The originality of Russian culture of the 17th century. Moscow State University of Printing Arts
The final stage in the history of Russian medieval culture was the 17th century. In this century, the process of “secularization” of culture began, the strengthening of secular elements and democratic tendencies in it. Cultural ties with countries have noticeably expanded and deepened. Western Europe. All areas of culture have become much more complex and differentiated.
The most important event in the history of the country can be called the final formation of absolutism, which did not take the form of Western European monarchies, but became the logical conclusion of the system of Eastern despotism adopted during the reign of the Mongol-Tatars in Rus'. Absolutism corresponded to the new imperial aspirations of the country, the expansion of state territories (primarily to the East), which required the concentration of military and political power. In the field of economics, this led to the final enslavement of the peasants, carried out in the interests of the nobility, the main pillar of absolutism.
In the middle of the XVII century. during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon carried out church reform which led to the split. The reform and schism became an expression of the ambiguous attitude of the Russian people to the intensified secular and foreign influences. In Russian society, there were two warring parties - the Grecophile supporters of antiquity, isolationism and the Westernist - reformers who sought to Europeanize Russia. A manifestation of renovationist tendencies was Nikon's reform, which was supposed to correct the differences in Russian Orthodox ritual (for example, to be baptized not with two fingers, but with three fingers), as well as some provisions in Russian liturgical books in order to bring them into line with the practice of Greek, as well as Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox churches. After the convergence of the rites of all Orthodox peoples, Nikon hoped to stand at the head of universal Orthodoxy.
Archpriest Avvakum Petrov became the banner of the opponents of the reform. He and his supporters found it insulting to break with the age-old national tradition, were categorically opposed to the strengthening of European influence and the beginning of the secularization of Russian culture. Thus began the age-old dispute of Russian culture about the further ways of the country's development, and the parties of "pochvennikov" and Westernizers were formed, which again and again will manifest themselves in subsequent periods of Russian history.
These and other historical events were reflected in the culture of Russia in the 17th century.
Russian literature of the 17th century.
Russian literature was still represented by journalistic writings devoted to acute political problems. The Time of Troubles increased interest in the question of the nature of power in political system. Among famous authors 17th century - Croat Yuri Krizhanich, European-educated thinker, supporter of unlimited monarchy, one of the first theorists of the idea of Slavic unity (he can be called the predecessor and theorist of pan-Slavism). So, he believed that the role of the Slavs in the world historical process constantly growing, although it is oppressed and insulted by foreigners, especially Turks and Germans. He assigned a special role in the future rise of the Slavs to Russia, which, having turned into a leading world power as a result of reforms, will free the enslaved Slavic and other peoples and lead them forward.
The ambiguity of the events of this time led to the fact that writers begin to think about the inconsistency human nature. If before the heroes of the books were either absolutely good or absolutely evil, now writers discover free will in a person, show his ability to change himself depending on the circumstances. This is how the heroes of the Chronograph of 1617 appear before us - Ivan the Terrible,
Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Kuzma Minin. As academician D.S. Likhachev, this manifested a tendency to discover the character of a person: the heroes of literature are not only holy ascetics and princes, as before, but also ordinary people - merchants, peasants, poor nobles who acted in easily recognizable situations.
The Spread of Literacy in the 17th Century involved in the readership of new strata of the population - provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople. The change in the social composition of the reading public put forward new demands on literature. Such readers are especially interested in entertaining reading, the need for which was satisfied by translated chivalric novels and original adventurous stories. By the end of the XVII century. the Russian reading public knew up to a dozen works that came to Russia from abroad different ways. Among them, the most popular were "The Tale of Bova Korolevich" and "The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys." These works on Russian soil, while retaining some features of the chivalric romance, became so close to the fairy tale that they later turned into folklore. New features of literary and real life were clearly manifested in everyday stories, the heroes of which strove to live according to their own will, rejecting the precepts of antiquity. Such is the hero of The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, and especially The Tale of Frols Skobssvs, a typical picaresque novel describing vicissitudes of life an impoverished nobleman, by hook or by crook seeking to penetrate the top of society.
In the 17th century a new literary genre arose - democratic satire, closely connected with folk art and folk culture of laughter. It was created among the townspeople, clerks, lower clergy, dissatisfied with the oppression of the feudal lords, the state and the church. In particular, numerous parodies appeared, for example, on legal proceedings (“The Tale of the Shsmyakin Court”, “The Tale of Yersh Yershovich”), on hagiographic works (“The Tale of the Hawk Moth”).
