How close is the art of classicism to modern people? Classicism in art (XVII-XIX centuries)

1. Introduction.Classicism as an artistic method...................................2

2. Aesthetics of classicism.

2.1. Basic principles of classicism.........................…………….….....5

2.2. Picture of the world, concept of personality in the art of classicism......5

2.3. The aesthetic nature of classicism.................................................... ........9

2.4. Classicism in painting......................................................... .........................15

2.5. Classicism in sculpture......................................................... .......................16

2.6. Classicism in architecture................................................................... .....................18

2.7. Classicism in literature................................................................... .......................20

2.8. Classicism in music......................................................... ...............................22

2.9. Classicism in the theater................................................... ...............................22

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism.................................................... ....22

3. Conclusion……………………………………...…………………………...26

Bibliography..............................…….………………………………….28

Applications ........................................................................................................29

1. Classicism as an artistic method

Classicism is one of the artistic methods that actually existed in the history of art. Sometimes it is referred to by the terms “direction” and “style”. Classicism (French) classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - art style and aesthetic trends in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

The concept of classicism as a creative method presupposes in its content a historically determined method of aesthetic perception and modeling of reality in artistic images: a picture of the world and a concept of personality, the most common for the mass aesthetic consciousness of a given historical era, are embodied in ideas about the essence of verbal art, its relationship with reality, its own internal laws.

Classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions. The most common research belief connects classicism with the historical conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a unified national-territorial statehood, in the formation of which the centralizing role belongs to the absolute monarchy.

Classicism is an organic stage in the development of any national culture, despite the fact that the classicist stage is different national cultures take place at different times, due to the individuality of the national version of the formation of a general social model of a centralized state.

Chronological framework of the existence of classicism in different European cultures ah are defined as the second half of the 17th - the first thirty years of the 18th century, despite the fact that early classicist trends are noticeable at the end of the Renaissance, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Within these chronological limits, French classicism is considered the standard embodiment of the method. Closely connected with the heyday of French absolutism in the second half of the 17th century, it gave European culture not only great writers - Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Voltaire, but also a great theorist of classicist art - Nicolas Boileau-Dépreau. Being himself a practicing writer who earned fame during his lifetime for his satires, Boileau was mainly famous for the creation of the aesthetic code of classicism - the didactic poem “Poetic Art” (1674), in which he gave a coherent theoretical concept of literary creativity, derived from the literary practice of his contemporaries. Thus, classicism in France became the most self-conscious embodiment of the method. Hence its reference value.

The historical prerequisites for the emergence of classicism connect the aesthetic problematics of the method with the era of aggravation of the relationship between the individual and society in the process of the formation of autocratic statehood, which, replacing the social permissiveness of feudalism, seeks to regulate by law and clearly delimit the spheres of social and privacy and the relationship between the individual and the state. This determines the meaningful aspect of art. Its basic principles are motivated by the system of philosophical views of the era. They form a picture of the world and a concept of personality, and these categories are embodied in a set of artistic techniques of literary creativity.

The most general philosophical concepts present in all philosophical movements of the second half of the 17th - late 18th centuries. and directly related to the aesthetics and poetics of classicism are the concepts of “rationalism” and “metaphysics”, relevant for both idealistic and materialistic philosophical teachings of this time. The founder of the philosophical doctrine of rationalism is the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). The fundamental thesis of his doctrine: “I think, therefore I exist” - was realized in many philosophical movements of that time, united by the common name “Cartesianism” (from the Latin version of the name Descartes - Cartesius). In essence, this is an idealistic thesis, since it brings out the material existence from an idea. However, rationalism, as the interpretation of reason as the primary and highest spiritual ability of man, is equally characteristic of the materialist philosophical movements of the era - such, for example, as the metaphysical materialism of the English philosophical school of Bacon-Locke, which recognized experience as a source of knowledge, but put it below the generalizing and analytical activity of the mind, extracting from the multitude of facts obtained by experience the highest idea, a means of modeling the cosmos - the highest reality - from the chaos of individual material objects.

The concept of “metaphysics” is equally applicable to both varieties of rationalism - idealistic and materialistic. Genetically, it goes back to Aristotle, and in his philosophical teaching it denoted a branch of knowledge that explores the highest and unchangeable principles of all things, inaccessible to the senses and only rationally and speculatively comprehended. Both Descartes and Bacon used the term in the Aristotelian sense. In modern times, the concept of “metaphysics” has acquired additional meaning and has come to mean an anti-dialectical way of thinking that perceives phenomena and objects without their interrelation and development. Historically, this very accurately characterizes the peculiarities of analytical thinking. era XVII-XVIII centuries, the period of differentiation of scientific knowledge and art, when each branch of science, standing out from the syncretic complex, acquired its own separate subject, but at the same time lost connection with other branches of knowledge.

2. Aesthetics of classicism

2.1. Basic principles of classicism

1. Cult of reason 2. Cult of civic duty 3. Appeal to medieval subjects 4. Abstraction from the depiction of everyday life, from historical national identity 5. Imitation of ancient models 6. Compositional harmony, symmetry, unity of a work of art 7. Heroes are bearers of one main feature, given without development 8. Antithesis as the main technique for creating a work of art

2.2. Picture of the world, concept of personality

in the art of classicism

The picture of the world generated by the rationalistic type of consciousness clearly divides reality into two levels: empirical and ideological. The external, visible and tangible material-empirical world consists of many separate material objects and phenomena that are in no way connected with each other - it is a chaos of individual private entities. However, above this disorderly multitude of individual objects, there is their ideal hypostasis - a harmonious and harmonious whole, a universal idea of ​​the universe, which includes the ideal image of any material object in its highest, purified from particulars, eternal and unchanging form: in the way it should be according to the original plan of the Creator. This universal idea can only be comprehended rationally and analytically by gradually purifying an object or phenomenon from its specific forms and appearance and penetrating into its ideal essence and purpose.

And since design precedes creation, and thinking is an indispensable condition and source of existence, this ideal reality has the highest primary character. It is easy to notice that the main patterns of such a two-level picture of reality are very easily projected onto the main sociological problem of the period of transition from feudal fragmentation to autocratic statehood - the problem of the relationship between the individual and the state. The world of people is a world of individual private human beings, chaotic and disorderly, the state is a comprehensive harmonious idea that creates a harmonious and harmonious ideal world order out of chaos. Exactly this philosophical picture world of the XVII-XVIII centuries. determined such substantive aspects of the aesthetics of classicism as the concept of personality and the typology of conflict, universally characteristic (with the necessary historical and cultural variations) for classicism in any European literature.

In the field of human relations with the outside world, classicism sees two types of connections and positions - the same two levels from which the philosophical picture of the world is formed. The first level is the so-called “natural man,” a biological being who stands alongside all objects of the material world. This is a private entity, possessed by selfish passions, disorderly and unrestricted in its desire to ensure its personal existence. At this level of human connections with the world, the leading category that determines the spiritual appearance of a person is passion - blind and unrestrained in its desire for realization in the name of achieving individual good.

The second level of the personality concept is the so-called “ public person“, harmoniously included in society in its highest, ideal image, aware that its good is an integral component of the good of the general. A “social man” is guided in his worldview and actions not by passions, but by reason, since reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, giving him the opportunity for positive self-determination in the conditions of human community, based on the ethical norms of consistent community life. Thus, the concept of human personality in the ideology of classicism turns out to be complex and contradictory: a natural (passionate) and a social (reasonable) person is one and the same character, torn by internal contradictions and in a situation of choice.

Hence the typological conflict of the art of classicism, which directly follows from such a concept of personality. It is quite obvious that the source of a conflict situation is precisely the character of a person. Character is one of the central aesthetic categories of classicism, and its interpretation differs significantly from the meaning that modern consciousness and literary criticism puts into the term “character”. In the understanding of the aesthetics of classicism, character is precisely the ideal hypostasis of a person - that is, not the individual makeup of a specific human personality, but a certain universal view of human nature and psychology, timeless in its essence. Only in this form of an eternal, unchanging, universal attribute could character be an object of classicist art, unambiguously attributed to the highest, ideal level of reality.

The main components of character are passions: love, hypocrisy, courage, stinginess, sense of duty, envy, patriotism, etc. It is by the predominance of one passion that a character is determined: “lover”, “miserly”, “envious”, “patriot”. All these definitions are precisely “characters” in the understanding of classicist aesthetic consciousness.

However, these passions are unequal to each other, although according to the philosophical concepts of the 17th-18th centuries. all passions are equal, since they are all from human nature, they are all natural, and no passion on its own can decide which passion is consistent with the ethical dignity of a person and which is not. These decisions are made only by reason. Despite the fact that all passions are equally categories of emotional spiritual life, some of them (such as love, stinginess, envy, hypocrisy, etc.) are less and more difficult to agree with the dictates of reason and are more associated with the concept of selfish good. Others (courage, sense of duty, honor, patriotism) are more subject to rational control and do not contradict the idea of ​​the common good, the ethics of social relations.

So it turns out that rational and unreasonable passions, altruistic and selfish, personal and social, collide in conflict. And reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, a logical and analytical tool that allows one to control passions and distinguish good from evil, truth from lies. The most common type of classic conflict is a conflict situation between personal inclination (love) and a sense of duty to society and the state, which for some reason excludes the possibility of realizing love passion. It is quite obvious that by its nature this conflict is psychological, although a necessary condition for its implementation is a situation in which the interests of man and society collide. These most important ideological aspects of the aesthetic thinking of the era found their expression in the system of ideas about the laws of artistic creativity.

2.3. The aesthetic nature of classicism

The aesthetic principles of classicism have undergone significant changes during its existence. A characteristic feature of this trend is admiration for antiquity. Art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome was considered by classicists as an ideal model of artistic creativity. “Poetics” of Aristotle and “The Art of Poetry” of Horace had a huge influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. Here we find a tendency to create sublimely heroic, ideal, rationalistically clear and plastically completed images. As a rule, in the art of classicism, modern political, moral and aesthetic ideals are embodied in characters, conflicts, situations borrowed from the arsenal of ancient history, mythology, or directly from ancient art.

The aesthetics of classicism guided poets, artists, and composers to create works of art distinguished by clarity, logic, strict balance and harmony. All this, according to classicists, was fully reflected in ancient artistic culture. For them, reason and antiquity are synonymous. The rationalistic nature of the aesthetics of classicism manifested itself in the abstract typification of images, strict regulation of genres, forms, in the interpretation of the ancient artistic heritage, in the appeal of art to reason rather than to feelings, in the desire to subordinate the creative process to unshakable norms, rules and canons (norm - from the Latin. norma – guiding principle, rule, pattern; generally accepted rule, pattern of behavior or action).

Just as the aesthetic principles of the Renaissance found their most typical expression in Italy, so in France in the 17th century. – aesthetic principles of classicism. By the 17th century Italian artistic culture has largely lost its former influence. But the innovative spirit of French art clearly emerged. At this time, an absolutist state was formed in France, which united society and centralized power.

The strengthening of absolutism meant the victory of the principle of universal regulation in all spheres of life, from economics to spiritual life. Debt is the main regulator of human behavior. The state personifies this duty and acts as a kind of entity alienated from the individual. Submission to the state, fulfillment of public duty is the highest virtue of an individual. Man is no longer thought of as free, as was typical of the Renaissance worldview, but as subject to norms and rules alien to him, limited by forces beyond his control. The regulating and limiting force appears in the form of the impersonal mind, to which the individual must submit and act according to its commands and instructions.

The high rise in production contributed to the development of the exact sciences: mathematics, astronomy, physics, and this, in turn, led to the victory of rationalism (from the Latin ratio - reason) - a philosophical trend that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.

