Ancient Russian literature - what is it? Works of ancient Russian literature. The emergence of ancient Russian literature
When did ancient Russian literature appear? What prerequisites were necessary for this? Let's try to find out the features of the historical period of that time that influenced literature.
Early feudal period
Discussing when and why ancient Russian literature arose, let us dwell on its close connection with the formation of the state. The Old Russian state appeared during a long historical process of the division of the communal tribal system East Slavic tribal peoples.
Prerequisites for the emergence
Let us find out in connection with what the ancient Russian literature arose. The East Slavic tribes switched to the feudal system, bypassing the slave-owning formation. In such a system public relations the minority dominated the majority. To search for an ideological explanation for this fact, it was not enough to have a pagan tribal religion, oral folk art used during the tribal system.
The development of political, trade, economic ties needed a new written language, which was to become a prerequisite for the emergence of literature.
When did ancient Russian literature appear? Century computer technology, which is called our time, is characterized by a lack of interest in reading fiction. Few people know that in Rus' writing arose even before the official adoption of Christianity.
The "Pannonian Life of Cyril" is evidence that some forms of writing existed in the second half of the ninth century.
Cyril and Methodius
So in what century did ancient Russian literature originate? Scientists have not found an exact answer to this question, but they are convinced that the greatest historical and cultural event for the Slavs was the discovery of the alphabet by Methodius and Cyril (863). At the end of the ninth century, there was a period of flowering of culture in ancient Bulgaria. At this time, wonderful writers appeared: Clement, John the Exarch of Bulgaria, Constantine. Those works that were created by them were of particular importance for the formation of ancient Russian culture.
Adoption of Christianity
Arguing over when ancient Russian literature arose, let us turn to the year 988. It is this date that is considered the time of the official adoption of Christianity in Rus'. For the formation of the ancient Russian original culture, it was important that Rus' recognized Byzantium, which at that time was a representative of a high culture.
Byzantine Orthodox Church already separated from the Roman Catholic faith. If the Catholics put forward Latin as the basis of the literary language, then the Orthodox Greeks welcomed the development of national literary styles.
IN Ancient Rus' the church literary language was considered Old Slavonic, which was close in grammatical basis ancient Russian language. The original literature that appeared in that historical period became the impetus for its development. The enrichment of the Russian language took place with the help of oral folk speech.
Reflecting on when ancient Russian literature arose, historians and writers agree that a certain system of “book teaching” appeared in Rus' at the end of the tenth century.
It was Christianity that played an important role in shaping the culture of Ancient Rus'. By the middle of the 11th century, skilled translators appeared who were engaged in “transferring” Greek books into the “Slovenian” language.
At the time when ancient Russian literature arose, monasteries played a special role. For example, a true center of Christian culture was formed in the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery.
Sources
Active participation in the development of literature:
- folk poetic oral creativity;
- Christian literature.
When studying folklore, it was possible to establish that the ancient Slavs, who lived in the 10th century, owned developed forms of folk oral art.
The researchers are convinced that it was during this period of time that the transition to historical plots from mythological legends took place. Tradition, legend, toponymic legend, songs about military battles became the leading ones in the oral poetry of that era.
Researchers believe that it was during this period that the folk epic, which played a role in the original Old Russian literature. The princely squads, which made military campaigns, always had singers who glorified the valor of the prince and his soldiers during feasts and rest. This peculiar oral chronicle was partially written down, which became the main source for literary plots.
It was through folklore that elements of folk ideology, artistic poetic images got into literature.
In the process of assimilation of Christian ideology, the Russian people adapted to their pagan ideas and concepts.
Conclusion
Throughout the formation period ancient Russian literature exactly folk poetry was the main source contributing to its enrichment. We also note the importance of business writing and oral speech in the formation of literature.
For example, before a battle, military leaders always addressed their soldiers with a speech, setting them up and inspiring them for military exploits. Oral speech was systematically used during diplomatic negotiations. Ambassadors sent to another country memorized the phrases voiced by the ruler.
Such speeches implied certain phrases, were expressive and concise. Thanks to the accuracy and conciseness of the expressions of oral speech, business writing, an aphoristic, concise style of presentation appeared in ancient Russian books.
The process of formation and development of ancient Russian literature was influenced by many facts. First of all, it is important to note the peculiarities of the social system of that time, the desire of people to get an explanation for the changes that they observed in their lives.
As philosophical foundations Old Russian literature historians consider the canonical Christian books of the New Testament Gospel. In religious books, the torments of earthly life, the miracles of resurrection, ascension to heaven were set forth and explained in detail.
In this article we will consider the features of Old Russian literature. The literature of ancient Rus' was primarily church. After all, book culture in Rus' appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Monasteries became centers of writing, and the first literary monuments were mainly works of a religious nature. So, one of the first original (that is, not translated, but written by a Russian author) works was Metropolitan Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace. The author proves the superiority of Grace (the image of Jesus Christ is associated with it) over the Law, which, according to the preacher, is conservative and nationally limited.
Literature was not created for entertainment, but for teaching. Considering the features of ancient Russian literature, it should be noted its instructiveness. She teaches to love God and her Russian land; she creates images of ideal people: saints, princes, faithful wives.
We note one seemingly insignificant feature of ancient Russian literature: it was handwritten. Books were created in a single copy and only then copied by hand when it was necessary to make a copy or the original text became unusable from time to time. This gave the book a special value, gave rise to a respectful attitude towards it. In addition, for the Old Russian reader, all books originated from the main one - Holy Scripture.
Since the literature of Ancient Rus' was basically religious, the book was seen as a storehouse of wisdom, a textbook of a righteous life. Old Russian literature is not fiction, in modern meaning this word. She in every possible way avoids fiction and strictly follows the facts. The author does not show his individuality, hiding behind the narrative form. He does not strive for originality, for the Old Russian writer it is more important to stay within the framework of tradition, not to break it. Therefore, all the lives are similar to one another, all the biographies of princes or military stories are compiled according to a general plan, in compliance with the "rules". When The Tale of Bygone Years tells us about the death of Oleg from his horse, this beautiful poetic legend sounds like a historical document, the author really believes that everything was so.
The hero of ancient Russian literature does not possess neither personality nor character in our current view. The fate of man is in the hands of God. And at the same time, his soul is the arena of the struggle between good and evil. The first will win only when a person lives according to the moral rules given once and for all.
Of course, in Russian medieval works we will not find either individual characters or psychologism - not because the ancient Russian writers were not able to do this. In the same way, icon painters created planar, rather than three-dimensional images, not because they could not write “better”, but because others stood in front of them. artistic tasks: the face of Christ cannot be similar to the usual human face. An icon is a sign of holiness, not an image of a saint.