The birth of versification became a prominent feature of literary life. Prior to this, Russia knew poetry only in folk art, in epics, but epics were not rhymed verse. Rhymed poetry arose under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, which is characterized by an equal number of syllables in a line, a pause in the middle of a line, and an end rhyme under a single strictly obligatory stress. The Belarusian Simeon Polotsky became its founder. He received an excellent education at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and was the court poet of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, composed numerous recitations and monologues, which became models of the new panegyric poetry and were included in the Rifmagion collection. He saw his task in creating the Novorossiysk literature, and in many respects he fulfilled this mission. His works are distinguished by their ornamentality, pomp, and reflect the idea of the “diversity of the world”, the changeability of being. Polotsky has a craving for sensationalism, a desire to surprise, to amaze the reader both in the form of presentation and in the unusual, exotic nature of the information reported. Such is the "Vertograd multicolored" - a kind of encyclopedia, which contains several thousand rhymed texts containing data gleaned from various fields of knowledge - history, zoology, botany, geography, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with mythologized ideas of the author.
Author's prose first appears also in the 17th century; an example of it are the writings of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov. He left about 90 texts written at the end of his life in exile. Among them is the famous "Life" - an emotional and eloquent confession, striking in its sincerity and courage. In his book, for the first time, the author and the hero of the work are combined, which would previously be considered a manifestation of pride.
Theater appeared in Russia due to the emergence of secular elements in the spiritual life of society. The idea of creating a theater originated in court circles among supporters of the Europeanization of the country. The decisive role in this was played by Artamon Matveev, the head of the Ambassadorial Department, who was familiar with the production of theatrical business in Europe. There were no actors in Russia (the experience of buffoons, who were persecuted at that time, was not good), there were no plays. Actors and director Johann Gregory were found in the German Quarter. The first performance to have big success, was called "Artaxerxes Action". The king was so fascinated by what was happening that he watched the play for 10 hours without getting up. The repertoire of the theater during its existence (1672-1676) consisted of nine performances for biblical stories and one ballet. The deeds of the Old Testament characters were given the features of political topicality and association with modernity, which further increased the interest in the spectacle.
architecture also touched upon the general departure from the church-scholastic worldview. The strengthening of secular motives was largely due to the expansion of the environment in which aesthetic ideas were formed. The tastes of the townspeople and the peasantry, their vision of the world and understanding of beauty were introduced into architectural creativity, leading away from the samples consecrated by church tradition.
Russian architecture and construction of the 17th century.
Civil, secular construction actively developed, and if at the beginning of the century it was mostly wooden, then by its end stone was used more and more. a wonderful example wooden architecture there was the unpreserved palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye, which was a picturesque composition of whimsically grouped large and small log cabins, cages, connected by passages, high roofs and tents. The fabulous splendor of the palace was enhanced by gilded carvings and bright colors. In stone construction, it is necessary to note the restoration of the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the tent erected over the Spasskaya Tower, the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, and the Sukharev Tower.
The number of stone civil buildings increased in the second half of the 17th century. Boyars, wealthy merchants and nobles increasingly built stone residential chambers in cities and in their estates. The most characteristic type, which repeats the layout of the wooden choir, consists of two square rooms with an oblong entrance hall between them. The lower floor was occupied by utility and storage rooms. The facades were decorated with flat vanes or columns, the windows were framed with rich architraves.
IN temple building also, new features associated with secularization are gradually outlined. So, in wooden architecture, along with kletsky temples (a rectangular frame - a cage covered with a gable roof, over which a dome with a cross rises), widespread throughout Russia, forbidden hipped temples are being built (apparently, they were not canonical enough, and in the era of struggle led by the church against secular elements, this was enough for a ban), tiered churches. In search of a complex and rich silhouette, architects from the second half of the 17th century. they use the principle of many domes, a magnificent embodiment of which is the Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi, which is a strikingly beautiful 22-domed church.
The same tendencies manifested themselves in the stone temple architecture. The new style took shape by the middle of the 17th century. and was the opposite of the architecture of the XVI century. This style was characterized by intricacy and asymmetry in design. Usually it was a five-domed, pillarless temple, the main cube of which was surrounded by chapels, porches, stairs and porches with obligatory finishing details - barrel-shaped columns, arches with a hanging weight, stacked brick window frames. The facades of churches become polychrome, the bright coloring of details, colored tiles give them a festive elegance. These churches expressed the secular beginning, which contemporaries called "patterned" (the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, the Trinity in Nikitniki).
Although tent construction was prohibited, tents remained one of the most favored architectural forms and were widely used, not as the completion of a church, but for crowning bell towers and porches. A tall, slender, pillar-shaped bell tower, topped with a tent, is one of the most common themes of architecture in the second half of the 17th century.
At the end of the XVII century. in architecture, a new style appears, called the Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque. This name does not explain the essence of the phenomenon. The connection of a number of buildings with the orders of the Naryshkin family is accidental. It is also inappropriate to call this architectural direction “baroque”, since the similarity of Moscow architecture of the late 17th century with the Western European baroque style is purely external. Cyclicity and tiering, symmetry and balance of masses, known separately and earlier, in this style have developed into an original system, but in the external design it is the closest to the European Baroque style due to the applied order details.