Ideas about the laws of creativity and the structure of a work of art are determined to the same extent by the epochal type of worldview as the picture of the world and the concept of personality. Reason, as the highest spiritual ability of man, is conceived not only as an instrument of knowledge, but also as an organ of creativity and a source of aesthetic pleasure. One of the most striking leitmotifs of Boileau’s “Poetic Art” is the rational nature of aesthetic activity:

French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most typical representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

Following Aristotle, classicism considered art to be an imitation of nature:

However, nature was by no means understood as a visual picture of the physical and moral world, presented to the senses, but rather as the highest intelligible essence of the world and man: not a specific character, but its idea, not a real historical or modern plot, but a universal human conflict situation, not given landscape, but the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of natural realities in an ideally beautiful unity. Classicism found such an ideally beautiful unity in ancient literature - it was precisely this that was perceived by classicism as the already achieved pinnacle of aesthetic activity, the eternal and unchanging standard of art, which recreated in its genre models that very highest ideal nature, physical and moral, which art should imitate. It so happened that the thesis about imitation of nature turned into a prescription to imitate ancient art, where the term “classicism” itself came from (from the Latin classicus - exemplary, studied in class):

Thus, nature in classic art appears not so much reproduced as modeled on a high model - “decorated” with the generalizing analytical activity of the mind. By analogy, one can recall the so-called “regular” (i.e., “correct”) park, where the trees are trimmed in the form of geometric shapes and symmetrically planted, the paths have the correct shape, sprinkled with multi-colored pebbles, and the water is enclosed in marble pools and fountains. This style of gardening art reached its peak precisely in the era of classicism. The desire to present nature as “decorated” also results in the absolute predominance in literature of classicism of poetry over prose: if prose is identical to simple material nature, then poetry, as a literary form, is certainly an ideal “decorated” nature.”

In all these ideas about art, namely as a rational, ordered, standardized, spiritual activity, the hierarchical principle of thinking of the 17th-18th centuries was realized. Within itself, literature also turned out to be divided into two hierarchical series, low and high, each of which was thematically and stylistically associated with one - material or ideal - level of reality. Low genres included satire, comedy, and fable; to the highest - ode, tragedy, epic. In low genres, everyday material reality is depicted, and a private person appears in social connections (while, of course, both the person and reality are still the same ideal conceptual categories). In high genres, man is presented as a spiritual and social being, in the existential aspect of his existence, alone and along with the eternal fundamentals of questions of existence. Therefore, for high and low genres, not only thematic, but also class differentiation turned out to be relevant based on the character’s belonging to one or another social stratum. The hero of low genres is a middle-class person; high hero - a historical figure, a mythological hero or a fictional high-ranking character - usually a ruler.

In low genres, human characters are formed by base everyday passions (stinginess, hypocrisy, hypocrisy, envy, etc.); in high genres, passions acquire a spiritual character (love, ambition, vindictiveness, a sense of duty, patriotism, etc.). And if everyday passions are clearly unreasonable and vicious, then existential passions are divided into reasonable - social and unreasonable - personal, and the ethical status of the hero depends on his choice. He is unambiguously positive if he prefers a reasonable passion, and unambiguously negative if he chooses an unreasonable one. Classicism did not allow halftones in ethical assessment - and this also reflected the rationalistic nature of the method, which excluded any confusion of high and low, tragic and comic.

Since in the genre theory of classicism those genres that reached the greatest flowering in ancient literature were legitimized as the main ones, and literary creativity was thought of as a reasonable imitation of high models, the aesthetic code of classicism acquired a normative character. This means that the model of each genre was established once and for all in a clear set of rules, from which it was unacceptable to deviate, and each specific text was aesthetically assessed according to the degree of compliance with this ideal genre model.

The source of the rules were ancient examples: the epic of Homer and Virgil, the tragedy of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Seneca, the comedy of Aristophanes, Menander, Terence and Plautus, the ode of Pindar, the fable of Aesop and Phaedrus, the satire of Horace and Juvenal. The most typical and illustrative case of such genre regulation is, of course, the rules for the leading classic genre, tragedy, drawn both from the texts of ancient tragedians and from Aristotle’s Poetics.

For the tragedy, a poetic form was canonized (“Alexandrian verse” - iambic hexameter with paired rhyme), a mandatory five-act structure, three unities - time, place and action, high style, a historical or mythological plot and a conflict, suggesting a mandatory situation of choice between reasonable and unreasonable passion, and the process of choice itself was supposed to constitute the action of the tragedy. It was in the dramatic section of the aesthetics of classicism that the rationalism, hierarchy and normativity of the method were expressed with the greatest completeness and obviousness:

Everything that was said above about the aesthetics of classicism and the poetics of classicist literature in France applies equally to almost any European variety of the method, since French classicism was historically the earliest and aesthetically most authoritative embodiment of the method. But for Russian classicism, these general theoretical principles found a unique refraction in artistic practice, since they were determined by the historical and national characteristics of the formation of the new Russian culture of the 18th century.

2.4. Classicism in painting

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king." Although private clients favored various variants of Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“The Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).

In the 19th century, the painting of classicism entered a period of crisis and became a force restraining development of art, and not only in France, but also in other countries. David’s artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor (“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Itinerants, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

2.5. Classicism in sculpture

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov as Mars, and Polina Borghese as Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (these are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

2.6. Classicism in architecture

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity volumetric shape. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).

2.7. Classicism in literature

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”. Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made alexandrines the main form of English poetry. For English prose The era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: unity of time (the action takes place on one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require obligatory author’s assessment have developed greatly. historical reality: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with Rousseau’s proclaimed call for closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena were growing in classicism at the end of the 18th century; The absolutization of reason is replaced by the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature of the era of Sturm and Drang, represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw art as the main force of education person.

2.8. Classicism in music

The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

The music of the Classical era glorifies the actions and deeds of man, the emotions and feelings he experiences, and the attentive and holistic human mind.

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism

Russian classicism arose in similar historical conditions - its prerequisite was the strengthening of autocratic statehood and national self-determination of Russia starting from the era of Peter I. The Europeanism of the ideology of Peter's reforms aimed Russian culture at mastering the achievements of European cultures. But at the same time, Russian classicism arose almost a century later than French: by the middle of the 18th century, when Russian classicism was just beginning to gain strength, in France it reached the second stage of its existence. The so-called “Enlightenment classicism” - a combination of classicist creative principles with the pre-revolutionary ideology of the Enlightenment - in French literature flourished in the work of Voltaire and acquired an anti-clerical, socially critical pathos: several decades before the Great French Revolution, the times of apology for absolutism were already distant history. Russian classicism, due to its strong connection with secular cultural reform, firstly, initially set itself educational tasks, trying to educate its readers and instruct monarchs on the path of public good, and secondly, acquired the status of a leading direction in Russian literature towards that time when Peter I was no longer alive, and the fate of his cultural reforms was jeopardized in the second half of the 1720s - 1730s.

Therefore, Russian classicism begins “not with the spring fruit - ode, but with the autumn fruit - satire,” and social-critical pathos is inherent in it from the very beginning.

Russian classicism also reflected a completely different type of conflict than Western European classicism. If in French classicism the socio-political principle is only the soil on which the psychological conflict of rational and unreasonable passion develops and the process of free and conscious choice between their dictates is carried out, then in Russia, with its traditionally anti-democratic conciliarity and the absolute power of society over the individual, the situation was completely different. otherwise. For the Russian mentality, which had just begun to comprehend the ideology of personalism, the need to humble the individual before society, the individual before the authorities, was not at all such a tragedy as for the Western worldview. The choice, relevant for the European consciousness as an opportunity to prefer one thing, in Russian conditions turned out to be imaginary, its outcome was predetermined in favor of society. Therefore, the situation of choice itself in Russian classicism lost its conflict-forming function, and was replaced by another.

The central problem of Russian life in the 18th century. There was a problem of power and its succession: not a single Russian emperor after the death of Peter I and before the accession of Paul I in 1796 came to power by legal means. XVIII century - this is an age of intrigue and palace coups, which too often led to absolute and uncontrolled power of people who did not at all correspond not only to the ideal of an enlightened monarch, but also to ideas about the role of the monarch in the state. Therefore, Russian classic literature immediately took a political-didactic direction and reflected precisely this problem as the main tragic dilemma of the era - the inconsistency of the ruler with the duties of the autocrat, the conflict of the experience of power as an egoistic personal passion with the idea of ​​power exercised for the benefit of his subjects.

Thus, the Russian classic conflict, having preserved the situation of choice between reasonable and unreasonable passion as an external plot pattern, was entirely realized as socio-political in nature. The positive hero of Russian classicism does not humble his individual passion in the name of the common good, but insists on his natural rights, defending his personalism from tyrannical attacks. And the most important thing is that this national specificity of the method was well understood by the writers themselves: if the plots of French classic tragedies are drawn mainly from ancient mythology and history, then Sumarokov wrote his tragedies based on plots from Russian chronicles and even on plots from not so distant Russian history.

Finally, another specific feature of Russian classicism was that it did not rely on such a rich and continuous tradition of national literature as any other national European variety of method. What any European literature had at the time of the emergence of the theory of classicism - namely, a literary language with an ordered stylistic system, principles of versification, a defined system of literary genres - all this had to be created in Russian. Therefore, in Russian classicism, literary theory was ahead of literary practice. The normative acts of Russian classicism - reform of versification, reform of style and regulation of the genre system - were carried out between the mid-1730s and the end of the 1740s. - that is, mainly before a full-fledged literary process in line with classicist aesthetics unfolded in Russia.

3. Conclusion

For the ideological premises of classicism, it is essential that the individual’s desire for freedom is considered here to be as legitimate as the need of society to bind this freedom by laws.

The personal principle continues to retain that immediate social significance, that independent value with which the Renaissance first endowed it. However, in contrast, now this principle belongs to the individual, along with the role that society now receives as a social organization. And this implies that any attempt by an individual to defend his freedom in spite of society threatens him with the loss of the fullness of life connections and the transformation of freedom into an empty subjectivity devoid of any support.

The category of measure is a fundamental category in the poetics of classicism. It is unusually multifaceted in content, has both a spiritual and plastic nature, is in contact with, but does not coincide with, another typical concept of classicism - the concept of norm - and is closely connected with all aspects of the ideal affirmed here.

Classical reason, as the source and guarantor of balance in nature and the life of people, bears the stamp of poetic faith in the original harmony of all things, trust in the natural course of things, confidence in the presence of an all-encompassing correspondence between the movement of the world and the formation of society, in the humanistic, human-oriented nature of this communications.

I am close to the period of classicism, its principles, poetry, art, creativity in general. The conclusions that classicism makes regarding people, society, and the world seem to me to be the only true and rational ones. Measure, as the middle line between opposites, order of things, systems, and not chaos; a strong relationship between man and society against their rupture and enmity, excessive genius and selfishness; harmony against extremes - in this I see the ideal principles of existence, the foundations of which are reflected in the canons of classicism.

List of sources

The end of the 16th century, most characteristic representatives which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, ordered the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David’s artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor (“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as its “breeding grounds.” In the middle of the 19th century, a young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

Sculpture

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by the sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Architecture

The main feature The architecture of classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-1774) urban ensembles were erected in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-1792) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

Literature

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673). Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”. His influence in Britain included the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who established the alexandrines as the main form of English poetry. English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Voltaire's work (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: unity of time (the action takes place on one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of “three calms,” which was, in essence, an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass away over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes “Anacreontic Songs” as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities, notes G. Knabe.

The dominance during the reign of Louis XIV of the “spirit of discipline,” the taste for order and balance, or, in other words, the fear of “violating established customs,” instilled by the era in the art of classicism, were considered in opposition to the Fronde (and on the basis of this opposition, historical and cultural periodization was built). It was believed that classicism was dominated by “forces striving for truth, simplicity, reason” and expressed in “naturalism” (harmoniously faithful reproduction of nature), while the literature of the Fronde, burlesque and pretentious works were characterized by aggravation (“idealization” or, conversely, “ coarsening" of nature).