The literature of Ancient Rus' adheres to the same aesthetic principles: it creates faces, not faces, gives the reader pattern of correct behavior rather than depicting a person's character. Vladimir Monomakh behaves like a prince, Sergius of Radonezh behaves like a saint. Idealization is one of the key principles of ancient Russian art.
Old Russian literature in every possible way avoids being grounded: it does not describe, but narrates. Moreover, the author does not narrate on his own behalf, he only conveys what is written in the sacred books, what he read, heard or saw. There can be nothing personal in this narrative: neither a manifestation of feelings, nor an individual manner. (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in this sense is one of the few exceptions.) Therefore, many works of the Russian Middle Ages anonymous, the authors do not assume such immodesty - to put their name. And the ancient reader cannot even imagine that the word is not from God. And if God speaks through the mouth of the author, then why does he need a name, a biography? Therefore, the information available to us about ancient authors is so scarce.
At the same time, in ancient Russian literature, a special, national ideal of beauty, captured by ancient scribes. First of all, it is spiritual beauty, the beauty of the Christian soul. In Russian medieval literature, in contrast to the Western European of the same era, the knightly ideal of beauty is much less represented - the beauty of weapons, armor, victorious battle. The Russian knight (prince) wages war for the sake of peace, and not for the sake of glory. War for the sake of glory, profit is condemned, and this is clearly seen in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The world is valued as an unconditional good. The ancient Russian ideal of beauty presupposes a wide expanse, an immense, “decorated” land, and temples decorate it, because they were created specifically for the exaltation of the spirit, and not for practical purposes.
The attitude of ancient Russian literature is also connected with the theme of beauty. to oral-poetic creativity, folklore. On the one hand, folklore was of pagan origin, and therefore did not fit into the framework of the new, Christian worldview. On the other hand, he could not but penetrate into literature. After all, the written language in Rus' from the very beginning was the Russian language, and not Latin, as in Western Europe, and there was no impenetrable border between the book and the spoken word. Folk ideas about beauty and goodness also generally coincided with Christian ones, Christianity penetrated into folklore almost without hindrance. Therefore, the heroic epic (epics), which began to take shape back in the pagan era, presents its heroes both as patriotic warriors and as defenders of the Christian faith, surrounded by "filthy" pagans. Just as easily, sometimes almost unconsciously, ancient Russian writers use folklore images and stories.
The religious literature of Rus' quickly outgrew the narrow church framework and became a truly spiritual literature that created a whole system of genres. Thus, the “Sermon on Law and Grace” belongs to the genre of a solemn sermon delivered in the church, but Hilarion not only proves the Grace of Christianity, but also glorifies the Russian land, combining religious pathos with patriotic.
Genre of life
The most important for ancient Russian literature was the genre of life, the biography of the saint. At the same time, the task was pursued, by telling about the earthly life of a saint canonized by the church, to create the image of an ideal person for the edification of all people.
IN " Lives of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb" Prince Gleb appeals to his killers with a request to spare him: "Do not cut the ear, which is not yet ripe, filled with milk of malice! Do not cut the vine, which is not fully grown, but bears fruit!" Abandoned by his retinue, Boris in his tent “weeps with a contrite heart, but is joyful in his soul”: he is afraid of death and at the same time he realizes that he is repeating the fate of many saints who were martyred for their faith.
IN " Lives of Sergius of Radonezh"It is said that the future saint in adolescence had difficulty comprehending reading and writing, lagged behind his peers in teaching, which caused him a lot of suffering; when Sergius retired to the desert, a bear began to visit him, with whom the hermit shared his meager food, it happened that the saint gave the beast the last piece of bread.
In the traditions of life in the XVI century was created " The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”, but it already sharply diverged from the canons (norms, requirements) of the genre and therefore was not included in the collection of lives “Great Menaion” along with other biographies. Peter and Fevronia are real historical figures who reigned in Murom in the 13th century, Russian saints. Author XVI century it turned out not to be a life, but an entertaining story built on fairy-tale motifs, glorifying the love and loyalty of the heroes, and not just their Christian exploits.
A " Life of Archpriest Avvakum”, written by himself in the 17th century, turned into a vivid autobiographical work filled with reliable events and real people, living details, feelings and experiences of the hero-narrator, behind which stands the bright character of one of the spiritual leaders of the Old Believers.
Genre of teaching
Since religious literature was called upon to educate true christian, one of the genres was teaching. Although this is a church genre, close to preaching, it was also used in secular (secular) literature, since the then people's ideas about a correct, righteous life did not differ from church ones. you know" Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", written by him around 1117 "sitting on a sleigh" (shortly before his death) and addressed to children.
Before us appears the ideal old Russian prince. He cares about the welfare of the state and each of his subjects, guided by Christian morality. Another concern of the prince is about the church. All earthly life should be considered as a work for the salvation of the soul. This is the work of mercy and kindness, and military work, and mental. Diligence is the main virtue in the life of Monomakh. He made eighty-three large campaigns, signed twenty peace treaties, studied five languages, did what his servants and vigilantes did.
Annals
A significant, if not the largest, part of ancient Russian literature is the works of historical genres that were included in the annals. The first Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years"was created at the beginning of the 12th century. Its significance is extremely great: it was proof of Rus''s right to state independence, independence. But if the recent events could be recorded by the chroniclers "according to the epics of this time", reliably, then the events of pre-Christian history had to be restored from oral sources: legends , legends, sayings, geographical names. Therefore, the compilers of the chronicle turn to folklore. Such are the legends about the death of Oleg, about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod kissel etc.
Already in The Tale of Bygone Years, two most important features of Old Russian literature appeared: patriotism and connection with folklore. Literary-Christian and folklore-linguistic traditions are closely intertwined in the Tale of Igor's Campaign.
Elements of fiction and satire
Of course, ancient Russian literature has not been unchanged throughout all seven centuries. We saw that over time it became more secular, elements of fiction intensified, more and more often satirical motifs penetrated into literature, especially in the 16th-17th centuries. These are, for example, " The Tale of Woe-Misfortune"showing to what troubles disobedience can bring a person, the desire to "live as he pleases", and not as the elders teach, and " The Tale of Ersh Ershovich", ridiculing the so-called "voivodship court" in the traditions of a folk tale.
But in general, we can talk about the literature of Ancient Rus' as a single phenomenon, with its own cross-cutting ideas and motives that have passed through 700 years, with its own general aesthetic principles, with a stable system of genres.
Artwork description: "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", etc. These works belong to ancient Russian literature. The literature of antiquity is based on real events and reflects Rus', its position at one time or another. Old Russian literature reflects the character of Rus' and its inhabitants. It, like the history of Rus', contains information about its relations with other countries and within the country. This literature is rich in discussions about kings, princes and common people. We are simply obliged to protect and study its riches.