The most complete and bright new direction manifested itself in the construction of small churches in estates near Moscow. These are tiered buildings: lower tier usually square in plan, less often rectangular, on it stands an octagon, and above - a second octagon, narrower; the composition ends with a head drum. Very often this structure is located on the basement and has around open galleries. In the upper narrow octagon there is a belfry, and a church was obtained under the bell tower. The decorative decoration of these temples differs significantly from the temples of the previous period, overloaded with heavy and colorful decor. The new churches are light and graceful; against the smooth background of red brick walls, white columns are clearly and clearly drawn, shaping the edges of the volumes. The decor is concentrated on the framing of windows and doors: they usually have small columns on brackets on the sides, supporting an ornate torn pediment. Instead of heavy kokoshniks, strips of carved decorative elements, often called "cockscombs", run above the cornices. A striking monument of this trend is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, whose finely drawn details, combined with impeccable proportions, give it a light, openwork look, and the tiered composition creates the effect of vertical movement.
Russian painting of the 17th century.
Painting did not succumb as easily as architecture to secular influences, but the desire for decorativeness is also observed here. On the one hand, there is a noticeable desire to break out from under the power of outdated traditions, the canon, a thirst for knowledge, the search for new moral norms, plots and images, and on the other hand, persistent attempts to turn the traditional into a dogma, at any cost to keep the old inviolable. Therefore, iconography in the 17th century. represented by several main directions and schools.
In the first half of the century, the main dispute in icon painting was between two schools - Godunov's and Stroganov's. The Godunov school gravitated towards the traditions of the past. But their attempts to follow the ancient canon, their focus on Andrei Rublev and Dionysius only led to narrative, overloaded composition. The Stroganov school (so named because many works of this style were commissioned by the Stroganovs in the workshops of Solvychegodsk) arose in Moscow, among state and patriarchal masters. Characteristic features The icons of the Stroganov school are, first of all, their small size and detailed, precise writing, which contemporaries called "petty writing". The main stylistic features of the Stroganov artistic manner are exquisite drawing, richness of colors, complex multi-figured and multi-faceted composition. One of the characteristics of the school is truthful image nature, and the compositions always include a landscape with a low horizon, and the background is filled with bizarre clouds and "phenomena". The figures of saints are usually thin, graceful and very elongated upwards. An outstanding master of this trend was Procopius Chirin, whose icons are characterized by a special softness of color, the plasticity of elongated figures and the elegance of poses, for example, “Nikita the Warrior”, “Selected Saints”; in the image of Nikita the warrior one cannot find either significance or militancy; rather, he can be compared with a secular dandy.
Further development of painting in the 17th century. characterized by a slow departure from dogma and the search for new plots and forms, which is largely due to the influence Western European painting. The theorist and head of the largest school of this period was Simon Ushakov, the author of the programmatic work “A Word to the Lovers of Icon Painting”, where he outlined a new theory that breaks with the old canon. He pointed out the need to combine the icon-painting canon with the truth of life, therefore elements of realism, real human faces appear in his icons. This allows us to consider him one of the founders of the portrait genre in Russian art. Among the works of Simon Ushakov is the Savior Not Made by Hands, a favorite image of the master, in which he tries to achieve a flesh-colored complexion and restrained, but distinctly expressed volume. But in this and other works of the artist, there is a lack of spiritual intensity, spirituality, burning, characteristic of the icons of the XIV-XV centuries. Therefore, in the iconography of the XVII century. signs of decline appear. The tendencies of its secularization have become too strong in culture. Following the iconographic canons, which was demanded by the Old Believers, led by Archpriest Avvakum, could not improve the situation.
Parsuna(from the word "persona", i.e. a portrait of a real person) - the first secular portrait genre became a completely new phenomenon in Russian painting of the second half of the 17th century. In just a few years new genre went a long way - from semi-iconic images to portraits of real people - and won a firm place in Russian art. All eminent people tried to capture their image. The artists tried to convey in the parsuns the portrait resemblance and partly the character's character. In the parses
17th century the features of the famous Russian portrait of the next century are already present - attention to the inner world of a person, poetization of the image, subtle coloring.
Russian music of the 17th century.
Russian music in the 17th century has also undergone drastic changes. At this time, the old Russian culture collided with Western European, which was significantly reflected in music. The ancient tradition of canonical methodical znamenny chant is connected with the old in music, with the new partess polyphony (penis in parts) of the Western type, which strengthened the secular principle.
Partesnoe polyphony was brought to Russia from Ukraine and Belarus and did not take root right away: until the end of the 17th century. Znamenny chant continued to sound in churches, interspersed with three-line and demesne singing, as well as with new partes compositions. One of the fastest ways to spread new music was the psalms and cantes - spiritual songs, the texts for which were poetic transcriptions of David's psalms. Over time, they supplanted the ancient spiritual verses, as they were simpler than them, their clear, rounded melody was close to Ukrainian folk songs. Kants, having begun as a kind of spiritual lyrics, very soon went beyond the scope of domestic spiritual music-making and acquired new features. Thus, secular cantes appeared with very different content - philosophical, love, moralizing.