Determining the degree of conventionality (how accurately nature is reproduced or distorted, translated into a system of artificial conventional images) is a universal aspect of style. "School of 1660" was described by its first historians (I. Taine, F. Brunetière, G. Lançon; C. Sainte-Beuve) synchronically, as a basically aesthetically poorly differentiated and ideologically conflict-free community that experienced stages of formation, maturity and withering in its evolution, and private “intra-school “Contradictions - such as Brunetier’s antithesis of Racine’s “naturalism” and Corneille’s craving for the “extraordinary” - were derived from the inclinations of individual talent.

A similar scheme of the evolution of classicism, which arose under the influence of the theory of the “natural” development of cultural phenomena and spread in the first half of the 20th century (cf. in the academic “History of French Literature” the chapter titles: “Formation of Classicism” - “The Beginning of the Decomposition of Classicism”), was complicated by another aspect contained in the approach of L. V. Pumpyansky. His concept of historical and literary development, according to which, French literature, in contrast even to similar types of development (“la découverte de l’antiquité, la formation de l’idéal classique, its decomposition and transition to new, not yet expressed forms of literature ") New German and Russian, represents a model of the evolution of classicism, which has the ability to clearly distinguish stages (formations): the “normal phases” of its development appear with “extraordinary paradigmaticism”: “the delight of acquisition (the feeling of awakening after a long night, the morning has finally arrived), education eliminating ideal (restrictive activity in lexicology, style and poetics), its long dominance (associated with the established absolutist society), noisy fall (the main event that happened to modern European literature), the transition to<…>the era of freedom." According to Pumpyansky, the flowering of classicism is associated with the creation of the ancient ideal (“<…>the attitude towards antiquity is the soul of such literature"), and degeneration - with its “relativization”: “Literature that is in a certain relation to something other than its absolute value is classical; relativized literature is not classic.”

After the "school of 1660" was recognized as a research “legend”, the first theories of the evolution of the method began to emerge based on the study of intra-classical aesthetic and ideological differences (Moliere, Racine, La Fontaine, Boileau, La Bruyère). Thus, in some works, problematic “humanistic” art is seen as strictly classicist and entertaining, “decorating secular life.” The first concepts of evolution in classicism are formed in the context of philological polemics, which were almost always structured as a demonstrative elimination of the Western (“bourgeois”) and domestic “pre-revolutionary” paradigms.

Two “currents” of classicism are distinguished, corresponding to directions in philosophy: “idealistic” (influenced by the neo-Stoicism of Guillaume Du Vert and his followers) and “materialistic” (formed by Epicureanism and skepticism, mainly of Pierre Charron). The fact that in the 17th century the ethical and philosophical systems of late antiquity - skepticism (Pyrrhonism), Epicureanism, Stoicism - were in demand - experts believe, on the one hand, to be a reaction to civil wars and explain it by the desire to “preserve personality in an environment of cataclysms” (L. Kosareva ) and, on the other hand, are associated with the formation of secular morality. Yu. B. Vipper noted that at the beginning of the 17th century these trends were in intense opposition, and explains its reasons sociologically (the first developed in the court environment, the second - outside it).

D. D. Oblomievsky identified two stages in the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, associated with a “restructuring of theoretical principles” (note G. Oblomievsky also highlights the “rebirth” of classicism in the 18th century (“enlightenment version” associated with the primitivization of the poetics of “contrasts and antithesis of the positive and negative", with the restructuring of Renaissance anthropology and complicated by the categories of collective and optimistic) and the "third birth" of classicism of the Empire period (late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century), complicating it with the "principle of the future" and " pathos of opposition." I note that characterizing the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, G. Oblomievsky speaks about the various aesthetic foundations of classicist forms; to describe the development of classicism of the 18th-19th centuries, he uses the words “complication” and “loss”, “losses.”) and pro tanto two aesthetic forms: classicism of the “Mahlerbe-Cornelian” type, based on the category of the heroic, emerging and becoming established on the eve and during the English Revolution and the Fronde; classicism of Racine - La Fontaine - Molière - La Bruyère, based on the category of the tragic, highlighting the idea of ​​“will, activity and human domination over the real world”, appearing after the Fronde, in the middle of the 17th century. and associated with the reaction of the 60-70-80s. Disappointment in the optimism of the first half of the century. manifests itself, on the one hand, in escapism (Pascal) or in the denial of heroism (La Rochefoucauld), on the other hand, in a “compromise” position (Racine), giving rise to the situation of a hero, powerless to change anything in the tragic disharmony of the world, but not giving up from Renaissance values ​​(the principle of internal freedom) and “resisting evil”. Classicists associated with the teachings of Port-Royal or close to Jansenism (Racine, late Boalo, Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld) and followers of Gassendi (Molière, La Fontaine).

The diachronic interpretation of D. D. Oblomievsky, attracted by the desire to understand classicism as a changing style, has found application in monographic studies and seems to have stood the test of specific material. Based on this model, A.D. Mikhailov notes that in the 1660s, classicism, which entered the “tragic” phase of development, moved closer to precise prose: “inheriting gallant plots from the baroque novel, [he] not only tied them to reality reality, but also brought into them some rationality, a sense of proportion and good taste, to some extent the desire for the unity of place, time and action, compositional clarity and logic, the Cartesian principle of “dismembering difficulties,” highlighting one leading feature in the described static character , one passion." Describing the 60s. as a period of “disintegration of gallant-precious consciousness,” he notes an interest in characters and passions, an increase in psychologism.

Music

Music of the classic period or music of classicism, refer to the period in the development of European music approximately between and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for more detailed coverage of the issues associated with distinguishing these frames). The concept of classicism in music is firmly associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and who determined the direction of the further development of musical composition.

The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

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Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

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An excerpt characterizing Classicism