Russian literature is a thousand years old. We know our great classical writers well, but know little of our literature of the first seven centuries. Every Russian person is well aware of only "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Meanwhile, our ancient literature is rich in works of various genres. The chronicles told about the history of our country, starting from ancient, pre-literate times and ending with the events of the turbulent 17th century. Biographies ("lives") told about life individual people. In ancient Russian literature there are works of oratory, descriptions of travels (“journeys”) to the East or Western Europe, essays aimed at eradicating social evil and injustice, calling for truth and goodness. There are a number of so-called "military tales" dedicated to the struggle of the Russian people with foreign enemies: with the Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Mongol-Tatars, German knights. There are stories that tell about princely civil strife and crimes. These stories are full of pain for untruth, for the suffering brought to people and the whole country. In the 17th century, everyday stories appeared. At the end of the same century, dramatic and poetic compositions appeared.
Old Russian literature, as you can see, is rich in written monuments. She was even richer. After all, only a small part of its entire treasury has come down to us, the rest was destroyed in the fire of fires, plundered by enemies, died from the storage of damp rooms, because of negligence and indifference of people.
Old Russian literature seems to us especially significant, because it has features that are consonant with our era. The works of our antiquity are marked by high citizenship, sincere love for the motherland. Writers, separated from us by many centuries, were proud of the greatness of Rus', its vastness, beauty, "bright lordship and red decoration" of its fields and forests, the "impudence" of the Russian people, and high moral qualities. true patriotism of ancient Russian authors was also manifested in the fact that they boldly wrote about the shortcomings and crimes of the princes.
The works of Ancient Rus' captivate with chastity and purity. Old Russian literature does not linger on descriptions of atrocities, does not cherish the dream of retribution against enemies. She calls for the sublime, the good. In it we find noble ideals. Almost every writer of Ancient Rus' could, like A. S. Pushkin, say about himself that he "awakened good feelings" with his work. He could declare, together with N. A. Nekrasov, that he "sowed the reasonable, the good, the eternal." Therefore, the works of ancient Russian authors so vividly respond to our time and the need for kindness and kindness that has grown in our country.
For ancient Russian literature, as well as for Russian literature as a whole, life-affirmation, lightness and clarity are characteristic. Let's take, for example. The most tragic "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu". What could be worse! The army was defeated, all the princes perished on the battlefield, the city was taken, plundered, burned, almost all the inhabitants were killed. Only "smoke, earth and ashes" remained. But in the story there is no despair, no despondency. Lamentation for the Russian princes, glorification of their valor, pride that there were such princes. And the story ends major chord: one of the Ryazan princes, who accidentally survived, arrives, pays tribute to the dead, buries them with honor, gathers the surviving residents, restores the city, and everything ends with general appeasement. This fortitude is amazing.
Another property of ancient Russian literature is especially attractive in our time: old Russian writers with deep respect related to other peoples, to their customs, their beliefs. Tolerance is manifested in the relationship between the Russian governor Pritech and the Pecheneg prince in The Tale of Bygone Years, in the Tale of the Emshan Grass, which conveys the Polovtsian tradition, in the sermons of the Bishop of Vladimir Serapion, who wrote about the torments of the Russian people under the Tatar oppression, lamented the loss of the former the glory of Russia and at the same time spoke about the moral virtues of the Tatars. Respect for other peoples, sympathy for their troubles sounds with particular force in Afanasy Nikitin's Journey Beyond the Three Seas.
Even in stories describing the fight against enemies, for example, in The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev, the author notes the combat prowess of the enemies and considers both Russians and Tatars to be children of the same Mother Earth. Absolutely surprising is the admiration for the courage of the enemies in Kazan History, a work dedicated to the centuries-old struggle between Russians and Kazanians.
The best traditions of ancient literature continue in the new Russian literature of the 18th-20th centuries. However, ancient literature has its own characteristics that distinguish it from the literature of modern times.
In the art of the word of the new time, we are dealing with individual authors, and ancient literature, although it retained a number of names of writers - Illarion, Nestor, Kirill Turovsky and many others - as a whole was a collective work. If in modern times the works classical literature are printed in the form in which the author wrote them, then the works of ancient writers have been changed by different scribes over the centuries. Each new copyist either shortened the text somewhat, then sought to “decorate” the presentation, then changed the general direction of the work. He adapted the work of his predecessor to the literary taste and ideological requirements of his time. Thus, new types, or, as they say, editions of the same monument arose. This situation is close to oral folk art: each storyteller sang the same epic in a different way, adding or omitting something.
In all new editions, the monuments of ancient Russian literature lived, retaining the main original features and acquiring new ones. Rare monuments have survived to us in the form in which they were first written, most of them came down in later correspondence, "lists".
Old Russian literature, unlike the new one, did not know fictional characters or plots. In ancient stories, historical figures always acted, described historical events. Even if the author introduced the miraculous, the fantastic into his narrative, it was not a conscious fiction, because the writer himself and his readers believed in the veracity of what was being described. Conscious fiction appeared only in the literature of the 17th century. And even then, as a rule, he covered himself with references to historical events. So, the fictional character of one of the stories of the 17th century, Savva Grudtsyn, is shown in the Russian army of the boyar Shein, who besieged Smolensk.
We are used to the works we read being entertaining. Amusement for us is mainly connected only with the rapid development of a complex plot. The writers of Ancient Rus' also, of course, sought to interest the reader. But their plot is simple, the narration is calm, not hastily.
The people of Ancient Rus' read books earnestly, slowly, rereading the same work several times, reverently looking for instructions, advice, or images of significant events from the history of their country or other countries. It is not for nothing that books were figuratively compared with the depths of the sea, and the reader with a pearl seeker.
One of the achievements of modern literature was that it began to depict the ordinary, that its characters were the same people as each of us. In ancient Russian literature there are no mere characters, there are heroes who perform great feats on the battlefield and moral perfection.
Like folklore, literature stopped only at exceptional events; it did not condescend to the reader, but sought to raise him to his heights.
In ancient literature there were no verses, but there was poetry. Only the imagery of this poetry is different than in modern times, we need to get used to it, to understand it. Images were born as if by themselves. We would say: “I will come in the spring,” and a person of the 11th-17th centuries wrote: “I will come as soon as a leaf breaks on the trees.” Ancient authors did not write that someone had done a lot for their homeland, they wrote: “I lost a lot of sweat for my homeland”; we would say: "The enemies fled," and the ancient scribe wrote: "They showed their shoulders." They loved hyperbole: the name of Alexander Nevsky, according to his biographer, was glorified "throughout all countries to the Sea of Egypt and to the mountains of Ararat." Old Russian authors often resorted to comparisons: warriors were compared with falcons, flying arrows - with rain, enemies - with ferocious beasts.