Supporters of antiquity condemned these novelties. Archpriest Avvakum complained that the churches sounded new music and not divine singing. But although the old singing was loved in Rus', objective reasons pushed for the emergence of polyphony. Due to the large number of chants, only the most experienced singers could understand them, of which there were not so many. In the absence of an experienced regent, the choir sounded out of tune. The problem was that the Russian language had changed significantly compared to the ancient period, ancient semi-vowels gradually disappeared from it. Therefore, a non-combination between texts and tunes was formed. Attempts to revive and reform Znamenny singing, undertaken by music theorists Ivan Shaydur and Alexander Mezenets, were insufficient. Therefore, the Znamenny chant gradually lost its positions and remained inviolable only among the Old Believers, who keep it today. In the new partes singing of the 17th century. Baroque tendencies appear. If the old znamenny chant was like an icon in everything - flat, one-dimensional, then in partes singing there is a feeling of space, and magnificent multilayer texture conveys a sense of movement and light, typical of all baroque art.
Thus, the 17th century became the last century of the existence of ancient Russian art, when Western influence became especially noticeable. A sharp turn begins, a qualitative leap in Russian culture, which will be completed in the 18th century. after Peter's reforms.
Features of the development of culture in the XVII century.
The 17th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This century is a transitional one from the traditional medieval culture of Moscow Rus' to the culture of the New Age. Most modern researchers believe that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by the entire course of the history of Russian culture in the 17th century. The most important feature of Russian culture of the 17th century is the widespread secularization, the gradual destruction of the medieval completely religious consciousness. The secularization touched all sides cultural development Keywords: education, literature, architecture, painting. This applies mainly to the urban population, while the culture of the countryside remained completely within the framework of tradition for a long time.
The main events of the Russian History XVII century steel: the transition from medieval history to the history of modern times, the weakening of the influence of the church. Accordingly, the main feature of culture was the beginning of the secularization of culture, that is, the destruction of medieval religious consciousness and the penetration of secular elements into culture.
Education and writing. Literature.
· The number of literate people is increasing. The clergymen and clerks taught according to church books. But already in the first half of the 17th century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric, ancient languages, foreign languages(German) and philosophy. Their teachers were often learned Ukrainian monks. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia was established - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (the Likhud brothers). The academy was modeled after European universities. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin.
· Book printing is developing: the first printed primer (Karion Istomin), textbooks, liturgical books, official documents (Cathedral Code). Libraries were created, both public (of the Posolsky Prikaz) and private (Ordina-Nashchokin, Golitsyn).
Fundamentally new genres appeared in the literature of the 17th century: satire , drama , poetry . Satirical stories - about Ersh Ershovich, about Shemyakin's court, where an unjust and mercenary court was denounced. The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk (teacher of the royal children). Autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum. Oral folk art- songs about Stepan Razin.
Under Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia was formed theater , in 1672. The theater was created under the influence of the young wife of the Tsar, Natalya Kirillovna. It put on plays on biblical stories, which usually lasted several hours.
Architecture.
At the end of the 17th century, a new architectural style- Naryshkin (Moscow) baroque. Its distinctive features are the picturesqueness, the complexity of the plan, the combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone carving) colors of the facade. A characteristic example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built in 1693 in the Naryshkin estate, Novodevichy Convent.
· Secular buildings: the wooden royal palace in Kolomenskoye, the brick Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, the chambers of Averky Kirillov.
· The Moscow Kremlin ceased to be a defensive structure, in the 17th century the Kremlin towers were decorated with tents, a clock appeared on the Spasskaya Tower.
Art.
In the pictorial art XVII centuries, stronger than in other areas of culture, the influence of tradition remained, which was explained by the control of church authorities over the observance of the icon-painting canon. And, nevertheless, it was in the 17th century that the transformation of icon painting into painting began.
· A school for teaching painting was established at the Armory, a painting workshop - in fact, the Academy of Arts, which was headed by Simon Ushakov.
Simon Ushakov - major artist XVII century: "The Savior Not Made by Hands", "Trinity".
In the 17th century, a foundation was laid portrait painting – parsers . Known images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopin-Shuisky.
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Theme: Culture Russia XVIII century.
The development of the culture of the ruling strata of Russian society is characterized by the final triumph of the secular principle, a resolute adherence to European models, and a deep break with traditional folk culture. In the second half of the 18th century, an original national culture of the European type was formed in Russia. The successes of culture reflected the progressive development of the state and society as a whole. The atmosphere of a special noble spirituality formed at that time prepared the rise of Russian national culture in the 19th century.
Enlightenment and science.
- 1701 - School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower (later - the Naval Academy in the Kikin Chambers in St. Petersburg). Later, the Artillery School, the Medical School, and the Engineering School arose.
− For the education of the provincial nobles, 42 "digital schools" were created.
− Education has become secular, with mathematics, astronomy, and engineering taking the first place.
− There are new textbooks. "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals" Magnitsky.
- 1700 - the chronology is not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, the beginning of the year is not September 1, but January 1.
- 1702 - the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti" (under Alexei Mikhailovich, a handwritten newspaper "Courants" was published for the needs of the court), edited by Peter I.
− 1708 - transition to civil type.
