future, will remain without their close attention;
- Undoubtedly, they can be assigned the role of trendsetters;
- They are the pioneers of new, extraordinary brands, almost unknown to a wide circle of people.
- They experiment with great pleasure: they wear clothes in creative colors and love to mix different styles.
They are characterized by impulsive behavior, and purchases are often made quickly; this person takes the first brightest thing he likes from the store window and doesn’t even think about purchasing it. Clothing, as well as the image of a hedonist in general, should be an expression of their life credo: “I am unique and worthy only of your admiration!” In addition, for hedonists it is important to feel their disarming attractiveness, so they will undoubtedly choose clothes that emphasize their exclusivity and beauty.
Introduction
Ancient philosophy is “a school of philosophical thinking for all subsequent times, since in its diverse forms “almost all later types of worldviews are already in embryo, in the process of emergence.” The same can rightfully be attributed to ethics, because precisely in ancient culture, the most important ethical problems were posed, various options for their resolution were outlined, and the main traditions of future interpretations of issues of the ethical complex were outlined. Anthology of world philosophy, 2012, p. 794.
The ethics of antiquity is addressed to man; its original motto can be considered the famous statement of Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.” It is no coincidence, therefore, that the predominance of a naturalistic orientation in the moral quest of the ancient sages. In addition, the most important feature of their ethical position was the understanding of morality, the virtue of behavior as reasonableness. Reason “rules the world” of ancient ethics; its paramount importance (in any specific moral choice and in choosing the right path in life) is not in doubt. Another characteristic of the ancient worldview is the desire for harmony (harmony within the human soul and its harmony with the world), which took various forms of embodiment depending on certain sociocultural circumstances.
Hedonism
Hedonism (from the Greek hedone - pleasure), an ethical position that affirms pleasure as the highest good and criterion of human behavior and reduces all the variety of moral requirements to it. The desire for pleasure in hedonism is considered as the main driving force of a person, inherent in him by nature and predetermining all his actions, which makes hedonism a type of anthropological naturalism. As a normative principle, hedonism is the opposite of asceticism.
In Ancient Greece, one of the first representatives of hedonism in ethics was the founder of the Cyrene school, Aristippus (early 4th century BC), who saw the highest good in achieving sensual pleasure. In a different way, the ideas of hedonism were developed by Epicurus and his followers (see Epicureanism), where they came closer to the principles of eudaimonism, since the criterion of pleasure was the absence of suffering and a serene state of mind (ataraxia). Hedonistic motives became widespread during the Renaissance and then in the ethical theories of the Enlightenment. T. Hobbes, J. Locke, P. Gassendi, French materialists of the 18th century. in the struggle against the religious understanding of morality, they often resorted to a hedonistic interpretation of morality. The principle of hedonism received its most complete expression in the ethical theory of utilitarianism, which understands benefit as pleasure or the absence of suffering (I. Bentham, J. S. Mill). The ideas of hedonism are also shared by some modern bourgeois theorists - J. Santayana (USA), M. Schlick (Austria), D. Drake (USA), etc. Marxism criticizes hedonism primarily for its naturalistic and ahistorical understanding of man, sees in it an extremely simplified interpretation of the driving forces and motives of human behavior, gravitating toward relativism and individualism.
Hedonism originates in the Cyrenaic school and develops as a type of worldview that defends the priority of the needs of the individual over social institutions as conventions that limit his freedom and suppress his originality. The Cyrenaics believed that pleasure was the highest good and should be achieved by any means. In this, the Cyrenaics differed from Socrates, who, while recognizing the importance of pleasure, interpreted it as the consciousness that something is being done well. In his polemics with the Sophists, Socrates insisted on distinguishing between pleasures - bad and good, as well as true and false. Plato, in his mature works, hoped to show that although the good life is not good because it is full of pleasures, it is still possible to prove that the most pleasant life is also the best life. Similarly, Aristotle believed that pleasure as such is not a good and is not worthy of preference in itself. These ideas were developed in the eudaimonism of Epicurus, who believed that the real good was not pleasure of the body, but of the soul, and more strictly, the state of ataraxia, i.e. “freedom from bodily suffering and mental anxieties.” However, the difference between hedonism and eudaimonism is insignificant: both teachings orient a person not towards good, but towards pleasure, and even if towards good, then for the sake of pleasure. Ethics. Lecture notes. - Rostov-on- Don: Phoenix, 2009 pp. 79-81.