IN Old Russian works you will find many examples of rhythmic speech.
The poetry of ancient Russian literature is largely associated with its closeness to oral folk art. In our time, literature and folklore are strictly demarcated. Writers of the 18th-20th centuries turn to folklore, but never become storytellers. In ancient Russian literature it was different. Writers, like storytellers, created epic works. Epic is not only the initial tales of The Tale of Bygone Years, based on oral traditions - about Oleg, Igor, Olga, Vladimir, about the youth-kozhemyak and Belgorod wells. Later works of the 15th, 16th, and even 17th centuries are also epic. Many narratives that are examples of high rhetoric organically include epic parts. Such is the story about Yevpaty Kolovrat in "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", about six brave men in "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". Weaved into the fabric of many works folk songs, for example, in "The Tale of Prince Skopin-Shuisky". How lyric song the literary basis "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" was built. And what wonderful folk laments can be found in chronicles and stories! In addition to lamentations in literature, there are also glorifications - “glories”. Ritual in origin, pagan poetry was a living source to which writers turned all the time.
It is not necessary to exaggerate the importance of oral folk art in the literature of Ancient Rus'. With all its closeness to folklore, it was written literature (the word "literature" from the Latin "litera" - a letter), while literature is very high, skillful, artistic. It arose as early as the 10th century, along with the adoption of Christianity under the influence of the needs of the church and state.
With the adoption of Christianity (988) from Slavic Bulgaria, which was experiencing a cultural dawn at that time, books were brought to Rus'. Some of the books were rewritten into Bulgarian. The ancient Bulgarian language, called Church Slavonic in Rus', because liturgical books were written in it, was close to Old Russian and was well understood by Russian readers of that time. The Church Slavonic language, flexible and subtle, capable of expressing the most complex abstract ideas, greatly enriched the ancient Russian language and made it more expressive. Until now, synonyms live in our language: Russian-eyes, Slavic-eyes, and so on. Western Catholic countries were united by Latin, Slavic countries - Church Slavonic. From the end of the 10th to the beginning of the 11th century, translated books of a wide variety of genres, styles and purposes appeared in Rus'. Here are biblical historical books, and Byzantine chronicles, and lyrical chants, sometimes joyful, sometimes full of sorrow and sadness. There are collections of oratorical works included in the art of eloquence of antiquity, and collections of aphorisms. Natural history and historical books were brought to Rus'.
In the first half of the 11th century, “words” (speech) appeared in Rus'. From the forties of the XI century, Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace" has been preserved, remarkable for its harmony and development of oratory techniques. Illarion was a “Rusin” (Russian) by birth, a priest of the country church of the Savior in the village of Berestovo near Kiev (this church has survived to this day). Yaroslav the Wise appointed him metropolitan, head of the entire Russian church. In the "Sermon on Law and Grace", delivered in the presence of Yaroslav the Wise and his family, Hilarion gives a peculiar overview of world history and affirms the equality of the "new people", that is, the Russians who have recently been converted to Christianity, with the rest of the peoples of the Christian world.
The peak of the literature of the XII century is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - a work characteristic of this century, when the art of the word reached a high development, and the consciousness of the need to preserve the unity of the Russian land was especially strong.
We do not know the names of the authors of the legends about Oleg's campaigns, about Olga's baptism or Svyatoslav's wars. The first known author of a literary work in Rus' was the priest of the princely church in Berestov, later Metropolitan Hilarion. In the early 40s of the 11th century, he created his famous “Sermon on Law and Grace”. It speaks of the Church of the Annunciation at the Golden Gate, built in 1037, and mentions Irina (Ingigerda), the wife of Yaroslav the Wise, who died in 1050. The Word introduces us to the struggle between the religious and political ideas of the 11th century. Hilarion speaks in it about the baptism of Rus' and praises Vladimir, who baptized the Russian land: “Let us praise our teacher and mentor, the great kagan of our land, Vladimir, the grandson of old Igor, the son of the glorious Svyatoslav, who in his years I rule, having courage and courage to listen to many countries and victories and fortresses are now commemorated even a word. Not in thine battles, not in the unknown land dominating, but in Ruska, even known and audible, there are all ends of the earth. Illarion appeals to Vladimir with a call to look at the greatness of Kyiv under Yaroslav, which the glorious city of Kyiv "like a crown overlaid with majesty." These words, apparently, should be understood as an indication of the newly built and majestic fortifications that surrounded the capital of the Kyiv princes. In the second half of the 11th century, other bright literary and journalistic works appeared: “The Memory and Praise of Vladimir” by the monk Jacob, in which the ideas of Hilarion receive further development and are applied to the historical figure of Vladimir I. At the same time, the “Legend of the initial spread of Christianity in Rus'”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, the patron saints and defenders of the Russian land, were created.
In the last quarter of the 11th century, the monk Nestor began to work on his compositions. Chronicle was his final fundamental work. Prior to that, he created the famous "Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb." In it, as in Hilarion's “Word,” as later in the Tale of Bygone Years, the ideas of the unity of Rus' are heard, and tribute is paid to its defenders and guardians. Already at that time, Russian authors were worried about this growing political enmity in the Russian lands, in which they guessed a harbinger of a future political catastrophe.
Literature of the 12th century continues the traditions of Russian writings of the 11th century. New ecclesiastical and secular works are being created, marked by a vivid form, a wealth of thoughts, and broad generalizations; new genres of literature emerge.
In his declining years, Vladimir Monomakh wrote his famous Teaching to Children, which became one of the favorite readings of Russian people. early medieval. The teaching draws us in relief the life of the Russian princes of the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh talks about his campaigns and travels. His whole life was spent in continuous wars with the Poles, then with the Polovtsy, then with hostile princes. It has 83 large campaigns, not counting small ones, as well as 19 peace treaties with the Polovtsians. To characterize the feudal ideology, the image of the ideal prince, drawn by Monomakh, is interesting. The prince should keep an eye on everything in the house, and not rely on a tiun or warrior (“lad”), so that they would not laugh at the order in the house and at dinner. During military campaigns, excess food and drink, as well as long sleep, should be avoided. By nightfall, appoint watchmen yourself, Monomakh instructs, and everyone, having settled around the army, go to bed, and get up early; and do not quickly take off your weapons from yourself, without looking out of laziness, “suddenly a person dies.” The prince's life is filled with wars and hunting, death is on the heels of a warrior. And this knightly ideology is perfectly expressed by the words of Monomakh, addressed to his second cousin Oleg Svyatoslavovich Chernigov. Monomakh offers him peace and friendship and promises not to avenge the death of his son, who was killed in battle with Oleg: “Is it wonderful that my husband died in the regiment” (is it any wonder that the warrior died during the battle). Teaching gives a lot historical information missing in the annals, it is a valuable historical source.