- 1755 - on the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov and with the support of Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, Moscow University was created. The charter of the university provided for teaching in Russian (in European universities, teaching was conducted in Latin). The university consisted of philosophical, legal and medical faculties. There was no theological faculty.
− Catherine II - a system of educational and educational institutions under the leadership of Ivan Betsky.
- 1764 - Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.
− Peter I opened the first museum in Russia - the Kunstkamera, where various antiquities and anatomical collections were collected. The Kunstkamera had a rich library.
− 1741 - Vitus Bering's expedition explored the northwestern coast of America and proved that Asia was separated from America.
− A well-known inventor of the time of Peter the Great - Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov.
− 1718 - Peter decided to create the Russian Academy of Sciences, ordered to invite the largest foreign scientists. Academy opened in 1725 year, after the death of the emperor. The creation of the Academy of Sciences attracted European scientists to Russia, including such world-famous mathematicians as L. Euler and D. Bernoulli. German historians G. Bayer and G.F. Miller, who made a significant contribution to the development of Russian historical science. Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences was headed by Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova.
− Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov: entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in 1731, from where he was transferred to St. Petersburg University under the Academy of Sciences, and then sent to study in Germany. In 1745 he became the first Russian professor, a member of the Academy of Sciences. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Lomonosov: "He created the first university. It would be better to say that he himself was our first university."
- In the 18th century, historical science achieved significant success. Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. "Russian History" in 5 volumes.
- The famous self-taught inventor - Ivan Petrovich Kulibin: projects of an elevator, a "self-running carriage", a single-arch bridge across the Neva, a telescope, a microscope, a barometer.
- Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov managed to improve the steam engine, the work of which he met in England. A similar machine was created in England by James Watt only twenty years later.
Literature. public thought.
− The most important direction in Russian and European literature mid-eighteenth century was classicism . Classicism found expression primarily in poetry: Antioch Kantemir, Vasily Trediakovsky and especially Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarokov. Gavrila Derzhavin became the most outstanding Russian poet of the late 18th century who wrote in the style of classicism. Denis Fonvizin's comedies "The Brigadier" and "Undergrowth" also belong to classicism.
In the 17th century in the history of Russia ends the period of the Middle Ages. In the XVI century. Russian culture has preserved everything character traits feudal culture Middle Ages, but new elements are also outlined. The history of medieval culture came to an end, and the beginnings of a new, main feature which was the process of "secularization". In 1653-1656. Patriarch Nikon carried out a reform, which ultimately led to a split in the church and the emergence of the Old Believers.
In the 17th century Russian culture has taken a big step in its development, new directions have appeared: realistic everyday and historical stories, poetic, dramatic historical and satirical genres in literature; the transition from church canons to the elegance and decorativeness of the Moscow baroque style in architecture; approximation of the image to the original in painting, the appearance of parsing painting; the penetration of secular motifs into music and the emergence of a new kind of art - court and school theater. At this time, actively developing secular literature. The hagiographic genre is transformed into a story-life, the so-called biographical story(“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum” and other works). There is a significant increase in the literacy of servicemen and townspeople, provincial nobles.
All this leads to the development of a household story, in which the attention of the authors is focused primarily on the everyday life of the characters. In this regard, the first attempts to draw psychological picture hero. Such works include "The Tale of Grief-Misfortune", "The Tale of Frol Skobeev", "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn" and some others. Satire is actively developing. The satirical story was very closely connected with folklore traditions. In the same period, Russian poetry arose, the ancestor of which was S. Polotsky. Theater and theatrical dramaturgy appear and develop. The first theatrical performances took place in 1672 at the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Plays were staged mainly on biblical and ancient subjects.
By the same time refers to the emergence of ballet in Russia. In 1687 The first university was opened in Moscow - the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy. Here, future ministers of the church and government officials were trained. Moreover, the children who studied there were from different social strata (from the sons of grooms to princes). During the same period, the practical side was widely developed. scientific knowledge. High achievements for that time were achieved by mathematicians. In connection with the development of medicine, translated medical books and herbalists appeared. A number of craftsmen engaged in the creation of medicines appeared in Moscow.
This was a possible extension of knowledge in botany, pharmacology and chemistry. There is an interest in biology. At the same time, information on agricultural technology, animal husbandry and agriculture began to appear (“Treasure of the known secrets of the Zemstvo economy”). Interest in such sciences as zoology and anatomy is noticeable. Geography was also actively developing at this time, and translated literature made a huge contribution to it. At the end of the XVII century. in architecture, a new style of "Moscow baroque", or "Naryshkin style" was born. Its main differences can be called: symmetry, mass balance, centricity, tiered.
In painting during this period, there were two artistic trends: the “Godunov school”, whose goal was to preserve the traditions of the past by reviving the fading spirit of great art (the icons “It is worthy to eat”, “Simeon the Stylite”); the goal of another direction, the "Stroganov school", was to revive the work, strengthening the aesthetic principle in them (Chirin "Selected Saints", "Nikita the Warrior"). Second half of the 17th century It was marked by the appearance of works of a synthesized nature (the icon "The Presentation of the Icon of Our Lady of Vladimir", "Prince George", etc.). The secular style of painting, parsuna, has reached tremendous development, where the artist's attention is primarily riveted to the inner world of the person being portrayed, the image is poeticized, subtle color is used.