Prince Andrei arrived at the army headquarters at the end of June. The troops of the first army, the one with which the sovereign was located, were located in a fortified camp near Drissa; the troops of the second army retreated, trying to connect with the first army, from which - as they said - they were cut off by large forces of the French. Everyone was dissatisfied with the general course of military affairs in the Russian army; but no one thought about the danger of an invasion of the Russian provinces, no one imagined that the war could be transferred further than the western Polish provinces.
Prince Andrei found Barclay de Tolly, to whom he was assigned, on the banks of the Drissa. Since there was not a single large village or town in the vicinity of the camp, the entire huge number of generals and courtiers who were with the army were located in a circle of ten miles in the best houses of the villages, on this and on the other side of the river. Barclay de Tolly stood four miles from the sovereign. He received Bolkonsky dryly and coldly and said in his German accent that he would report him to the sovereign to determine his appointment, and in the meantime he asked him to be at his headquarters. Anatoly Kuragin, whom Prince Andrei hoped to find in the army, was not here: he was in St. Petersburg, and this news was pleasant for Bolkonsky. Prince Andrei was interested in the center of the huge war taking place, and he was glad to be free for a while from the irritation that the thought of Kuragin produced in him. During the first four days, during which he was not required anywhere, Prince Andrey traveled around the entire fortified camp and, with the help of his knowledge and conversations with knowledgeable people, tried to form a definite concept about him. But the question of whether this camp was profitable or unprofitable remained unresolved for Prince Andrei. He had already managed to derive from his military experience the conviction that in military affairs the most thoughtfully thought-out plans mean nothing (as he saw it in the Austerlitz campaign), that everything depends on how one responds to unexpected and unforeseen actions of the enemy, that everything depends on how and by whom the whole business is conducted. In order to clarify this last question, Prince Andrei, taking advantage of his position and acquaintances, tried to understand the nature of the administration of the army, the persons and parties participating in it, and derived for himself the following concept of the state of affairs.
When the sovereign was still in Vilna, the army was divided into three: the 1st army was under the command of Barclay de Tolly, the 2nd army was under the command of Bagration, the 3rd army was under the command of Tormasov. The sovereign was with the first army, but not as commander-in-chief. The order did not say that the sovereign would command, it only said that the sovereign would be with the army. In addition, the sovereign did not personally have the headquarters of the commander-in-chief, but the headquarters of the imperial headquarters. With him was the chief of the imperial staff, Quartermaster General Prince Volkonsky, generals, adjutants, diplomatic officials and a large number of foreigners, but there was no army headquarters. In addition, without a position under the sovereign were: Arakcheev, a former minister of war, Count Bennigsen, the senior general in rank, Grand Duke Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, Count Rumyantsev - Chancellor, Stein - former Prussian minister, Armfeld - Swedish general, Pfuhl - the main drafter of the campaign plan, Adjutant General Paulucci - a Sardinian native, Wolzogen and many others. Although these persons were without military positions in the army, they had influence due to their position, and often the corps commander and even the commander-in-chief did not know why Bennigsen, or the Grand Duke, or Arakcheev, or Prince Volkonsky was asking or advising this or that. and did not know whether such an order was coming from him or from the sovereign in the form of advice and whether it was necessary or not necessary to carry it out. But this was an external situation, but the essential meaning of the presence of the sovereign and all these persons, from the court point of view (and in the presence of the sovereign, everyone becomes a courtier), was clear to everyone. It was as follows: the sovereign did not assume the title of commander-in-chief, but was in charge of all the armies; the people surrounding him were his assistants. Arakcheev was a faithful executor, guardian of order and bodyguard of the sovereign; Bennigsen was a landowner of the Vilna province, who seemed to be doing les honneurs [was busy with the business of receiving the sovereign] of the region, but in essence was a good general, useful for advice and in order to always have him ready to replace Barclay. The Grand Duke was here because it pleased him. The former minister Stein was here because he was useful to the council, and because Emperor Alexander highly valued his personal qualities. Armfeld was an angry hater of Napoleon and a general, self-confident, which always had an influence on Alexander. Paulucci was here because he was bold and decisive in his speeches, the General Adjutants were here because they were everywhere where the sovereign was, and, finally, and most importantly, Pfuel was here because he, having drawn up a plan for the war against Napoleon and forced Alexander believed in the feasibility of this plan and led the entire war effort. Under Pfuel there was Wolzogen, who conveyed Pfuel’s thoughts in a more accessible form than Pfuel himself, a harsh, self-confident to the point of contempt for everything, an armchair theorist.
In addition to these named persons, Russian and foreign (especially foreigners, who, with the courage characteristic of people in activity among a foreign environment, offered new unexpected thoughts every day), there were many more minor persons who were with the army because their principals were here.
Among all the thoughts and voices in this huge, restless, brilliant and proud world, Prince Andrei saw the following, sharper, divisions of trends and parties.
The first party was: Pfuel and his followers, theorists of war, who believed that there is a science of war and that this science has its own immutable laws, laws of physical movement, bypass, etc. Pfuel and his followers demanded a retreat into the interior of the country, retreats according to the exact laws prescribed by the imaginary theory of war, and in any deviation from this theory they saw only barbarity, ignorance or malicious intent. The German princes, Wolzogen, Wintzingerode and others, mostly Germans, belonged to this party.
The second game was the opposite of the first. As always happens, at one extreme there were representatives of the other extreme. The people of this party were those who, even from Vilna, demanded an offensive into Poland and freedom from any plans drawn up in advance. In addition to the fact that the representatives of this party were representatives of bold actions, they were also representatives of nationality, as a result of which they became even more one-sided in the dispute. These were Russians: Bagration, Ermolov, who was beginning to rise, and others. At this time, Ermolov’s well-known joke was spread, allegedly asking the sovereign for one favor - to make him a German. The people of this party said, remembering Suvorov, that one must not think, not prick the map with needles, but fight, beat the enemy, not let him into Russia and not let the army lose heart.
The third party, in which the sovereign had the most confidence, belonged to the court makers of transactions between both directions. The people of this party, mostly non-military and to which Arakcheev belonged, thought and said what people usually say who do not have convictions, but want to appear as such. They said that, without a doubt, war, especially with such a genius as Bonaparte (he was again called Bonaparte), requires the most profound considerations, a deep knowledge of science, and in this matter Pfuel is a genius; but at the same time, one cannot help but admit that theorists are often one-sided, and therefore one should not completely trust them; one must listen to what Pfuel’s opponents say, and to what practical people, experienced in military affairs, say, and from everything take the average. The people of this party insisted that, having held the Dries camp according to Pfuel's plan, they would change the movements of other armies. Although this course of action achieved neither one nor the other goal, it seemed better to the people of this party.
The fourth direction was the direction of which the most prominent representative was the Grand Duke, the heir to the Tsarevich, who could not forget his Austerlitz disappointment, where he, as if on display, rode out in front of the guards in a helmet and tunic, hoping to bravely crush the French, and, unexpectedly, finding himself in the first line , forcibly left in general confusion. The people of this party had both the quality and the lack of sincerity in their judgments. They were afraid of Napoleon, saw strength in him, weakness in themselves, and directly expressed this. They said: “Nothing but grief, shame and destruction will come out of all this! So we left Vilna, we left Vitebsk, we will leave Drissa. The only smart thing we can do is make peace, and as soon as possible, before they kick us out of St. Petersburg!”
This view, widely spread in the highest spheres of the army, found support both in St. Petersburg and in Chancellor Rumyantsev, who, for other reasons of state, also stood for peace.
The fifth were adherents of Barclay de Tolly, not so much as a person, but as a minister of war and commander in chief. They said: “Whatever he is (they always started like that), but he is an honest, efficient person, and there is no better person. Give him real power, because war cannot go on successfully without unity of command, and he will show what he can do, as he showed himself in Finland. If our army is organized and strong and retreated to Drissa without suffering any defeats, then we owe this only to Barclay. If they now replace Barclay with Bennigsen, then everything will perish, because Bennigsen has already shown his inability in 1807,” said the people of this party.
The sixth, the Bennigsenists, said, on the contrary, that after all there was no one more efficient and experienced than Bennigsen, and no matter how you turn, you will still come to him. And the people of this party argued that our entire retreat to Drissa was a most shameful defeat and a continuous series of mistakes. “The more mistakes they make,” they said, “the better: at least they will sooner understand that this cannot go on. And what is needed is not just any Barclay, but a person like Bennigsen, who already showed himself in 1807, to whom Napoleon himself gave justice, and such a person for whom power would be willingly recognized - and there is only one Bennigsen.”
Seventh - there were faces that always exist, especially under young sovereigns, and of which there were especially many under Emperor Alexander - the faces of generals and a wing of adjutants, passionately devoted to the sovereign, not as an emperor, but as a person, adoring him sincerely and disinterestedly, as he adored him Rostov in 1805, and seeing in him not only all the virtues, but also all human qualities. Although these persons admired the modesty of the sovereign, who refused to command the troops, they condemned this excessive modesty and wanted only one thing and insisted that the adored sovereign, leaving excessive distrust in himself, openly announce that he was becoming the head of the army, would make a himself the headquarters of the commander-in-chief and, consulting where necessary with experienced theorists and practitioners, he himself would lead his troops, which this alone would bring to the highest state of inspiration.
The eighth, largest group of people, which in its sheer numbers related to others as 99 to 1, consisted of people who did not want peace, nor war, nor offensive movements, nor a defensive camp either at Drissa or anywhere else. there was no Barclay, no sovereign, no Pfuel, no Bennigsen, but they wanted only one thing, and the most essential: the greatest benefits and pleasures for themselves. In that muddy water of intersecting and entangled intrigues that swarmed at the main residence of the sovereign, it was possible to accomplish quite a lot of things that would have been unthinkable at another time. One, not wanting to lose his advantageous position, today agreed with Pfuel, tomorrow with his opponent, the day after tomorrow he claimed that he had no opinion on a certain subject, only in order to avoid responsibility and please the sovereign. Another, wanting to gain benefits, attracted the attention of the sovereign, loudly shouting the very thing that the sovereign had hinted at the day before, argued and shouted in the council, striking himself in the chest and challenging those who disagreed to a duel, thereby showing that he was ready to be a victim of the common good. The third simply begged for himself, between two councils and in the absence of enemies, a one-time allowance for his faithful service, knowing that now there would be no time to refuse him. The fourth kept accidentally catching the eye of the sovereign, burdened with work. The fifth, in order to achieve a long-desired goal - dinner with the sovereign, fiercely proved the rightness or wrongness of the newly expressed opinion and for this he brought more or less strong and fair evidence.
All the people of this party were catching rubles, crosses, ranks, and in this fishing they only followed the direction of the weather vane of the royal favor, and just noticed that the weather vane turned in one direction, when all this drone population of the army began to blow in the same direction, so that the sovereign the more difficult it was to turn it into another. Amid the uncertainty of the situation, with the threatening, serious danger that gave everything a particularly alarming character, amid this whirlwind of intrigue, pride, clashes of different views and feelings, with the diversity of all these people, this eighth, the largest party of people hired by personal interests, gave great confusion and vagueness of the common cause. No matter what question was raised, the swarm of these drones, without even sounding off the previous topic, flew to a new one and with their buzzing drowned out and obscured sincere, disputing voices.
Of all these parties, at the same time that Prince Andrei arrived at the army, another, ninth party gathered and began to raise its voice. This was a party of old, sensible, state-experienced people who were able, without sharing any of the conflicting opinions, to look abstractly at everything that was happening at the headquarters of the main headquarters, and to think about ways out of this uncertainty, indecision, confusion and weakness.
The people of this party said and thought that everything bad comes mainly from the presence of a sovereign with a military court near the army; that the vague, conditional and fluctuating instability of relations that is convenient at court, but harmful in the army, has been transferred to the army; that the sovereign needs to reign, and not control the army; that the only way out of this situation is the departure of the sovereign and his court from the army; that the mere presence of the sovereign would paralyze the fifty thousand troops needed to ensure his personal safety; that the worst, but independent commander-in-chief will be better than the best, but bound by the presence and power of the sovereign.
At the same time, Prince Andrei was living idle under Drissa, Shishkov, the Secretary of State, who was one of the main representatives of this party, wrote a letter to the sovereign, which Balashev and Arakcheev agreed to sign. In this letter, taking advantage of the permission given to him by the sovereign to talk about the general course of affairs, he respectfully and under the pretext of the need for the sovereign to inspire the people in the capital to war, suggested that the sovereign leave the army.
The sovereign's inspiration of the people and the appeal to them for the defense of the fatherland - the same (as far as it was produced by the personal presence of the sovereign in Moscow) inspiration of the people, which was the main reason for the triumph of Russia, was presented to the sovereign and accepted by him as a pretext for leaving the army.

X
This letter had not yet been submitted to the sovereign when Barclay told Bolkonsky at dinner that the sovereign would like to see Prince Andrei personally in order to ask him about Turkey, and that Prince Andrei would appear at Bennigsen’s apartment at six o’clock in the evening.
On the same day, news was received in the sovereign's apartment about Napoleon's new movement, which could be dangerous for the army - news that later turned out to be unfair. And that same morning, Colonel Michaud, touring the Dries fortifications with the sovereign, proved to the sovereign that this fortified camp, built by Pfuel and hitherto considered the master of tactics, destined to destroy Napoleon, - that this camp was nonsense and destruction Russian army.
Prince Andrei arrived at the apartment of General Bennigsen, who occupied a small landowner's house on the very bank of the river. Neither Bennigsen nor the sovereign were there, but Chernyshev, the sovereign’s aide-de-camp, received Bolkonsky and announced to him that the sovereign had gone with General Bennigsen and the Marquis Paulucci another time that day to tour the fortifications of the Drissa camp, the convenience of which was beginning to be seriously doubted.
Chernyshev was sitting with a book of a French novel at the window of the first room. This room was probably formerly a hall; there was still an organ in it, on which some carpets were piled, and in one corner stood the folding bed of Adjutant Bennigsen. This adjutant was here. He, apparently exhausted by a feast or business, sat on a rolled up bed and dozed. Two doors led from the hall: one straight into the former living room, the other to the right into the office. From the first door one could hear voices speaking in German and occasionally in French. There, in the former living room, at the sovereign’s request, not a military council was gathered (the sovereign loved uncertainty), but some people whose opinions on the upcoming difficulties he wanted to know. This was not a military council, but, as it were, a council of those elected to clarify certain issues personally for the sovereign. Invited to this half-council were: the Swedish General Armfeld, Adjutant General Wolzogen, Wintzingerode, whom Napoleon called a fugitive French subject, Michaud, Tol, not a military man at all - Count Stein and, finally, Pfuel himself, who, as Prince Andrei heard, was la cheville ouvriere [the basis] of the whole matter. Prince Andrei had the opportunity to take a good look at him, since Pfuhl arrived soon after him and walked into the living room, stopping for a minute to talk with Chernyshev.
At first glance, Pfuel, in his poorly tailored Russian general's uniform, which sat awkwardly on him, as if dressed up, seemed familiar to Prince Andrei, although he had never seen him. It included Weyrother, Mack, Schmidt, and many other German theoretic generals whom Prince Andrei managed to see in 1805; but he was more typical than all of them. Prince Andrei had never seen such a German theoretician, who combined in himself everything that was in those Germans.
Pfuel was short, very thin, but broad-boned, of a rough, healthy build, with a wide pelvis and bony shoulder blades. His face was very wrinkled, with deep-set eyes. His hair in front, near his temples, was obviously hastily smoothed with a brush, and naively stuck out with tassels at the back. He, looking around restlessly and angrily, entered the room, as if he was afraid of everything in the large room into which he entered. He, holding his sword with an awkward movement, turned to Chernyshev, asking in German where the sovereign was. He apparently wanted to go through the rooms as quickly as possible, finish bowing and greetings, and sit down to work in front of the map, where he felt at home. He hastily nodded his head at Chernyshev’s words and smiled ironically, listening to his words that the sovereign was inspecting the fortifications that he, Pfuel himself, had laid down according to his theory. He grumbled something bassily and coolly, as self-confident Germans say, to himself: Dummkopf... or: zu Grunde die ganze Geschichte... or: s"wird was gescheites d"raus werden... [nonsense... to hell with the whole thing... (German) ] Prince Andrei did not hear and wanted to pass, but Chernyshev introduced Prince Andrei to Pful, noting that Prince Andrei came from Turkey, where the war was so happily over. Pful almost looked not so much at Prince Andrei as through him, and said laughing: “Da muss ein schoner taktischcr Krieg gewesen sein.” [“It must have been a correctly tactical war.” (German)] - And, laughing contemptuously, he walked into the room from which voices were heard.
Apparently, Pfuel, who was always ready for ironic irritation, was now especially excited by the fact that they dared to inspect his camp without him and judge him. Prince Andrei, from this one short meeting with Pfuel, thanks to his Austerlitz memories, compiled a clear description of this man. Pfuel was one of those hopelessly, invariably, self-confident people to the point of martyrdom, which only Germans can be, and precisely because only Germans are self-confident on the basis of an abstract idea - science, that is, an imaginary knowledge of perfect truth. The Frenchman is self-confident because he considers himself personally, both in mind and body, to be irresistibly charming to both men and women. An Englishman is self-confident on the grounds that he is a citizen of the most comfortable state in the world, and therefore, as an Englishman, he always knows what he needs to do, and knows that everything he does as an Englishman is undoubtedly good. The Italian is self-confident because he is excited and easily forgets himself and others. The Russian is self-confident precisely because he knows nothing and does not want to know, because he does not believe that it is possible to completely know anything. The German is the worst self-confident of all, and the firmest of all, and the most disgusting of all, because he imagines that he knows the truth, a science that he himself invented, but which for him is the absolute truth. This, obviously, was Pfuel. He had a science - the theory of physical movement, which he derived from the history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in modern history wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in modern military history seemed to him nonsense, barbarism, an ugly clash, in which so many mistakes were made on both sides that these wars could not be called wars: they did not fit the theory and did not could serve as a subject of science.
In 1806, Pfuel was one of the drafters of the plan for the war that ended with Jena and Auerstätt; but in the outcome of this war he did not see the slightest proof of the incorrectness of his theory. On the contrary, the deviations made from his theory, according to his concepts, were the only reason for the entire failure, and he, with his characteristic joyful irony, said: “Ich sagte ja, daji die ganze Geschichte zum Teufel gehen wird.” [After all, I said that the whole thing would go to hell (German)] Pfuel was one of those theorists who love their theory so much that they forget the purpose of theory - its application to practice; In his love for theory, he hated all practice and did not want to know it. He even rejoiced at failure, because failure, which resulted from a deviation in practice from theory, only proved to him the validity of his theory.
He said a few words with Prince Andrei and Chernyshev about the real war with the expression of a man who knows in advance that everything will be bad and that he is not even dissatisfied with it. The unkempt tufts of hair sticking out at the back of his head and the hastily slicked temples especially eloquently confirmed this.
He walked into another room, and from there the bassy and grumbling sounds of his voice were immediately heard.