At the beginning of the 12th century, one of Monomakh's associates, hegumen Daniel, creates his own, no less famous, "The Journey of Abbot Daniel to the Holy Places."
The pious Russian man went to the tomb of the Lord and made a long and difficult journey - to Constantinople, then through the islands of the Aegean Sea to the island of Crete, from there to Palestine and to Jerusalem, where at that time the first crusader state was founded, headed by King Baldwin. Daniel described in detail his entire journey, spoke about his stay at the court of the Jerusalem king, about the campaign with him against the Arabs. Daniel prayed at the tomb of the Lord, set up a lamp there from all the Russian land: near the tomb of Christ, he sang fifty liturgies "for the princes of Russia and for all Christians."
Both "Instruction" and "Walking" were the first genres of their kind in Russian literature.
XII - beginning of the XIII century. gave a lot of other bright religious and secular works, which replenished the treasury of Russian culture. Among them are “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, who, having been in prison, having experienced a number of other worldly dramas, reflects on the meaning of life, on a harmonious person, on an ideal ruler. In the Lay, the author himself calls himself Daniil a sharpener, that is, a prisoner, an exile. The word is addressed to Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. The message (Prayer) is addressed to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich.
The word gives a curious characterization of feudal relations in the twelfth century. First of all, an indication of the importance of the personality of the prince as a feudal sovereign, to whom, depending on his personal qualities, “servants” - vassals gather, is striking: “Fingers harp, and the body is based on veins; the oak is strong with many roots; so our city is your power. Zane the prince is generous, the father is for many servants: many more leave the father and mother, resort to him. Serving a good master, you will earn a settlement, and serving an evil master, you will earn more work. The prince is glorious by those who surround him: “Pavoloka (expensive fabric) is more speckled with many sholkas and red, the face shows: so you, prince, are honest and glorious in all countries with many people.” The word of Daniil Zatochnik is the most valuable source for studying the class struggle in ancient Russian society. It repeatedly emphasizes the antagonism between the rich and the poor. The word in relief characterizes the orders of the patrimony of the period feudal fragmentation: do not have a court near the king's court, Daniel exclaims, and do not keep a village near the princely village; his tiun is like a covered fire, and his “rankers” are like sparks. If you avoid fire, then you cannot “avoid yourself” from sparks and from burning clothes. The word of Daniel the Sharpener is woven from a number of aphorisms and teachings. It was this feature that made him very popular in medieval Rus'.
In the Word, we also come across a constant theme of many ancient Russian writings - about evil wives. The ascetic nature of church writing contributed to the view of a woman as a "vessel of the devil." Here are a few attacks of the Sharpener against malevolent wives, if any husband looks at the beauty of his wife and at her affectionate and flattering words, but does not check her deeds, then God forbid he better get sick with a fever. Or in another place: “What is the wife of evil - the inn is indestructible, the blasphemer of demons. What is an evil wife? Worldly rebellion, blindness to the mind, leader of all malice, etc.
No less interesting is the second work associated with Daniil Zatochnik, the so-called Epistle (Prayer). The letter begins with an appeal to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, whom researchers consider Pereyaslavsky, and later Grand Duke Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. The message is extremely interesting in its social orientation. The author draws us the appearance of a prince of the era of feudal fragmentation, which is in good harmony with the biography of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, a warlike, intelligent and at the same time cruel prince: “The troops are wise, strong and strong cities; the brave regiments are strong and mad: on those there is a victory. Multitudes bo take up arms against large cities and from their own, from smaller ones, sit down. In this characterization of the prince, historical features are involuntarily felt. Such was Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who chased the Novgorod table and often lost it. In the Epistle we read an unusually harsh review of monastic life: “Or you will say, prince: take the veil. So I did not see a dead man riding a pig, not a damn thing on a woman, I did not eat figs from oaks. Indeed, many, having departed from this world into monasticism, again return to worldly life and to worldly race, like dogs on their vomit: they go around the villages and houses of the glorious world of this world, like dogs caressing. Where there are weddings and feasts, there are blacks and blues and lawlessness. They wear an angelic image on themselves, but a dissolute disposition, a saintly one, have a dignity on themselves, and the custom is obscene.
Addressing his prince in the Prayer, Daniel says that a real person must combine the strength of Samson, the courage of Alexander the Great, the mind of Joseph, the wisdom of Solomon, the cunning of David. Appeal to biblical stories and ancient history helps him convey his ideas to the addressee. A person, according to the author, should strengthen the heart with beauty and wisdom, help his neighbor in sorrow, show mercy to those in need, and resist evil. The humanist line of ancient Russian literature firmly asserts itself here as well.
An interesting monument of the XII century is the Epistle of Metropolitan Clement. Kliment Smolyatich, originally from Smolensk, was elected in 1147 by a council of Russian bishops as metropolitan of All Rus' without the appointment of a patriarch, while other metropolitans were appointed patriarch in Constantinople. “The Epistle was written by Clement, Metropolitan of Russia, Thomas to the Presbyter, interpreted by Athanasius Mnich” was preserved in a manuscript of the 15th century. The authorship of Clement is attributed only to the first two parts, and the last to the monk Athanasius. The message provides interesting material for characterizing education Kievan Rus. The author turns to Thomas with an answer to his message, which denounced Clement as proud of his philosophical knowledge, since Clement made references to Homer, Aristotle and Plato in his writings. Averting reproaches of pride from himself, Clement at the same time attacks those bishops who attach “house to house, villages to villages, and expel and syabry, and board, and reap, lyada and antiquity, from them the accursed Klim is very free."
In his “Parable of the Human Soul” (end of the 12th century), Bishop of Turov Kirill, relying on the Christian worldview, gives his own interpretation of the meaning of human existence, discusses the need constant communication souls and bodies. At the same time, in his “Parable” he raises questions that are quite topical for Russian reality, reflects on the relationship between church and secular authorities, defends the national-patriotic idea of the unity of the Russian land, which was especially important, while the Vladimir-Suzdal princes began to implement centralization policy on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
Simultaneously with these works, where religious and secular motifs were constantly intertwined, scribes in monasteries, churches, in princely and boyar houses diligently copied church service books, prayers, collections of church traditions, biographies of saints, and ancient theological literature. All this wealth of religious, theological thought also constituted an integral part of the general Russian culture.
But, of course, the synthesis of Russian culture, the interweaving of pagan and Christian features, religious and secular, universal and national motives in it, sounded most clearly in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The Word tells about the campaign of the Seversky princes in 1185, led by Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich against the Polovtsians. Shortly before this, the princes of Seversk refused to participate in the campaign against the Polovtsy, which was undertaken by their relative, Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich. From the very beginning, the participants of the campaign were embarrassed by bad signs - an eclipse of the sun occurred. However, the princes decided to move on. The first battle was successful for the Russians. But things soon took a different turn. The Polovtsy defeated the Russian troops, and Igor Svyatoslavovich was taken prisoner, from which he escaped with the help of a certain Ovlur.