Folklore. Literacy and writing
The first collections of proverbs appear, many of which have survived to this day. Legends, songs, tales are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who is endowed with heroic traits and finds himself in the same circle with epic heroes.
Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections containing various materials. Since 1621, handwritten Chimes, a kind of newspaper, began to be made for the tsar.
The growth of written office work led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize paper production in Russia. Along with hand-written books, printed books became more and more widespread. The Printing House was actively working, which also produced educational literature (for example, "Grammar" by Melety Smotrytsky).
Socio-political thought and historical knowledge, literature
Chronicles remained one of the main monuments of socio-political thought and literature. A few decades ago, it was believed that during this period the chronicle genre degenerates. However
scientific research in the 1940s-1990s. allow us to talk about a very intensive development of both official and private chronicles in that era, even about its heyday in the last quarter of the "rebellious" century (Ya.G. Solodkin). At this time, the patriarchal vaults were created, Belsky, Mazury chroniclers, vaults of 1652.1686. and many, many other monuments of chronicle writing. Along with all-Russian, provincial, local, family and even family annalistic compositions appear.
During the Time of Troubles, other similar works appeared. But it is important to note that the events of the Time of Troubles continued to be comprehended even after it. In the 1620s clerk Ivan Timofeev wrote the famous "Vremennik". In it, he condemns Ivan the Terrible for the persecution of the boyar nobility and the oprichnina. The essay is characterized by a sharply negative attitude towards the "despot" Godunov and towards Vasily Shuisky, who also had no legal rights to the throne. Timofeev also condemned the "crazy silence of the whole world" - the non-resistance of the nobility to Godunov.
The focus of attention of writers of that time was more and more questions economic life, political problems. One of the most interesting monuments of social and political thought of the second half of the century was the writings of Yuri Krizhanich, a Croat by origin, who was engaged in correcting liturgical books in Russia. He was suspected of activities in favor of the Catholic Church and exiled to Tobolsk, where he lived for 15 years, after which he returned to Moscow, and then went abroad. In the essay “Dumas are political” (“Politics”), he painted a picture of broad transformations in Russia.
A new phenomenon in literature was the spread of syllabic versification, which in turn is associated with baroque in Russian literature. This is, first of all, the activity of the Belarusian scientist and educator Simeon Polotsky (SE Petrovsky-Sitnianovich), who was invited to Moscow to teach the royal children. His works are notable for their ornamentality and splendor, reflecting the idea of the "diversity" of the world, the changeability of life. In 1678-1679. two collections of his poems appeared - “Vetrograd multicolored” and “Rhymologion”. The first work is a kind of encyclopedia, which contains
data drawn from various fields of knowledge: history, zoology, botany, geography, mineralogy, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with mythologized ideas of the author.
Architecture
In Russian architecture of the 17th century. also occupies a special place. With great force, the desire to abandon the age-old canons, the “secularization” of art, manifested itself.
Wooden architecture played an important role in the development of architecture in general. Loma in the cities were built mainly from wood. These were two- and three-story mansions (in 1688 the tsar forbade the construction of three-story houses because of the constant danger of fires). Wooden architecture became more and more diverse, the desire for decorativeness increased, compositions and silhouettes became more complicated. The brightest monument of wooden architecture was the palace in Kolomenskoye, built in 1667-1678. The palace consisted of many different buildings, interconnected by passages, and consisted of 270 rooms with 3,000 windows. It was a whole town with turrets, scaly roofs, "ambulances", kokoshniks, porches.
At the beginning of the century, wooden architecture was dominated by buildings that were simple in design and external design, but by the end of the century they become decorative, multi-volume. This trend is completed in the Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Kizhi (1714). The closest predecessor of this amazing creation of northern masters was the Church of the Intercession in the village of Anhimovo on the Vytegra River (1708). These churches are “a hymn to the onion head” (M.A. Ilyin). The 22-domed Kizhi temple is based on an octagon with four cuts. The edges of the octagon and the ledges of the cuts have barrels crowned with heads. Not a strict ascetic idea, but worldly cheerfulness was expressed by the picturesque and elegant wooden temples of this time. The growth of stone construction was directly related to the strengthening state power. Even at the end of the XVI century. the Order of Stone Works arose, concentrating best forces in this area. The methods of stone architecture were improved, the volumes of buildings became much more complicated. Various aisles and outbuildings adjoin the main array, covered porches - galleries, etc. are becoming widespread. Masters began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, which is why the facades of buildings acquire an unusually elegant, colorful look.