Before Prince Andrei had time to follow Pfuel with his eyes, Count Bennigsen hurriedly entered the room and, nodding his head to Bolkonsky, without stopping, walked into the office, giving some orders to his adjutant. The Emperor was following him, and Bennigsen hurried forward to prepare something and have time to meet the Emperor. Chernyshev and Prince Andrei went out onto the porch. The Emperor got off his horse with a tired look. Marquis Paulucci said something to the sovereign. The Emperor, bowing his head to the left, listened with a dissatisfied look to Paulucci, who spoke with particular fervor. The Emperor moved forward, apparently wanting to end the conversation, but the flushed, excited Italian, forgetting decency, followed him, continuing to say:
“Quant a celui qui a conseille ce camp, le camp de Drissa, [As for the one who advised the Drissa camp,” said Paulucci, while the sovereign, entering the steps and noticing Prince Andrei, peered into an unfamiliar face .
– Quant a celui. Sire,” continued Paulucci with despair, as if unable to resist, “qui a conseille le camp de Drissa, je ne vois pas d"autre alternative que la maison jaune ou le gibet. [As for, sir, up to that man , who advised the camp at Drisei, then, in my opinion, there are only two places for him: the yellow house or the gallows.] - Without listening to the end and as if not hearing the words of the Italian, the sovereign, recognizing Bolkonsky, graciously turned to him:
“I’m very glad to see you, go to where they gathered and wait for me.” - The Emperor went into the office. Prince Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky, Baron Stein, followed him, and the doors closed behind them. Prince Andrei, using the permission of the sovereign, went with Paulucci, whom he knew back in Turkey, into the living room where the council was meeting.
Prince Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky held the position of chief of staff of the sovereign. Volkonsky left the office and, bringing cards into the living room and laying them out on the table, conveyed the questions on which he wanted to hear the opinions of the assembled gentlemen. The fact was that during the night news was received (later turned out to be false) about the movement of the French around the Drissa camp.

Classicism is a movement in European art that replaced the pompous Baroque in the mid-17th century. His aesthetics were based on the ideas of rationalism. Classicism in architecture is an appeal to examples of ancient architecture. It originated in Italy and quickly found followers in other European countries.

Andrea Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi

Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) was the son of a stonemason. He himself had to continue the hard work of his father. But fate turned out to be favorable to him. A meeting with the poet and humanist J. J. Trissino, who recognized great talent in young Andrea and helped him get an education, was the first step on the path to his fame.

Palladio had excellent instincts. He realized that the customers were tired of the splendor of the Baroque, they no longer wanted to add luxury to the show, and he offered them what they were striving for, but could not describe. The architect turned to the heritage of antiquity, but did not focus on physicality and sensuality, as the masters of the Renaissance did. His attention was attracted by the rationalism, symmetry and restrained elegance of the buildings of Ancient Greece and Rome. The new direction was named after its author - Palladianism; it became a transition to the classicism style in architecture.

Vicenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616) is considered Palladio's most talented student. He is called the "father of classicism." He completed many projects designed by his teacher. The most famous of them are the Teatro Olimpico, which for many years became a model for the construction of theaters around the world, and Villa Capra, the first private house in the history of architecture, created according to the rules of an ancient temple.

Canons of classicism

Palladio and Scamozzi, who worked at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries, anticipated the emergence of a new style. Classicism in architecture finally took shape in France. Its characteristic features are easier to understand by comparing them with the features of the Baroque style.

Classicism in Western European architecture

The Latin word classicus ("exemplary") gave the name to the new style - classicism. In European architecture, this direction took a leading position for more than 100 years. It supplanted the Baroque style and paved the way for the emergence of the Art Nouveau style.

English classicism

Italy was the birthplace of classicism. From there it spread to England, where Palladio's ideas found widespread support. Indigo Jones, William Kent, Christopher Wren became adherents and continuers of the new direction in art.

Christopher Wren (1632-1723) taught mathematics at Oxford, but turned to architecture quite late, at 32 years old. His first buildings were Sheldonian University in Oxford and Pembroke Chapel in Cambridge. When designing these buildings, the architect deviated from some of the canons of classicism, giving preference to Baroque freedom.

A visit to Paris and communication with French followers of the new art gave his work a new impetus. After the great fire in 1666, it was he who was tasked with rebuilding the center of London. After this, he earned fame as the founder of national English classicism.

French classicism

Masterpieces of classicism occupy a significant place in French architecture. One of the earliest examples of this style is the Luxembourg Palace, built according to de Brosse's design especially for Marie de' Medici. The tendencies of classicism were fully manifested during the construction of the palace and park ensembles of Versailles.

Classicism made significant adjustments to the planning structure of French cities. Architects did not design individual buildings, but entire architectural ensembles. Parisian Rivoli Street is a striking example of development principles that were new for that time.

A galaxy of talented craftsmen made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of the classicism style in French architecture. Here are just a few names: Nicolas François Mansart (Mazarin Hotel, Val-de-Grâce Cathedral, Maisons-Laffite Palace), François Blondel (Saint-Denis Gate), Jules Hardouin-Mansart (Place des Victories and Louis the Great ensembles).

Features of the classicism style in Russian architecture

It should be noted that in Russia classicism became widespread almost 100 years later than in Western Europe, during the reign of Catherine II. Its specific national features in our country are connected with this:

1. At first he had a pronounced imitative character. Some masterpieces of classicism in Russian architecture are a kind of “hidden quote” from Western architectural ensembles.

2. Russian classicism consisted of several very different movements. At its origins were foreign masters, representatives of different schools. Thus, Giacomo Quarenghi was a Palladian, Wallen-Delamot was a supporter of French academic classicism. Russian architects also had a special understanding of this direction.

3. In different cities, the ideas of classicism were perceived differently. He established himself easily in St. Petersburg. Entire architectural ensembles were built in this style, and it also influenced the planning structure of the city. In Moscow, which consisted entirely of urban estates, it did not become so widespread and had relatively little impact on the general appearance of the city. In provincial cities, only a few buildings were built in the classicist style, mainly cathedrals and administrative buildings.

4. In general, classicism in Russian architecture took root painlessly. There were objective reasons for this. The recent abolition of serfdom, the development of industry and the rapid growth of the urban population posed new challenges for architects. Classicism offered cheaper and more practical development projects compared to Baroque.

Classicism style in the architecture of St. Petersburg

The first St. Petersburg buildings in the classicist style were designed by foreign masters invited by Catherine II. Special contributions were made by Giacomo Quarenghi and Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamot.

Giacomo Quarenghi (1744 -1817) was a representative of Italian classicism. He is the author of more than a dozen beautiful buildings, which today are inextricably linked with the image of St. Petersburg and its environs. The Academy of Sciences, the Hermitage Theater, the English Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Institute of Noble Maidens, the pavilion in Tsarskoe Selo - this is not a complete list of his creations.

Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamott (1729-1800), French by birth, lived and worked in Russia for 16 years. Gostiny Dvor, the Small Hermitage, the Catholic Church of Catherine, the building of the Academy of Arts and many others were built according to his designs.

The originality of Moscow classicism

St. Petersburg in the 18th century was a young, rapidly growing city. Here there was a place for the inspiration of architects to roam. General plans for its development were drawn up, with clear, level streets decorated in the same style, which later became harmonious architectural ensembles.

With Moscow the situation was different. Before the fire of 1812, she was scolded for the disorder of the streets, characteristic of medieval cities, for the multi-styled style, for the predominance of wooden buildings, for the “barbaric”, in the opinion of the enlightened public, vegetable gardens and other liberties. “It was a city not of houses, but of fences,” historians say. Residential buildings were located in the depths of households and were hidden from the eyes of people walking along the street.

Of course, neither Catherine II nor her descendants dared to demolish all this to the ground and begin to build the city according to new urban planning rules. A soft redevelopment option was chosen. Architects were tasked with constructing individual buildings that organized large urban spaces. They were to become the architectural dominants of the city.

Founders of Russian classicism

Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov (1738-1812) made a great contribution to the architectural appearance of the city. He never studied abroad, we can say that he created the actual Russian classicism in architecture. With their buildings with colonnades, pediments, porticos, domes, and restrained decor, Kazakov and his students sought, to the best of their ability, to streamline the chaos of Moscow streets, to even them out a little. His most significant buildings include: the Senate building in the Kremlin, the house of the Assembly of the Nobility on Bolshaya Dmitrovka, the first building of Moscow University.

An equally significant contribution was made by Kazakov’s friend and like-minded person, Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1735-1799). Its most famous building is the Pashkov House. The architect brilliantly played with its location (on Vagankovsky Hill) in the layout of the building, resulting in an impressive example of classicism architecture.

The classicism style maintained its leading position for more than a century, and enriched the architectural appearance of the capitals of all European states.

CLASSICISM (from the Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, classicism is successively associated with the Renaissance; occupied, along with the Baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Age of Enlightenment. The origin and spread of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. The basis of the rationalistic aesthetics of classicism is the desire for balance, clarity, and consistency of artistic expression (largely adopted from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); conviction in the existence of universal and eternal rules of artistic creativity, not subject to historical changes, which are interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.

Having accepted the idea of ​​creativity as an imitation of nature, dating back to Aristotle, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: the focus on “beautiful nature,” transformed and ordered in accordance with the immutable laws of art, thus implied imitation antique models and even competition with them. Developing the idea of ​​art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of “beautiful”, “expedient”, etc., classicism, more than other artistic movements, contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.

The central concept of classicism - verisimilitude - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for a universal norm as “due” to everything particular, random, and concrete corresponds to the ideology of an absolutist state expressed by classicism, in which everything personal and private is subordinated to the indisputable will of state power. The classicist portrayed not a specific, individual personality, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, ahistorical moral conflict; hence the classicists’ orientation toward ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the general, passions to duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of existence; on the other hand, restraint in the manifestation of feelings, adherence to moderation, appropriateness, and the ability to please.

Classicism strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. A distinction was made between “high” (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and “low” (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres, which corresponded to a certain style, range of themes and heroes; a clear distinction between the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the ordinary was prescribed.

From the middle of the 18th century, classicism was gradually replaced by new movements - sentimentalism, pre-romanticism, romanticism. The traditions of classicism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism.

The term “classicism,” which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics between classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Staël, V. Hugo, etc.) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics who imitated antiquity were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary and art history, the concept of “classicism” began to be actively used after the works of scientists of the cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.

Stylistic trends similar to the classicism of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept of “classicism” is interpreted in a broad sense, denoting a stylistic constant that is periodically updated at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, “ancient classicism”, “Renaissance classicism”).

N. T. Pakhsaryan.

Literature. The origins of literary classicism are in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of linguistic styles and focused on ancient examples. The highest flowering of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of the poetics of classicism was F. Malherbe, who carried out the regulation of the literary language on the basis of living colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was consolidated by the French Academy. The principles of literary classicism were set out in their most complete form in the treatise “Poetic Art” by N. Boileau (1674), which summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.