The word about Igor's regiment beautifully depicts princely relations at the end of the 12th century. In particular, the power of the two princes stands out, who, in terms of strength, are on a par with Svyatoslav of Kyiv or even higher than him. This Galician Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl and Vsevolod the Big Nest. Yaroslav sits high on his gold-forged table, he propped up the Carpathian (Hungarian) mountains with his iron regiments, closing the path for the Hungarian king and shutting the Danube gate for him, dominating all the way to the Danube. “Your thunderstorms are flowing across the lands, shooting a hundred gold of the saltani table behind the lands. Shoot, sir, Konchak, filthy koshcheya, for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the bully Svyatoslavovich. This praise of Yaroslav of Galicia is confirmed in the annals. He was a wise, eloquent, God-fearing prince, revered in other lands, glorious in battles, we read in the annals of Yaroslav Galitsky.
No less powerful for the singer of the Word is the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod the Big Nest. He addresses him with the words: “You can scatter the Volga with oars, and pour the Don with helmets.” If we recall that the Word about Igor's regiment was compiled in southern Rus', then such princely characteristics acquire special significance for us. They show the true balance of power between the princes of feudal Rus' at the end of the 12th century, when the Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal lands were especially strengthened.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" has another remarkable feature. Created in the era of feudal fragmentation, it nevertheless testifies to the unity of the Russian people. The entire content of the Lay about Igor's Campaign rests on the notion that the Russian land can only fight against the Polovtsian raids as a whole. Patriotic words, full of ardent love for the motherland, about the Russian land hidden behind the hills sound like a constant chorus (“Oh, Russian land, you are already behind the Shelomian”).
The word unusually vividly depicts the feudal strife and strife of the princes, grieving that they are weakening the Russian land.
The Tale of Igor's Campaign is of great interest for studying the beliefs of ancient Rus'. Nature is personified in Yaroslavna's lament: “About the wind, the sail! - Yaroslavna turns to the wind. - “What, sir, are you forcibly weighing? Why are the Khino arrows mooing on your easy wings in my own way howling? You never know how grief blows under the clouds, breezing ships on the blue sea. The river Dnieper appears in the same living creature in Yaroslavna's lament. She even calls him with a patronymic - Slovutich. The Word also mentions the ancient Slavic deities. Bayan, named the grandson of Veles, the god of cattle and abundance, the patron saint of singers; Russians are the children of Dazhd-God, the great god of the sun.
Unlike other monuments of ancient Russian literature, the Word about Igor's Campaign does not reflect church ideology. Only once it mentions the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha, to which Igor goes when he returns to Kyiv.
The word about Igor's regiment included many legends unknown to us from other works. One of the sources for the author was Boyan's songs, to which he refers. Boyan recalled "the first days of strife." He sang songs about old Yaroslav, about the brave Mstislav, who slaughtered Redea in front of the Kasozhian regiments, about the beautiful Roman Svyatoslavovich.
We do not know the sources of the Word about Igor's regiment. But its author undoubtedly used big amount oral traditions. This is confirmed by many epithets that find their analogy in the monuments of oral literature: “golden table”, “golden stirrup”, “gray eagle”, “blue sea”, “green grass”, “sharp swords”, “clear field”, “black crow".
A remarkable feature of the Lay about Igor's Campaign is its orientation. While the chronicles preserved mainly the Kievan tradition, the Tale of Igor's Campaign mainly reflects the Chernigov and Polotsk traditions. The singer's sympathies are on the side of the Chernigov princes. He writes about the “offense” of the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavovich, a young and brave prince, expelled by Vladimir Monomakh from his principality. But Vladimir himself is depicted as a cowardly prince plugging his ears from the ringing of Oleg's golden stirrups. The nickname “Gorislavich”, which the singer gives to Oleg, is an epithet denoting a person who became famous for his grief and misadventures.
The high artistic skill of the Lay is based not only on folk tradition, but also known to the author Russian writing. It is impossible not to see what pearls the author has selected in the annals and other works known to him! All this puts the "Word" next to the greatest monuments Russian Culture XII century.
The development of literature in the 15th century was facilitated by the cheapening of writing material: at that time, instead of expensive parchment, specially dressed calfskin, they began to use paper, which was imported from the West.
Serious changes are taking place in the literary manner of works. The upsurge that followed the Kulikovo victory led to the development of the so-called panegyric style: a style of pomp and solemnity, ornate and complex; it was figuratively called "weaving words" (meaning that the authors weaved word wreaths to the glory of ascetics and warriors). The most sophisticated writer who worked in this direction was Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logofet, a native of Serbia. Both were writers - professionals, connoisseurs of the art of the word.
Such a delicate and elegant work as "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom", "The Life of Sergei Radonezh" dates back to the 15th century.
For the history of literature, the Book of Powers, a collection of biographies of the rulers of the Russian state, is of considerable interest. There are many legends in biographies, often of a romantic nature.
TO interesting works the middle of the XVI century refers to "Domostroy"; its creation is attributed to Sylvester, a priest of the Annunciation Church in the Kremlin.
Old Russian literature is valuable both for its own artistic achievements and for the fact that it paved the way for the emergence of the great Russian literature of modern times. Knowledge of ancient Russian literature helps to better and deeper understand literature XIX-XX centuries.
But the value of ancient Russian literature is not only in this. It is for us that pure and life-giving source to which we turn in times of trouble and trial, “in days of doubt, in days of painful reflection,” as well as in times of upsurge. We draw deep thoughts from it, find high ideals, beautiful images in it. Her faith in goodness and the victory of justice, her ardent patriotism strengthen and inspire us. M. V. Lomonosov called the Russian chronicles "books of glorious deeds." The same can be said about most of the Old Russian stories.
Old Russian literature arose in the 11th century and developed over the course of seven centuries, until the Petrine era. Kievan Rus was replaced by the time of the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' with a center in Vladimir, the annalistic Russian land survived the Mongolo-Tatar invasion, freed itself from the yoke. Grand Duke Moscow became the king, Sovereign of All Great, and White, and Little Rus'. The last offspring of the "tribe of Rurik" died, the Romanov dynasty reigned on the throne. Rus' became Russia, passing on the richest literary traditions to its successor.
The term "Old Russian literature" is conditional. Starting from the 13th century, the literature we study is the East Slavic literature of the Middle Ages. Continuing to use the term, historically attached to the named phenomenon, let's not forget about its real semantic content.
Old Russian literature is divided into several periods (according to D.S. Likhachev):
- literature of Kievan Rus (XI-XIII centuries);
- literature of the XIV-XV centuries;
- literature of the 16th century;
- 17th century literature.