In the Christian tradition of the Middle Ages, ideas of hedonism had no place; and only in the Renaissance did they find new supporters (L. Valla, C. Raimondi), and even then at first only in a soft Epicurean version. In modern European thought, the ideas of hedonism, on the one hand, turn out to be embodied more or less fully and adequately in most philosophical and ethical teachings of that time. They are expressed by B. Spinoza, J. Locke, and representatives of ethical sentimentalism (F. Hutcheson, D. Hume). T. Hobbes, B. Mandeville, C. Helvetius directly derive human behavior from pleasure. However, the latter is increasingly associated with the socially determined interests of the individual; This line in modern European moral philosophy from Hobbes to Helvetius finds a direct continuation in classical utilitarianism, in which pleasure is equated with benefit. Only in the works of de Sade is the principle of pleasure affirmed in its pure form - in opposition to social institutions and in indirect polemics with the theory of the social contract. On the other hand, in modern times the ideas of hedonism found themselves moved into such contexts (rationalistic perfectionism and social organization, in one case, and the utopia of immoral permissiveness in the other), which ultimately led to a crisis of hedonism as a philosophy. worldview. Regarding pleasure as a practical-behavioral and explanatory-theoretical principle, K. Marx, Z. Freud and J. Moore, from different positions, formulated the provisions that conceptually formulated this crisis. Thanks to psychoanalysis, the situation in the study of pleasure is changing: from the psychological side, pleasure can no longer be considered as a universal principle of behavior of a social individual, especially when it comes to morality. Moore showed that hedonism, affirming pleasure as the only good, fully embodies the naturalistic error. In the light of such criticism and after it, hedonism could no longer be perceived as a theoretically serious and reliable ethical principle.
In 2017, few people are familiar with the concepts of hedonist, epicurean and sybarite. If you do not delve into philosophy and psychology, these words will remain unfamiliar. These concepts are already quietly considered archaisms (outdated words) or at least terms that are used extremely rarely. After reading the article, you will not only learn the meaning of unknown words, but also be able to understand whether you have anything in common with these concepts.
Meaning of the word
A hedonist is a person who lives for pleasure. In simple words, he is someone who selfishly cares about his own comfort, pleasure and welfare. Such people do not think about tomorrow and do not worry about physical goods. One of these was.
It is important for a hedonist that the feeling of aesthetic pleasure and pleasure does not leave him. Such people, according to their own psychology, live “one day at a time.” In addition, hedonists are susceptible to stress factors if they are deprived of their main happiness - a feeling of satisfaction.
Philosophy and psychology of hedonism
In general, hedonism in philosophy presupposes a feeling of pleasure as the main meaning of life. If we look at this concept in more detail, two philosophers appear on the scene - Aristippus and Epicurus.
Aristippus is an ancient Greek philosopher who developed the movement of hedonism. Aristippus believed that the meaning of life is to achieve happiness through the emotion of pleasure, avoiding pain and suffering. At the same time, pleasure is seen as something soft and gentle that inspires and brings physical happiness.
Unlike Aristippus, Epicurus was a follower of the down-to-earth concept of hedonism. Epicurus viewed this movement as a deliverance from bothersome worries, burdens, suffering and grievances. In the concept of the philosopher, the emotion of moral and physical satisfaction meant a feeling of a successful life. According to the concept of Epicurus, the meaning of life was to get rid of suffering and resentment.
Interestingly, an example of hedonism is Oscar Wilde's novel The Picture of Dorian Gray. For a modern example, consider the behavior of Bender the Robot from the animated series “Futurama,” where the machine-man’s remarks clearly reflect a tendency toward hedonism.
Why is hedonism bad?
It would seem that what’s wrong with a person constantly striving for good and happiness? Everything would be fine if this was achieved in ways that do not interfere with other people and society as a whole. However, hedonists sometimes pose a threat to others and thereby make many enemies.
Now let's think about the fact that happiness is different for each individual. There are 7 billion people on planet Earth, and everyone enjoys specific things. Some people are happy after sex, others enjoy the euphoric feeling of drugs, and some people find satisfaction in eating delicious food. Also, most people enjoy power, money, and the authority of status. In addition, adolescents experience gambling addiction, when computer games become the meaning of life.
All this is nothing more than a form of hedonism. Don't believe me? Think for yourself. A drug addict uses drugs, from which he receives satisfaction in bouts of euphoria. The addict is not going to give up harmful substances, arguing that the drugs make a person happy. Isn't this hedonism? The same applies to other cases, for example, casual sexual relationships, overeating, abuse of power and authority.
In such cases, hedonists openly make enemies without thinking about the consequences. Ordinary conversations are unlikely to help solve this problem. Here you can no longer do without the help of a psychologist and loved ones.
No one is saying that striving for the highest good is wrong. But do not forget that hedonism manifests itself in tandem with selfishness. This means that those around you will suffer.
How to identify hedonism
You can test a person’s propensity for hedonism using online tests on the Internet. In addition, a number of signs that are inherent in such people are described below:
- weak willpower;
- the pursuit of benefits with the least effort;
- ignorance, coldness, selfishness, pride;
- heightened self-esteem;
- laziness;
- weak ability of self-control.