Classical writers regard literature as an important mission of embodying in words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way to “educate while entertaining.” The literature of classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication and rhetorical embellishments. The classicists preferred laconicism to verbosity, simplicity and clarity to metaphorical complexity, and decency to extravagantness. Following established norms did not mean, however, that classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the classicists saw rules as a way to keep creative freedom within the bounds of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent to deviate from the rules if it was appropriate and artistically effective.

The characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which helps to transform them into universal human types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. In the center of the works of classicists - heroic personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the worldview of the characters of classicism.

The literary theory of classicism is based on a hierarchical system of genres; analytical separation of “high” and “low” heroes and themes across different works, even artistic worlds, is combined with the desire to ennoble “low” genres; for example, to rid satire of crude burlesque, comedy of farcical features (“high comedy” by Molière).

The main place in the literature of classicism was occupied by drama, based on the rule of three unities (see Three unities theory). Its leading genre was tragedy, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, the tragedy takes on a heroic character, in the second, a lyrical character. Other “high” genres play a much smaller role in the literary process (J. Chaplain’s unsuccessful experiment in the genre of epic poem was subsequently parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time, “low” genres received significant development: irocomic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), fable (J. de La Fontaine), comedy. Genres of short didactic prose are cultivated - aphorisms (maxims), “characters” (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de Labruyère); oratorical prose (J.B. Bossuet). Although the theory of classicism did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, M. M. Lafayette’s psychological masterpiece “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) is considered an example of a classicist novel.

At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline in literary classicism, but archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation of I. I. Winkelman ideal image Greek antiquity as "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" contributed to its new rise during the Enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism and the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to freedom from the claims of the church and state. Enlightenment classicism, actively interacting with other literary movements of the era, is based not on “rules”, but rather on the “enlightened taste” of the public. Appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of the French Revolution of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.

In France in the 17th century, classicism developed into a powerful and consistent artistic system and had a noticeable impact on Baroque literature. In Germany, classicism, having emerged as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic school worthy of other European literatures (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the Baroque, the style of which was more consistent with the tragic era of the Thirty Years' War; a belated attempt by I. K. Gottsched in the 1730s and 40s to direct German literature along the path of the classicist canons, it caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is the Weimar classicism of J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In Great Britain, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and was sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the Arcadia poets - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Ya. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment classicism is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.

In Russia, classicism was established in the 1730-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of the Enlightenment; at the same time, it clearly shows a connection with the Baroque. The distinctive features of Russian classicism are pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical orientation, national patriotic pathos, and reliance on folk art. One of the first principles of classicism was transferred to Russian soil by A.D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed I. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new poetic genres into Russian literature: arrangements of psalms, fables, and a heroic poem (“Petrida,” unfinished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V.K. Trediakovsky (“Solemn Ode on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk,” 1734), who accompanied it with a theoretical “Discourse on the Ode in General” (both following Boileau). The odes of M.V. Lomonosov are marked by the influence of Baroque poetics. Russian classicism is most fully and consistently represented by the work of A.P. Sumarokov. Having outlined the main provisions of the classicist doctrine in the “Epistole on Poetry,” written in imitation of Boileau’s treatise (1747), Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies focused on the work of the French classicists of the 17th century and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but addressed primarily to the events of national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables, which brought him the fame of the “northern La Fontaine.” He also developed a genre of song, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757, “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” retained its significance, which correlated the three-style theory with specific genres, linking with the high “calm” the heroic poem, ode, solemn speeches; with the average - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. A sample of the irocomic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus,” 1771). The first completed heroic epic was “Rossiyada” by M. M. Kheraskov (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classicist drama appeared in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends in literary development associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, but retained its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800-20s in the works of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic program and genre-stylistic practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early works of A. S. Pushkin.

A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogneda." 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).

N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (classicism in Russia).

Architecture and fine arts. The trends of classicism in European art emerged already in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of A. Palladio, the theoretical treatises of G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the works of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bolognese school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only developed into a coherent stylistic system in French artistic culture. The classicism of the 18th and early 19th centuries was formed primarily in France, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often called neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. The focus on a rational principle, on timeless patterns, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, and the strict hierarchy of genres in the fine arts (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as the “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; “ low" - still life, everyday genre, etc.). The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

The architecture of classicism, in contrast to baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal completeness, both of an individual building and an ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, definiteness of plastic forms and spatial intervals, creating a calm and solemn rhythm; a proportioning system based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shape formation). The constant appeal of the masters of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was an architectural order, with proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not darken general structure structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real.

An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects for “ideal cities” are being developed, and a new type of regular absolutist residence city (Versailles) is being created. Classicism strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying the basis for its decisions on the principle of proportionality to man and, at the same time, scale, giving the architectural image a heroically elevated sound. And although the rhetorical pomp of palace decoration comes into conflict with this dominant tendency, the stable figurative structure of classicism preserves the unity of the style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development.

The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of the buildings and construction techniques initially resemble the architecture of 16th century castles; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Lebrun - first of all, in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with the solemn enfilade of the palace itself, the impressive paintings of C. Le Brun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The eastern façade of the Louvre, realized (from the 1660s) according to the plans of C. Perrault (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected), became the programmatic work of classicism architecture. In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and C. Lebrun began to create the ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of classicism were expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; According to his designs, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the central terrace was converted into a Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic integrity: even the jets of the fountains were combined into a static form, like a column, and the trees and bushes were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the “Sun King” Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, powerfully transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the style term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.

In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques developed, providing organic compound urban development with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the urban structure (Place Louis the Great, now Vendôme, and Place des Victories; architectural ensemble of the Invalides, all by J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all in Paris).

The traditions of classicism in France in the 18th century were almost uninterrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the Rococo style prevailed. In the mid-18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal environment for the house was a landscape (garden and park) environment. The rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Milizia made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an elegant and intimate mansion (“hotel”), a formal public building, an open square connecting the main thoroughfares of the city (Place Louis XV, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in Versailles Park, combining the harmonious clarity of forms with the lyrical sophistication of the design). J. J. Soufflot carried out his project for the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, drawing on the experience of classical architecture.

In the era preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, a desire for austere simplicity and a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture appeared in architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bullet, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - the French Empire style (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness was growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine , J.F. Chalgrin).

English Palladianism of the 17th and 18th centuries is in many ways related to the system of classicism, and often merges with it. Orientation towards the classics (not only towards the ideas of A. Palladio, but also towards antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plastically clear motifs are present in the work of I. Jones. After the “Great Fire” of 1666, K. Wren built the largest building in London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, marked by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive town planning plans were implemented by the mid-18th century in the regular development of Bath (J. Wood the Elder and J. Wood the Younger), London and Edinburgh (Adam brothers). The buildings of W. Chambers, W. Kent, and J. Payne are associated with the flourishing of country park estates. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but his version of classicism takes on a softer and lyrical appearance. Classicism in Great Britain was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, features close to the Empire style appeared in English architecture (J. Soane, J. Nash).

In the 17th - early 18th centuries, classicism took shape in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, classicism also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (J. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). German classicist architecture of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze. In the work of K. F. Schinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.

By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism was fading; it is being replaced by historical styles (see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.

The fine arts of classicism are normative; its figurative structure has clear signs of a social utopia. The iconography of classicism is dominated by ancient legends, heroic deeds, historical subjects, that is, interest in the fate of human communities, in the “anatomy of power.” Not content with simply “portraiting nature,” the artists of classicism strive to rise above the specific, individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of ​​artistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or the small Dutch. The world of reasonable actions and bright feelings in the art of classicism rose above imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of the dream of the desired harmony of existence. Orientation towards a lofty ideal also gave rise to the choice of a “beautiful nature”. Classicism avoids the accidental, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. The tectonic clarity of classicist architecture corresponds to the clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic art of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view and is characterized by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of the figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuesqueness. In classicist painting, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly identify objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage area.

The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century was French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of their philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of rhythmic structure and color.

The “ideal landscape” (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity, was highly developed in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th centuries were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the 2nd half of the 18th century, French sculptors again turned to socially significant themes and monumental solutions (J.B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E.M. Falconet, J.A. Houdon). Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the mythological painting of J. M. Vien, decorative landscapes Yu. Roberta. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, whose historical and portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerated into official apologetic or salon art.

The international center of classicism of the 18th and early 19th centuries was Rome, where art was dominated by the academic tradition with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism (painters A.R. Mengs, J.A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. As is B. Thorvaldsen). In the fine art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, portraits of A. and V. Tischbein, mythological cardboards of A. J. Carstens, plastic works of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch stand out; in decorative and applied arts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, the classicism of graphics and the sculpture of J. Flaxman are close, and in the decorative and applied arts - the ceramics of J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory.

A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda". 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

The heyday of classicism in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although the beginning of the 18th century was already marked by a creative appeal to the urban planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetrical axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flowering of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological content. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains the plastic richness and dynamics of forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo.

The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created classical types of metropolitan palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of country noble estates and in the new, ceremonial development of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism is the unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of “regulating” urban plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the 18th-19th centuries was marked by major urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg took shape (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, and later K. I. Rossi). “Classical Moscow” was formed on different urban planning principles, which was built up during its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. The buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century belong to the Russian Empire style (sometimes called Alexander classicism).

In the fine arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative sculpture, forming a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, monuments filled with civic pathos, tombstones imbued with elegiac enlightenment, and easel sculpture (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most clearly manifested in works of historical and mythological genre(A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov; in scenography - in the work of P . di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, and in the landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied arts of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out.

A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European fine arts).

Theater. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which theater established itself among the “high” arts. The French saw examples of theatrical art in the Italian “learned theater” of the Renaissance. Since court society was the setter of tastes and cultural values, the stage style was also influenced by court ceremonies and festivals, ballets, and receptions. The principles of theatrical classicism were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Marais theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais Cardinal (1641, from 1642 Palais Royal), built by Cardinal Richelieu, whose structure met the high requirements of Italian stage technology ; in the 1640s, the Burgundian Hotel became the site of theatrical classicism. Simultaneous decoration gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by picturesque and single perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared that rose and fell at the beginning and end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered on several protagonist figures. The architectural backdrop, a single location, the combination of acting and pictorial plans, and the overall three-dimensional mise-en-scène contributed to the creation of the illusion of verisimilitude. In 17th-century stage classicism, there was the concept of the “fourth wall.” “He acts like this,” F. E. a’Aubignac wrote about the actor (The Practice of the Theatre, 1657), “as if the audience did not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they were really kings, and not Mondori and Bellerose, as if they were in Horace's palace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy Hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those present on the stage (i.e. in the place depicted)."

In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of A. Hardy’s plays (which made up the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the 1st third of the 17th century) were replaced by statics and in-depth attention to the spiritual the world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy demanded changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating with his performance a close-up portrait of his contemporary; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern fashion, his plasticity was subject to the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of an orator, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine wrote notes over the lines of the role), the art of eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical strength. The dramaturgy of classicism contributed to the emergence of a school of stage recitation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main means of expression of the French actor. A. Vitez called the declamation of the 17th century “prosodic architecture.” The performance was built in the logical interaction of monologues. With the help of words, the technique of arousing emotions and controlling them was practiced; The success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, mastery of colors and intonations.

“Andromache” by J. Racine at the Burgundy Hotel. Engraving by F. Chauveau. 1667.

The division of theatrical genres into “high” (tragedy at the Burgundian Hotel) and “low” (comedy at the Palais Royal in the time of Moliere), the emergence of roles consolidated the hierarchical structure of the theater of classicism. Remaining within the boundaries of “ennobled” nature, the design of the performance and the outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the largest actors: the manner of recitation of J. Floridor was more natural than that of the excessively posing Bellerose; M. Chanmele was characterized by a sonorous and melodious “recitation,” and Montfleury had no equal in the affects of passion. The subsequent understanding of the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right and hands pushing away the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.