In the era of Kievan Rus, the formation of literary genres took place, the foundations were laid for all East Slavic literatures - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian. At this time, the genres of Greek and Byzantine literature began to develop on a national basis. In the process of the formation of the Old Russian literary language, an important role is played not only by the living colloquial language of that time, but also by another language closely related to it, although foreign in origin, the Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language.
The literature of the next two periods is already the literature of the Russian people proper, which acquired national independence in the northeast of Rus'. This is the time for the creation of traditions, the development of new ideas in Russian culture and literature, a time that is called the Pre-Renaissance.
The 16th century is the time of the development of journalistic genres. Created "Domostroy" - a set of everyday rules and instructions, reflecting the principles of patriarchal life. "Domostroy" requires the strictness of the home way.
During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the "Great Menaion of the Cheti" was created - a set of twelve books, including readings for each month. Each of the twelve books has from one thousand five hundred to two thousand sheets of large format. Compilation of white lists lasted about twenty-five years. The books include works of various genres, the creation, translation and editing of which involved a large number of Russian writers, translators, scribes and scribes. At the same time, the “Facial Code” was created, which contains the position of world history from the creation of the world to the 15th century. The surviving ten volumes number about ten thousand sheets, decorated with 17,744 miniatures (color illustrations).
The 17th century is an era when the worldview of people is changing, old literary forms are falling apart, new genres and ideas are emerging. A transition to the literature of the Petrine period is planned. Satirical and everyday literature is developing, the focus is gradually shifting to life common man- not a prince, not a saint.
Old Russian literature is not like the literature of modern times: it is permeated with other thoughts and feelings, it has a different way of depicting life and a person, a different system of genres.
In the Middle Ages, it is impossible to draw a clear line between secular and ecclesiastical literature. They developed together, not denying, but enriching one another. The main types of ancient Russian literary creativity - chronicle, life, eloquence, which includes teachings, genres in praise And words; military stories, walking (walking) And messages. Poetry, dramaturgy, novel, story in the modern sense of these genres did not exist in the 11th-16th centuries. They appear only in the 17th century.
All genres of ancient Russian literature develop in close relationship with oral folk art. Most of all, the folklore element influenced the chronicle. Like folklore, ancient Russian literature did not know the concept of copyright: every scribe could use everything that had been written before him. This was manifested in the widespread text borrowings. The scribes strove to leave unchanged only the texts of liturgical books and legislative acts.
The main role of the book in the culture of Ancient Rus' is to serve as a means of saving the soul. In this regard, the New Testament, Holy Scripture, patristic writings, hagiographic literature and church traditions were considered the most important. Also considered important historical works and monuments of business writing. Lay writings that did not pursue didactic goals were valued least of all. They were considered "vain".
At the beginning of its development, ancient Russian literature was very closely connected with everyday life, especially liturgical life. Works, in addition to literary significance, also have practical, applied ones. Only gradually, over time, does the separation of the artistic and aesthetic function from the everyday, applied function occur.
Old Russian literature is pre-realistic, medieval, studying it shows us how different our perception of the world is from the perception of our ancestors. In the minds of the inhabitants of Ancient Rus', the book was a symbol of Christianity, enlightenment and a special way of life. In the testing of Christianity by idolaters, the first test was the book. The Life of Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir tells how the pagans demanded that Patriarch Photius put a book that teaches the Christian faith into the fire. The gospel did not burn in the fire. The amazed pagans believed in the truth of the new teaching and were baptized. Both the book and the writing itself are covered with a halo of miracle. The Slavic alphabet was given to Constantine after his prayer as a divine revelation. The concepts of "Christianity", "book" and "miracle" were closely intertwined.
The miracle of the Russian language is that a person with even a little philological training can read (prepared) texts almost a thousand years old. But often words that seem familiar to us have a different meaning, there are many incomprehensible words, syntactic constructions are difficult to perceive. The names of objects, names, details of everyday life, the very logic of events - everything requires commentary. Without trying to think about the meaning of the work, modern reader as if deceiving himself. So, for example, "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom" seems to him a funny fairy tale, and its theological problems and philosophical depth remain unnoticed.
Over the past centuries, stereotypes of social consciousness, norms of behavior, human thinking have changed radically, old words have acquired new meaning actions were filled with a different content. Already with the invention of printing, the book began to be treated differently. material from the site
Initially, all literature was exclusively ecclesiastical. The themes and ideas of the works could be different, but the attitude of the authors and readers was deeply religious. This is manifested not only in liturgical and theological texts, but also in the description of history, in military stories and secular subjects.
In the view of the Orthodox Middle Ages, "reverence for the book" was a moral merit and virtue, bringing a person closer to the comprehension of God. For this, it was necessary to read and re-read spiritual literature “in the night and in the day”. The Tale of Bygone Years writes that this is exactly what Yaroslav the Wise did. The art of reading consisted in a slow, concentrated and deliberate perception of what was written "with all my heart." The reader stopped, re-read important places, carefully peering into the depth of meaning. Such a culture of reading taught to recognize the hidden nature of things behind the outer shell, to comprehend with “spiritual eyes” the world invisible to the simple eye.
The book is a microcosm in which "lovers of soulful words" enjoy eternal truths and receive spiritual medicine - consolation and teaching. It was necessary to read not secondarily, but hiding from the hustle and bustle of life and empty worries. It was believed that, turning to the work with sinful thoughts, it is impossible to extract anything useful for the soul from it. Until now, in our minds remains ancient faith in the miraculous power of the word.
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On this page, material on the topics:
- ancient Russian literature article and its plan
- what does ancient Russian literature teach essay
- history of ancient Russian literature briefly
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- ancient Russian literature brief analysis
For my work, I chose the theme “Old Russian literature as an outstanding cultural phenomenon”. I found in the library a large number of literature about this period. But, looking through books on ancient Russian literature, I learned a lot of new things for myself, and also drew attention to the fact that many people were interested in the literature of this period. famous people scientists, academics. Old Russian literature occupies seven centuries (the period of the 11th-18th centuries), and this is very big period. I'll talk about a short period XI-beginning of XIII century. I learned that Peter I was interested in ancient Russian literature, he even issued a decree on the collection of various manuscripts on parchment and paper from monasteries and churches. On the personal instructions of the king, a copy of the Radzivilov Chronicle was made. Companion of Peter I historian V.N. Tatishchev continued to collect manuscripts and annals. I learned about many other scientists who devoted their lives to the study of ancient Russian literature. These are such scientists as: Rumyantsev, Stroev, Buslaev, Pynin, Orlov, Chess, Likhachev and others. But they were not only engaged in the study, they collected manuscripts, tried to study them and bring them to people, write and publish their works.