When this movement was just emerging in Ancient Greece, philosophers could hardly imagine the current world with debauchery, sex and drugs, which sometimes take precedence over common sense. In the ancient world, this movement involved thinking about beauty and seeking satisfaction through enjoying the beauty of women and the taste of wine.
Now the direction remains the same, but there are more ways to get pleasure. Many ways to achieve satisfaction are contrary to society. Which, in fact, is the problem of hedonism at the present time.
Synonyms and antonyms
Related terms in meaning are sybarite, epicurean. A slightly distant, but still close concept is an esthete. Let's consider each synonym separately.
A sybarite is a person who lives for luxury and pampering. This concept has come to us from the ancient Greek city of Sybaris, which was distinguished by its special splendor, and its inhabitants by their unbridledness. The ancient sybarites loved to eat exclusively delicacies. Their tables were dominated by seafood (crabs, oysters, shellfish) and other expensive treats. Nowadays, when they say “sybarite,” they mean a person who is spoiled by luxury.
An Epicurean is a person who lives to achieve pleasure through liberation from suffering and resentment. This concept is identical to hedonism, but differs in that it does not set as its own goal the search for sources of happiness. After all, the main source of satisfaction is spiritual peace and ataraxia - serenity. Epicureanism does not do as much harm as hedonism. After all, Epicureans value friendship and moral goods, unlike selfish hedonists.
Epicurus, the philosopher who put forward one of the concepts of hedonism, adhered to his own movement - Epicureanism, where this name came from.
Since hedonism is a form of aesthetic pleasure, it is impossible not to mention aesthetes.
An esthete is a connoisseur of beauty, grace, and elegance. In other words, the esthete takes pleasure in whatever he likes to look at. Sometimes forms of aestheticism appear when delicious food or the sight of a beautiful body brings satisfaction. The disadvantages of such people include the fact that aesthetes evaluate everything by appearance.
In addition to synonyms that are close in meaning, antonyms of the concept “hedonist” are also distinguished. These words include “ascetic”.
An ascetic is an individual who abstains from receiving satisfaction and leads a strict lifestyle. Such a person limits himself to all the benefits that make him feel pleasure and joy.
Ascetics tend to overwork at work, load their heads with problems and get little rest. These stressors initially cause depression. And after a deep mental disorder they even go as far as committing suicide.
HEDONISM (Greek hedone - pleasure) - a type of ethical teachings and moral views in which all moral definitions are derived from pleasure and suffering. In a systematized form as a type of ethical teaching, hedonism was first developed in the teaching of the Greek Socratic philosopher Aristippus of Cyrene (435–355 BC), who taught that everything that gives pleasure is good. From the very beginning, hedonism emerges as a type of worldview that defends the priority of the individual’s needs over social institutions as conventions that limit his freedom and suppress his originality. At the same time, hedonism could take extreme forms; Thus, already among the followers of Aristippus - the Cyrenaics - there were those who believed that any pleasure is justified, moreover, any actions and efforts are justified if they lead to pleasure. In this, the Cyrenaics differed from Socrates, who, while recognizing the importance of pleasure, interpreted it as the consciousness that something is being done well. In his polemics with the Sophists, Socrates insisted on distinguishing between pleasures - bad and good, as well as true and false. Plato, in his mature works, hoped to show that although the good life is not good because it is full of pleasures, it is still possible to prove that the most pleasant life is also the best life. Aristotle believed that pleasure as such is not good and is not worthy of choice in itself. A moderate version of hedonism was proposed by the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who taught that only natural and necessary pleasures are worthy, since they do not destroy the inner equanimity of the soul. The ethical teaching of Epicurus was called “eudaimonism” (from the Greek eudemonia - happiness). Epicurus considered the state of ataraxia to be the highest good, i.e. equanimity, “freedom from bodily suffering and mental anxieties.” However, the difference between hedonism and eudaimonism is insignificant: both teachings orient a person not towards good, but towards pleasure (personal happiness), and if towards good, then for the sake of pleasure (personal happiness). During the Renaissance, the ideas of hedonism, both extreme and moderate, received a new impetus, becoming an important theoretical means of humanistic affirmation of the value of man in all his life manifestations. For the enlighteners (Gassendi, La Mettrie, Holbach), hedonism was a means of expressing spiritual opposition to the religious-dogmatic worldview. The most recent theoretical form of hedonism was the utilitarianism of J. Bentham and J. S. Mill (late 18th–19th centuries. ) Consistent criticism of utilitarianism by G. Sidgwick and J. E. Moore, along with the general development of the human sciences, primarily psychology, revealed the limitations of the hedonistic description and justification of behavior in general and morality in particular.