In the 18th century, despite the decisive departure of the theater towards educational democracy, the actors of the Comédie Française A. Lecouvreur, M. Baron, A. L. Lequesne, Dumenil, Clairon, L. Preville developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and requests era. They deviated from the classicist norms of recitation, reformed the costume and made attempts to direct the performance, creating an acting ensemble. At the beginning of the 19th century, at the height of the struggle of the romantics with the tradition of the “court” theater, F. J. Talma, M. J. Georges, Mars proved the viability of the classicist repertoire and performing style, and in the work of Rachelle, classicism in the romantic era again acquired the meaning of “high "and sought-after style. The traditions of classicism continued to influence the theatrical culture of France at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and even later. The combination of classicism and modernist styles is characteristic of the play of J. Mounet-Sully, S. Bernard, B. C. Coquelin. In the 20th century, French director's theater became closer to the European one, and the stage style lost its national specificity. However, significant events in the French theater of the 20th century correlate with the traditions of classicism: performances by J. Copo, J. L. Barrot, L. Jouvet, J. Vilar, Vitez’s experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart and etc.

Having lost the importance of the dominant style in France in the 18th century, classicism found successors in other European countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism into the Weimar theater he led. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, English actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons promoted classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, turned out to be ineffective and, were ultimately rejected. Stage classicism became the object of pan-European controversy and, thanks to German and then Russian theater theorists, received the definition of “false-classical theater.”

In Russia, the classicist style flourished at the beginning of the 19th century in the works of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semyonova, and later manifested itself in the achievements of the St. Petersburg theater school in the person of V. V. Samoilov (see Samoilovs), V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygins), then Yu. M. Yuryev.

E.I. Gorfunkel.

Music. The term “classicism” in relation to music does not imply an orientation towards ancient examples (only monuments of ancient Greek musical theory were known and studied), but a series of reforms designed to put an end to the remnants of the Baroque style in musical theater. Classicist and baroque tendencies were contradictory combined in French musical tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative collaboration of librettist F. Kino and composer J.B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets of J.F. Rameau) and in Italian opera seria, which took a leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The heyday of French musical tragedy occurred at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship during the struggle for a national state were replaced by a spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, a tendency toward luxury and refined hedonism. The severity of the conflict of feeling and duty, typical of classicism, in the context of a mythological or knightly-legendary plot of a musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with a tragedy in a dramatic theater). Associated with the norms of classicism are the requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedic and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also of place and time), and a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue). The central position in musical dramaturgy is occupied by recitative - the element closest to rationalistic verbal and conceptual logic. In the intonation sphere, declamatory and pathetic formulas associated with natural human speech (interrogatives, imperatives, etc.) predominate; at the same time, rhetorical and symbolic figures characteristic of baroque opera are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic themes, a general orientation towards entertainment and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more consistent with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.

Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of decorative elements inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the demands of classicism put forward by some representatives of the Roman academy "Arcadia", the northern Italian librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, G. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) were expelled from serious opera has comic and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; the range of subjects was limited to historical and historical-legendary ones; moral and ethical issues were brought to the fore. At the center of the artistic concept of the early opera seria is the sublime heroic image of the monarch, or less often statesman, courtier, epic hero, demonstrating positive traits ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic enthusiasm. The traditional 3-act structure of Italian opera was retained (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number characters decreased, intonation expressive means, forms of overture and aria, and the structure of vocal parts were typified in music. A type of dramaturgy entirely subordinated to musical tasks was developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, with whose name the pinnacle stage in the history of opera seria is associated. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. A conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protracted “misconception” of the main characters, and not due to a real contradiction of their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for the idealized expression of feeling, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from strict rational justification, ensured the exceptional popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.

The culmination of the development of musical classicism of the Enlightenment era (in the 1760-70s) was the creative collaboration of K. V. Gluck and librettist R. Calzabigi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in emphasized attention to ethical problems, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in musical dramas Parisian period- in direct reference to the topic of duty and feelings). The norms of classicism were also met by genre purity, the desire for maximum concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, and strict selection expressive means in accordance with the objectives of a specific dramatic situation, the utmost limitation of the decorative element, the virtuoso principle in singing. The educational nature of the interpretation of images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in classicist heroes with naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.

In the 1780-90s, the tendencies of revolutionary classicism, reflecting the ideals of the French Revolution of the 18th century, found expression in French musical theater. Genetically related to the previous stage and represented mainly by the generation of composers who followed Gluck’s operatic reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary classicism emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrant-fighting pathos previously characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. Unlike the works of the 1760-70s, in which resolution of the tragic conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of “deus ex machina” - Latin “god from the machine”), the denouement became characteristic of the works of the 1780-1790s through a heroic act (refusal to obey, protest, often an act of retaliation, the murder of a tyrant, etc.), which created a bright and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the “rescue opera” genre, which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realistic bourgeois drama.

In Russia, in musical theater, original manifestations of classicism are rare (the opera “Cephalus and Procris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Gruzintseva).

Towards comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not associated with theatrical action, the term “classicism” is used to a large extent conditionally. It is sometimes used in an expanded sense to designate the initial stage of the classical-romantic era, gallant and classical styles (see the article Viennese classical school, Classics in music), in particular in order to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term “Klassik” or in the expression “Russian classicism”, extended to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries).

In the 19th century, classicism in musical theater gave way to romanticism, although certain features of classicist aesthetics were sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, etc.). In the 20th century, classicist artistic principles were revived again in neoclassicism.

P. V. Lutsker.

Lit.: General work. Zeitler R. Klassizismus und Utopia. Stockh., 1954; Peyre N. Qu’est-ce que le classicisme? R., 1965; Bray R. La formation de la doctrine classique en France. R., 1966; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the 15th-17th centuries. M., 1966; Tapie V. L. Baroque et classicisme. 2 ed. R., 1972; Benac N. Le classicisme. R., 1974; Zolotov Yu. K. Moral Foundations actions in French XVII classicism V. // News of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Ser. literature and language. 1988. T. 47. No. 3; Zuber R., Cuénin M. Le classicisme. R., 1998. Literature. Vipper Yu. B. Formation of classicism in French poetry of the early 17th century. M., 1967; Oblomievsky D. D. French classicism. M., 1968; Serman I.Z. Russian classicism: Poetry. Drama. Satire. L., 1973; Morozov A. A. The fate of Russian classicism // Russian literature. 1974. No. 1; Jones T.V., Nicol V. Neo-classical dramatic criticism. 1560-1770. Camb., 1976; Moskvicheva G.V. Russian classicism. M., 1978; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists. M., 1980; Averintsev S.S. Ancient Greek poetics and world literature // Poetics of ancient Greek literature. M., 1981; Russian and Western European classicism. Prose. M., 1982; L'Antiquité gréco-romaine vue par le siècle des lumières / Éd. R. Chevallier. Tours, 1987; Klassik im Vergleich. Normativität und Historizität europäischer Klassiken. Stuttg.; Weimar, 1993; Pumpyansky L.V. On the history of Russian classicism // Pumpyansky L.V. Classical tradition . M., 2000; Génétiot A. Le classicisme. R., 2005; Smirnov A. A. Literary theory of Russian classicism. M., 2007. Architecture and fine arts. Gnedich P.P. History of Arts.. M., 1907. T. 3; aka. History of art. Western European Baroque and Classicism. M., 2005; Brunov N. I. Palaces of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. M., 1938; Blunt A. François Mansart and the origins of French classical architecture. L., 1941; idem. Art and architecture in France. 1500 to 1700. 5th ed. New Haven, 1999; Hautecoeur L. Histoire de l’architecture classique en France. R., 1943-1957. Vol. 1-7; Kaufmann E. Architecture in the age of Reason. Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Rowland V. The classical tradition in western art. Camb. (Mass.), 1963; Kovalenskaya N. N. Russian classicism. M., 1964; Vermeule S. S. European art and the classical past. Camb. (Mass.), 1964; Rotenberg E.I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; aka. Western European painting of the 17th century. Thematic principles. M., 1989; Nikolaev E.V. Classical Moscow. M., 1975; Greenhalgh M. The classical tradition in art. L., 1978; Fleming J. R. Adam and his circle, in Edinburgh and Rome. 2nd ed. L., 1978; Yakimovich A.K. Classicism of the Poussin era. Fundamentals and principles // Soviet art history’78. M., 1979. Issue. 1; Zolotov Yu. K. Poussin and the freethinkers // Ibid. M., 1979. Issue. 2; Summerson J. The classical language of architecture. L., 1980; Gnudi S. L’ideale classico: saggi sulla tradizione classica nella pittura del Cinquecento e del Seicento. Bologna, 1981; Howard S. Antiquity restored: essays on the afterlife of the antique. Vienna, 1990; The French Academy: classicism and its antagonists / Ed. J. Hargrove. Newark; L., 1990; Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990; Daniel S. M. European classicism. St. Petersburg, 2003; Karev A. Classicism in Russian painting. M., 2003; Bedretdinova L. Catherine's classicism. M., 2008. Theater. Celler L. Les décors, les costumes et la mise en scène au XVIIe siècle, 1615-1680. R., 1869. Gen., 1970; Mancius K. Moliere. Theater, audience, actors of his time. M., 1922; Mongredien G. Les grands comédiens du XVIIe siècle. R., 1927; Fuchs M. La vie théâtrale en province au XVIIe siècle. R., 1933; About the theater. Sat. articles. L.; M., 1940; Kemodle G. R. From art to theater. Chi., 1944; Blanchart R. Histoire de la mise en scène. R., 1948; Vilar J. About the theatrical tradition. M., 1956; History of Western European theater: In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988; Velehova N. In disputes about style. M., 1963; Boyadzhiev G. N. The Art of Classicism // Questions of Literature. 1965. No. 10; Leclerc G. Les grandes aventures du théâtre. R., 1968; Mints N.V. Theatrical collections of France. M., 1989; Gitelman L. I. Foreign acting art of the 19th century. St. Petersburg, 2002; History of foreign theater. St. Petersburg, 2005.