One of these structures was the Terem Palace in the Kremlin, built in 1635-1636. Bazhen Ogurtsov and Trefil Shaturin. This is a three-story building on high basements, crowned with a high "teremk". The golden roof and two belts of azure tiled cornices gave the palace a simply fabulous look. IN church architecture tent style develops. The most famous buildings of this type are the "Wonderful" church in Uglich and the Church of the Intercession in Medvedkovo, erected on the estate of D. Pozharsky. Researchers consider the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki built in 1634 in Kitay-gorod at the expense of a rich merchant Grigory Nikitnikov, a native of Yaroslavl, to be a kind of standard of temple architecture. This temple has come down to our time. The principle of “wonderful patterning” manifested itself with special force in it. Temples with many tents were also erected, for example, the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1649-1652).
Painting
In the first half of the century, the Stroganov and Godunov schools continued to live and develop. In the 1640-1650s. there was a merging of these styles, which was reflected in the wall painting of the Church of the Robe of the Robe (1644), the Assumption (1642-1648) and Archangel (1652-1653) cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, the church of Nikolai Nadein in Yaroslavl (1640-1641), the cathedral of the Savvo-Storozhevsky monastery under Zvenigorod (1650). But in the 17th century new trends are also emerging, which are fancifully mixed with the old traditions. All this gives rise to a complex research problem, fraught with different, sometimes opposite, assessments.
19th century scientists (F.I. Buslaev, G.V. Filimonov, N.V. Pokrovsky) considered the 17th century to be the time of the rise of Russian art. After 1910, when the first exhibition of icon painting took place, the attitude towards painting of the 17th century changed. changed drastically. Many began to perceive it already as "devastation", "decline". For the first time, this was clearly formulated in the multi-volume history of Russian art by I. Grabar.
Now in the literature the accents are placed, judging by everything, correctly. Old Russian, but not Russian painting was dying (G. Karpov). Definitely appreciate the painting of the XVII century. very hard. One thing is clear - "aliveness" poured into painting. The masters themselves tried in their works (“Message to Simon Ushakov” (1656-1658) by Joseph Vladimirov, “Word to the Curious Icon Painting” (1666-1667) by Simon Ushakov) to substantiate a new approach to painting.
The highest stage in the development of painting at this time was the work of S. Ushakov. The artist, who worked in the Armory, sought to depict in a new way human face, albeit flat, iconographic, but much closer to life. famous work Ushakov is his "Savior Not Made by Hands", as well as an icon on the traditional plot of the "Trinity". You can't confuse it with Andrei Rublev's Trinity. Deep spirituality and loftiness were replaced by a heavy, “carnal” depiction of figures, all sorts of realistic details appeared.
An interesting phenomenon of painting of that time was the school of Yaroslavl masters. Their work is most characterized by the desire to break out of the restrictive framework of the canon, to use the familiar images of Russian life.
A manifestation of interest in a person, his psychology, appearance was the appearance of "parsing" writing, portrait images. In the first half of the century, these portraits were still made in the icon-painting tradition, such as the images of Ivan the Terrible and Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky. In the second half of the century, images began to acquire a more realistic character (images of Alexei Mikhailovich, Fyodor Alekseevich, etc.).
Music and theater
This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. church music becomes more festive. "Kants" appear - musical works that were performed outside the church; special "partes" singing for three voices. There is also a new, linear notation of musical text
The basis for the development of music is still Russian folk song- bright, imaginative, rich in genre diversity and melody. The folk buffoon theater was very popular. He was often persecuted by the authorities, but the people loved the Petrushka theater with its heroes and hilarious witticisms, often directed against the same authorities and human vices.
A new kind of theater appears, created on the initiative of A.S. Matveev The theater troupe was recruited from the inhabitants of the German Quarter. In 1672 the first performance took place in Preobrazhensky. True, only members of the royal family and their close associates were spectators. Mostly translated plays on biblical themes were staged. The first play presented was Artaxerxes Action.
The political and economic changes that took place in Russia were marked by the flourishing of culture. The main feature of the new culture is a departure from religious canons and an appeal to the values of human existence and the human person.
In 1634, the first printed Russian primer by Vasily Burtsev was published, in 1648 - "Grammar" by Melety Smotrytsky. In 1679 a new printed alphabet appears.
In 1665, a school was opened at the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow, which trained clerks for public institutions, in 1680 - a school at the Printing House.
In 1687, on the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School was created (since 1701 - the Academy), which became the first higher educational institution Russia. The spread of literacy in the township environment was strongly encouraged by the government. Scientists and monks began to be invited to Moscow to teach both secular and spiritual sciences.
In the 17th century new literary genres. Satirical everyday stories are being created: “The Tale of Yersh Ershovich”, “The Tale of Shemyakin Court”, in which land orders are criticized. The debauchery and sinful existence of the monks of the Kalyazinsky monastery is ridiculed in the story "Kapyazinsky Petition".
Simeon Polotsky introduced two new genres - poetry and dramaturgy, creating poetic works and plays that were staged in the first Russian court theater, founded in 1670 under the tsar.
One of the literary currents of that time was folk accusatory. Its representative is Archpriest Avvakum, the founder of the biographical genre. In the polemical work "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" he spoke in simple colloquial language about dramatic history own life.