I found out that Russian literature X-XVII centuries developed under unique conditions. She was handwritten. And printing has hardly changed the way literary works are distributed. Until the 17th century, all works were distributed by correspondence. I also learned that the scribes who copied made their own corrections, changes, shortened manuscripts, or added their own to what was written.
Cognition, study of the past is very responsible, the heroic pages of history are dear to us.
In my work, I will consider the issue of the emergence of ancient Russian literature, which will help to find out the historical conditions and causes of its occurrence. Knowing this, I will try to explain its genre system, talk about the complex relationship of literature with the church. I will touch on writing a little, talk about the Slavic alphabet and literacy schools. Also, using the example of The Tale of Bygone Years and The Tale of Igor's Campaign, I will tell about the heroic pages in literature, about the ideas that found their expression in the descriptions of the heroic struggle of Russian people against foreign invaders, about the views of writers of that time, about their wisdom and optimism . I will tell you about the diversity of genres of ancient Russian literature, the periodization of history, the broad outlook of writers and readers. And also about high skill ancient Russian writers, about the peculiarities of the poetics of literature.
Without knowing this, it is impossible to correctly assess the level of literature of the Russian Middle Ages. In ancient Russian literature there were no fictions: its heroes were historical figures (princes, kings, church ministers, warrior heroes), and the subject of the image was actual events (battles, battles).
And in conclusion of my work I will describe the world of ancient Russian literature. Where highlighted the main idea that literature was a means of knowledge and a means of educating a person. Literature is the art of the word, it enriches the aesthetic experience of a person, helps a person to know himself, reveals the reasons for human actions and words. On heroic examples From this literature we learn to be truthful, courageous, to be obedient, to respect elders.
There have been and still are many peoples on earth, each of which has its own special and unique culture.
Chapter 1. Old Russian literature as part of culture.
1.1 The emergence of Old Russian literature.
At the end of the 10th century, the literature of Ancient Rus' arose, the literature on the basis of which the literature of three fraternal peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Old Russian literature arose along with the adoption of Christianity and was originally called upon to serve the needs of the church: to provide a church rite, to disseminate information on the history of Christianity, to educate societies in the spirit of Christianity. These tasks determined both the genre system of literature and the features of its development.
The adoption of Christianity had significant consequences for the development of books and literature of Ancient Rus'.
Old Russian literature was formed on the basis of a unified literature of the southern and Eastern Slavs, which arose under the influence of Byzantine and ancient Bulgarian culture.
Bulgarian and Byzantine priests who came to Rus' and their Russian students needed to translate and rewrite books that were necessary for worship. And some books brought from Bulgaria were not translated, they were read in Rus' without translation, since there was a closeness of the Old Russian and Old Bulgarian languages. Liturgical books, lives of saints, monuments of eloquence, chronicles, collections of sayings, historical and historical stories were brought to Rus'. Christianization in Rus' required a restructuring of the worldview, books about the history of the human race, about the ancestors of the Slavs were rejected, and Russian scribes needed essays that would set out Christian ideas about world history, about natural phenomena.
Although the need for books in the Christian state was very great, the possibilities to meet this need were very limited: in Rus' there were few skilled scribes, and the writing process itself was very long, and the material on which the first books were written - parchment - was very expensive. . Therefore, books were written only for rich people - princes, boyars and the church.
But before the adoption of Christianity in Rus', it was known Slavic writing. It found application in diplomatic (letters, treaties) and legal documents, there was also a census between literate people.
Before the emergence of literature, there were speech genres of folklore: epic tales, mythological legends, fairy tales, ritual poetry, cry, lyrics. Big role folklore played a role in the formation of national Russian literature. There are legends about fairy tale characters, about the heroes, about the foundations of the ancient capitals about Kyi, Shchek, Khoriv. There was also oratorical speech: the princes spoke to the soldiers, delivered a speech at feasts.
But literature did not begin with records of folklore, although it continued to exist and develop with literature even for a long time. For the emergence of literature, special reasons were needed.
The impetus for the emergence of ancient Russian literature was the adoption of Christianity, when it became necessary to acquaint Rus' with the sacred scripture, with the history of the church, with world history, with the lives of the saints. Churches under construction could not exist without liturgical books. And also there was a need to translate from the Greek and Bulgarian originals and distribute a large number of texts. This was the impetus for the creation of literature. Literature had to remain purely ecclesiastical, cult, especially since secular genres existed in oral form. But in fact, everything was different. First, the biblical stories about the creation of the world contained a lot of scientific information about the earth, the animal world, the structure human body, the history of the state, that is, had nothing to do with Christian ideology. Secondly, chronicles, everyday stories, such masterpieces as “Words about Igor's Campaign”, “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik turned out to be outside the cult literature.
That is, the functions of literature at the time of its emergence and throughout history are different.
The adoption of Christianity contributed to the rapid development of literature for only two centuries; in the future, the church hinders the development of literature with all its might.
And yet the literature of Rus' was devoted to ideological issues. The genre system reflected the worldview typical of Christian states. “Old Russian literature can be regarded as the literature of one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this topic is the meaning of human life ”- this is how D. Likhachev formulated the features of literature in his work ancient period Russian history.
There is no doubt that the Baptism of Rus' was an event of great historical importance, not only in political and social relations but also culturally. The history of ancient Russian culture began after the adoption of Christianity by Russia, and the date of the Baptism of Rus' in 988 becomes the starting point for the national historical development of Russia.
Beginning with the Baptism of Rus', Russian culture now and then faced a difficult, dramatic, tragic choice of its path. From the point of view of cultural studies, it is important not only to date, but also to document this or that historical event.
1.2 Periods of the history of ancient literature.
The history of ancient Russian literature cannot but be considered in isolation from the history of the Russian people and the Russian state. Seven centuries (XI-XVIII centuries), during which ancient Russian literature developed, are full of significant events in historical life Russian people. The literature of Ancient Rus' is evidence of life. History itself established several periods of literary history.
The first period is the literature of the ancient Russian state, the period of the unity of literature. It lasts a century (XI and early XII centuries). This is the age of formation historical style literature. The literature of this period develops in two centers: in the south of Kyiv and in the north of Novgorod. characteristic feature Literature of the first period is the leading role of Kyiv as the cultural center of the entire Russian land. Kyiv is the most important economic link on the world trade route. The Tale of Bygone Years belongs to this period.
Second period, mid-twelfth century. - first third of the thirteenth century This is the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky. During this period, local themes appeared in literature, different genres. This period is the beginning of feudal fragmentation.
Then comes a short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. During this period, the stories “Words about the destruction of the Russian land”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” are created. During this period, one topic is considered in the literature, the topic of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops into Rus'. This period is considered the shortest, but also the brightest.