Music. Materials and documents on the history of music. XVIII century / Edited by M. V. Ivanov-Boretsky. M., 1934; Buchan E. Music of the era of Rococo and Classicism. M., 1934; aka. Heroic style in opera. M., 1936; Livanova T. N. On the way from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment of the 18th century. // From the Renaissance to the 20th century. M., 1963; she is the same. The problem of style in music of the 17th century. // Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. M., 1966; she is the same. Western European music of the 17th-18th centuries. in the range of arts. M., 1977; Liltolf M. Zur Rolle der Antique in der musikalischen Tradition der francösischen Epoque Classique // Studien zur Tradition in der Musik. Münch., 1973; Keldysh Yu. V. The problem of styles in Russian music of the 17th-18th centuries. // Keldysh Yu. V. Essays and studies on the history of Russian music. M., 1978; Lutsker P.V. Style issues in musical art at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. // Epochal milestones in the history of Western art. M., 1998; Lutsker P. V., Susidko I. P. Italian opera of the 18th century. M., 1998-2004. Part 1-2; Kirillina L. V. Gluck's reformist operas. M., 2006.

from lat. classicus, lit. - belonging to the first class of Roman citizens; in a figurative sense - exemplary) - arts. direction and the corresponding aesthetic. theory, the emergence of which dates back to the 16th century, its heyday - to the 17th century, its decline - to the beginning of the 19th century. K. is the first direction in art in the history of modern times, in which aesthetic. theory preceded the arts. practice and dictated its laws to it. K.'s aesthetics are normative and boil down to the following. provisions: 1) the basis of the arts. creativity is the mind, the requirements of which must be subordinated to all components of art; 2) the goal of creativity is to know the truth and reveal it in an artistic and visual form; there can be no discrepancy between beauty and truth; 3) art must follow nature, “imitate” it; what is ugly in nature should become aesthetically acceptable in art; 4) art is moral by its very nature and by the entire structure of art. the work affirms the moral ideal of society; 5) cognitive, aesthetic. and ethical the quality of the claim dictates the definition. art system. techniques that best contribute to practical implementation of the principles of K.; rules good taste determine the features, norms and limits of each type of claim and each genre within a given type of claim; 6) arts. the ideal, according to K. theorists, is embodied in antiquity. claim. Therefore the best way to achieve the arts. perfection - imitate classical examples. art of antiquity. Title "K." comes from the principle of imitation of antiquity adopted by this direction. classics. K. is partly characteristic of ancient aesthetics: theorists of imperial Rome came out with demands to imitate the Greek. samples, be guided in the process by the principles of reason, etc. The cult of antiquity re-emerges in Renaissance , when interest in antiquity intensifies. a culture partially destroyed and partially forgotten in the Middle Ages. Humanists studied the monuments of antiquity, trying to find support in the pagan worldview of antiquity in the struggle against spiritualism and scholasticism of the Middle Ages. feud. ideology. “In the manuscripts saved during the fall of Byzantium, in the ancient statues dug out of the ruins of Rome, a new world appeared before the astonished West - Greek antiquity; before its bright images the ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared” (Engels F., see Marx K. and Engels F., Op. , 2nd ed., vol. 20, pp. 345–46). The most important importance for the formation of aesthetics. The theories of humanism of the Renaissance included the study of treatises on the poetics of Aristotle and Horace, which were accepted as a set of indisputable laws of art. In particular, great development began already in the 16th century. the theory of drama, primarily tragedy, and the theory of epic. poems, to which the Crimea is given primary attention in the surviving text of Aristotle's Poetics. Minturpo, Castelvetro, Scaliger and other commentators on Aristotle lay the foundations of the poetics of K. and established the arts typical for this. directions rules of composition of drama and epic, as well as other lit. genres. B will depict. In art and architecture there is a turn from the Gothic of the Middle Ages to the antique style. samples, which is reflected in the theoretical. works on art, in particular by Leon Battista Alberti. In the Renaissance, however, aesthetic. K.'s theory experienced only the initial period of its formation. It was not recognized as a universally obligatory art. practice largely deviated from it. As in literature, drama, and in depiction. art and architecture, arts. the achievements of antiquity were used to the extent that they corresponded to the ideological and aesthetic. aspirations of figures in the art of humanism. In the 17th century K. is transformed into an indisputable doctrine, and adherence to it becomes mandatory. If the initial stage of the formation of K. takes place in Italy, then the design of K. into a complete aesthetic. The doctrine was accomplished in France in the 17th century. Socio-political The basis of this process was the regulation of all spheres of life, carried out by the absolutist state. Cardinal Richelieu created an Academy in France (1634), which was charged with monitoring the purity of the French. language and literature. The first document that officially approved the doctrine of K. was “The opinion of the French Academy on the tragicomedy (P. Corneille) “The Cid”” (“Les sentiments de l´Acad?mie fran?aise sur la tragi-com?die du Cid”, 1638 ), where the rules of three unities in drama were proclaimed (unity of place, time and action). Simultaneously with K.'s establishment in literature and theater, he also conquered the spheres of architecture, painting and sculpture. In France, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is being created, at its meetings the rules of painting and sculpture are formulated. lawsuit-wah. In France, 17th century. K. finds its classic. form not only due to the state. support, but also due to the general nature of the development of spiritual culture of that time. The defining aspect of the content of K.'s claim was the idea of ​​establishing statehood. It arose as a counterweight to the feud. separatism and in this respect represented a progressive principle. However, the progressiveness of this idea was limited, because it boiled down to an apology for the monarchy. autocracy. The bearer of the principle of statehood was the absolute monarch and his person embodied humanity. ideal. The stamp of this concept lies on the entire art of K., which was even later sometimes called “court K.”. Although the king's court was indeed the center from which ideological ideas emanated. directives of the lawsuit, K. as a whole was by no means only a noble-aristocratic. claim K.'s aesthetics are under the meaning. influenced by the philosophy of rationalism. Ch. representative of the French rationalism of the 17th century. R. Descartes had a decisive influence on the formation of aesthetics. doctrines of K. Ethical. K.'s ideals were aristocratic only in appearance. Their essence was humanistic. ethics that recognized the need for compromise with the absolutist state. However, within the limits of what was available to them, K.’s supporters fought against the vices of the noble-monarchist. society and cultivated a sense of morality. everyone's responsibility to society, including the king, who was also portrayed as a person who renounced personal interests in the name of the interests of the state. This was the first form of the civic ideal available at that stage of society. development, when the rising bourgeoisie was not yet strong enough to oppose the absolutist state. On the contrary, using it internally. contradictions, primarily the struggle of the monarchy against the self-will of the nobility and the Fronde, leading figures of the bourgeois-democratic. cultures supported the monarchy as a centralizing state. a beginning capable of moderating feud. oppression or, at least, bring it into some kind of framework. If in some types and genres of art and literature external pomp and elation of form prevailed, then in others freedom was allowed. According to the nature of the class state, there was also a hierarchy of genres in art, which were divided into higher and lower. Among the lowest in literature were comedy, satire, and fable. However, it was in them that the most democratic developments received a vivid development. trends of the era (Moliere's comedies, Boileau's satires, La Fontaine's fables). But even in the high genres of literature (tragedy) both contradictions and advanced morals were reflected. ideals of the era (early Corneille, the work of Racine). In principle, K. claimed to have created an aesthetic. a theory imbued with a comprehensive unity, but in practice the arts. The culture of the era is characterized by striking contradictions. The most important of them was the constant discrepancy between modern. content and antique the shape into which it was squeezed. Heroes of classicist tragedies, despite the antiquity. names were 17th century French. by way of thinking, morals and psychology. If such a masquerade was occasionally beneficial for covering up attacks against the authorities, at the same time it prevented the direct reflection of modern times. reality in the “high genres” of classicism. lawsuit Therefore, the greatest realism is characteristic of the lower genres, in which the depiction of the “ugly” and “base” was not prohibited. Compared to the multifaceted realism of the Renaissance, K. represented a narrowing of the sphere of life covered by the arts. culture. However, aesthetic. K.'s theory is credited with revealing the importance of the typical in art. True, the principle of typification was understood in a limited way, because its implementation was achieved at the cost of the loss of the individual principle. But the essence of life phenomena is human. characters receive such an embodiment in K., which makes both cognitive and educational activities truly possible. product function. Their ideological content becomes clear and precise, the intelligibility of ideas gives the works of art a direct ideological quality. character. The lawsuit turns into a tribune of moral, philosophical, religious. and political ideas. Feudal crisis. monarchy gives birth new uniform antifeud. ideologies – enlightenment. A new variation of this art is emerging. directions – so-called educational K., which is characterized by the preservation of all aesthetics. principles of K. 17th century. The poetics of enlightenment poetry, as it was finally formulated by Boileau (the poetic treatise “Poetic Art” - “L´art po?tique”, 1674), remains a code of inviolable rules for the enlightenment classicists, led by Voltaire. New in K. 18th century. is primarily its socio-political. orientation. An ideal civic hero emerges, caring not about the good of the state, but about the good of society. Not serving the king, but caring for the people becomes the center of moral and political politics. aspirations. Voltaire's tragedies, Addison's "Cato", Alfieri's tragedies, and to some extent Russian. classicists of the 18th century (A. Sumarokov) affirm life concepts and ideals that conflict with the principles of feudalism. statehood and abs. monarchy. This civic current in France is transformed in France on the eve and during the first burgh. revolution in K. republican. The reasons that led to the renewal of K. during the French period. bourgeois revolutions were deeply revealed by Marx, who wrote: “In the classically strict traditions of the Roman Republic, the gladiators of bourgeois society found the ideals and artistic forms, the illusions they needed in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle, in order to maintain their inspiration at the height of a great historical tragedy" ("The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte", see K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 8, p. 120). For the republican K. period of the first bourgeoisie. The revolution was followed by the Napoleonic Empire, which created the Empire style. All this was a historical masquerade covering up the bourgeoisie. the content of the social revolution that was taking place at that time. K. 18th century freed from certain features of dogmatism inherent in the poetics of the 17th century. It was during the Enlightenment, in connection with a deeper study of art, classical. antiquity cult of antiquity in plastic. lawsuit is gaining especially great development. In Germany, Winckelmann and then Lessing established that aesthetic. The beauty of ancient monuments is associated with political. building the Greek policy: only democracy and the psychology of a free citizen can give birth to such a wonderful art. From now on in it. theoretical thoughts, the idea of ​​a connection between aesthetics is affirmed. ideal and political. freedom, which received the clearest expression in F. Schiller’s “Letters on Aesthetic Education” (“?ber die ?sthetische Erziehung lier Menschen, in einer Reihe von Briefen”, 1795). However, for him this idea appears in an idealistically perverted form: civil freedom is achieved through aesthetics. education. This formulation of the question was associated with the backwardness of Germany and the lack of prerequisites for bourgeoisie. coup. However, even in this form, late mute. classicism, so-called Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller represented a progressive, albeit limited, ideological art. phenomenon. In general, K. was an important stage in the development of artistic practice and theoretical theory. thoughts. In antiquity the shell was put on by the advanced bourgeois-democratic. ideology of the era of the rise of the bourgeoisie. society. The constraining nature of the doctrinaire teachings of the classicists was already clear at the end of the 17th century, when Saint-Evremond rebelled against it. In the 18th century Lessing dealt crushing blows precisely to dogmatism. elements of K., protecting, however, the “soul” of K., his beautiful ideal of a free, harmoniously developed person. This was precisely the core of the Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller. But in the first third of the 19th century, after the victory and approval of the bourgeoisie. building in the West Europe, K. is losing its importance. The collapse of enlightenment illusions about the advent of the kingdom of reason after the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution makes clear the illusory nature of the classic. ideal in the kingdom of the bourgeois. prose. Historical The role of overthrowing K. was performed by the aesthetics of romanticism, which opposed the dogmas of K. The struggle against K. reached its greatest severity in France at the end of 1820 - early. 1830, when the romantics won ended. victory over K. as an art. direction and aesthetic. theory. This, however, did not mean the complete disappearance of K.’s ideas in art. At the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20th centuries. aesthetic movements of the West. Europe there are relapses of the department. ideas, the roots of which go back to K. They are anti-realistic. and aesthetic character ("neoclassical" trends in French poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century) or serve as a mask for ideological. reactions, eg. in the theories of the decadent T. S. Eliot after the 1st World War. The most stable were the aesthetic ones. K.'s ideals in architecture. Classic the architectural style was repeatedly reproduced in architectural construction in the 1930s and 40s, e.g. in the development of architecture in the USSR. Lit.: Marx K. and Engels F., On Art, vol. 1–2, M., 1957; Plekhanov G.V., Art and literature, [Sb. ], M., 1948, p. 165–87; Kranz [E. ], Experience in the philosophy of literature. Descartes and French Classicism, trans. [from French ], St. Petersburg, 1902; Lessing G. E., Hamburg Drama, M.–L., 1936; Pospelov G.N., Sumarokov and the Russian problem. classicism, "Uch. Zap. Moscow State University", 1948, issue. 128, book. 3; Kupreyanova E. N., On the issue of classicism, in the book: XVIII century, collection. 4, M.–L., 1959; Ernst F., Der Klassizismus in Italien, Frankreich und Deutschland, Z., 1924; Peyre H., Qu´est-ce que le classicisme?, P., 1942; Kristeller P. O., The classics and Renaissance thought, Camb., (Mass.), 1955. A. Anikst. Moscow.