In the second half of the 17th century. the first portrait images appear with elements of real resemblance. Secular portraiture is born.
The founder of portraiture in Russia, S. Ushakov, worked in the art center at the Kremlin Armory. In 1668, he painted the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir" (or "Planting a tree Russian state”), which depicts the most prominent figures of his era.
Significant changes have taken place in architecture and urban planning. In addition to the creation of masterpieces of wooden architecture, religious buildings in Kolomenskoye and the Russian North, the number of buildings built of stone is significantly increasing.
In the architecture of the 17th century. the convergence of the cult style with the civil style is planned. A style appears that arose from the merger of Russian architecture and Western European baroque, the Moscow (or Naryshkin) baroque.
The characteristic features of Russian architecture of this period are multi-tiered, symmetrical compositions, and colorful decor. Examples of this style are the Churches of the Intercession in Fili (1693) and the Church of the Savior Not Made by Hands in Dressings (1697).
In civil architecture, the main direction was the construction of the first stone buildings for domestic use - Gostiny Dvor in Moscow and Arkhangelsk, the Sukharev Tower in Moscow, Pogankin's Chambers in Pskov.
The economic and military needs of a centralized state led to the development of science and technology.
Russian craftsmen are mastering science and technology. They are characterized by extensive theoretical knowledge. Evidence of this is Anisy Mikhailov's "Charter of Military, Cannon and Other Affairs" created in 1621, which outlines knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry.
Geographical science is actively developing. In 1643-1653. expeditions of V. Poyarkov, S. Dezhnev and E. Khabarov took place to develop new territories.
Definition 1
The $17th century for Russia is marked by the end of the Middle Ages. The leading countries of the West have already begun to actively strengthen themselves, having chosen the bourgeois path of development, when Russia was still a feudal state.
Remark 1
This is confirmed by the fact that the final serfdom$ 1649 $ year, which led to a sharp aggravation of the inter-class war and unrest of the peasants.
At the beginning of the century, Russia experienced troubled times, campaigns against Moscow by False Dmitriev, people's militias against foreign invaders under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, the ascension to the throne of the Romanov dynasty. All this has changed the quality public relations in the state, established a class-representative monarchy.
The renewal of Russian culture also begins with a new period in Russian history.
By the $17th century, Russian culture continued to carry the fundamental elements of feudal culture. But at the same time, new features are emerging. Clear trends towards change emerged only towards the end of the century.
Innovations in culture began to appear, take shape and assert themselves from the reign of Peter $1$, in connection with his radical modernist policy. This is the moment of the formation of the Russian nation against the backdrop of Western states. The connection and unity of lands, regions, cultural and economic centers is being strengthened, a single Russian language is being laid.
Beginning of the Russian Enlightenment
By the end of the $17th century, the period of Enlightenment of culture and the country begins thanks to the reforming activities of Peter $1$. In the cultural and historical process of this time, the collapse of the religious worldview and the rise of secular culture. Culture begins to secularize, depart from church traditions, acquiring civil features.
Education, printing and all areas of culture and art began to develop actively. An increase in literacy was noted during the release of the first teaching aids, in 1634 the first Primer by Vasily Burtsev. In $1648$ the first grammar of M. Smotrytsky was published, in $1687$ the multiplication table was published.
Schools began to be built at monasteries and churches. In 1680, a school with $2$-classes was opened in Moscow.
Literature
Literature also passed the stage of secularization and took shape in new styles and genres, such as realistic, everyday and historical stories. The main characters of these works are ordinary people in real events.
Tales of troubled times were circulated: "The Tale of Abraham Palitsin", "A New Tale of the Glorious Russian State".
In the second half of the $17$-th century, a new attitude towards the individual is being formed, interest in the inner world of a person is growing, with further recognition of the value of a person.
There are new genres in literature - satire, poetry.
Architecture
Remark 2
The transitional nature of the era was also reflected in architecture, especially in the $2nd half of the $17$ century. Secularization also affected the architecture of Russia. This is due to the rejection of the canons of the church, the transition to strict and simple forms and decorations. New searches for marvelous patterns and decorative decorations appeared, with the borrowing of Western and Eastern traditions.
Temples began to be marked by more expressive and bright decoration. Secular motives are growing, civil construction is growing. Among the outstanding monuments of architecture of this period are Church of the Nativity in Putinki.
Painting
Painting is developing unusually fast. Like other types of art, it was affected by the processes of secularization of culture. Secular, realistic directions are being drawn up that reflect interest in a person's personality. Portrait and household genres are developing.
S.F. Ushakov- Russian painter, engraver, is the founder of a new direction in painting of the $17th century. His work includes elements of miniatures, parsunas with traditional painting techniques and innovation. This is a transition from a religious display of the world to a secular one. Realistic landscapes and other images begin to appear on the icons.
The most famous creation of Ushakov - "Savior Not Made by Hands", where the artist was able to depict not an abstract saint, but a real person.
