Where did N Radishchev spend his childhood years? Alexander Radishchev - biography, information, personal life

Russian thinker, writer. Ode "Liberty" (1783), story "Life of F.V. Ushakov" (1789), philosophical works. Radishchev’s main work, “Travels from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790), contains a wide range of ideas of the Russian Enlightenment, a truthful, compassionate portrayal of the life of the people, and a sharp denunciation of autocracy and serfdom. The book was confiscated and until 1905 it was distributed in lists. In 1790 Radishchev was exiled to Siberia. Upon his return (1797), in his projects of legal reforms (1801 02), he again advocated the abolition of serfdom; the threat of new repressions led him to suicide.

Biography

Born on August 20 (31 NS) in Moscow into a wealthy noble family. His childhood years were spent on his father’s estate near Moscow, the village of Nemtsov, and then in Verkhniy Ablyazov.

From the age of seven, the boy lived in Moscow, in the family of a relative of Argamakov, with whose children he studied at home with professors from the newly opened university.

In 1762 1766 he studied at the St. Petersburg Page Corps, then for five years he continued his education at the Faculty of Law of the University of Leipzig, and also studied literature, natural sciences, medicine, and mastered several foreign languages. A major role in the formation of Radishchev’s worldview was played by his acquaintance with the works of French enlighteners - Voltaire, D. Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, by reading which he “learned to think.”

Upon returning to Russia in 1771, he was appointed recorder to the Senate, then in 1773 1775 (the years of the peasant uprising of E. Pugachev) he served as chief auditor (divisional prosecutor) at the headquarters of the Finnish division. Military service provided the opportunity to become acquainted with the affairs of fugitive recruits, the abuses of landowners, Pugachev's manifestos, and read the orders of the military board - all this became decisive in Radishchev's ideological development. In the year of the reprisal against Pugachev, he resigned and married A. Rubanovskaya.

In 1777, Radishchev entered the Commerce Collegium, the head of which was the liberal nobleman A. Vorontsov, who was in opposition to Catherine II, who brought Radishchev closer to him and in 1780 recommended him for work in the capital's customs (from 1790 he was director).

In the 1780s, Radishchev supported the rapidly developing activities of Russian educators: Novikov, Fonvizin, Krechetov. I followed with interest the events of the War of Independence in North America(1775 83), during which the new republic United States of America was formed.

During these years, Radishchev was actively engaged in literary work. Wrote “A Lay on Lomonosov”, “Letter to a Friend...”, finished the ode “Liberty”.

In 1784, the “Society of Friends of Verbal Sciences” was created in St. Petersburg from former students of the university, which Radishchev also joined, dreaming of subordinating his journal “The Conversing Citizen” to the goals of revolutionary propaganda. Radishchev’s article “Conversation about the existence of a son of the Fatherland” (17897) was published here.

In the mid-1780s, he began work on “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” which was published in 1790 in 650 copies. After famous words Catherine II (“he is a rebel, worse than Pugachev”) the book was confiscated, Radishchev was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Catherine II replaced the death penalty with 10 years of exile in the Siberian prison of Ilimsk.

While in exile, Radishchev studied Siberian crafts, the economy of the region, and the life of peasants on behalf of Count A. Vorontsov. In letters to him, he shared his thoughts on organizing an expedition along the Northern Sea Route. In Ilimsk he wrote “Letter on the Chinese Trade” (1792), the philosophical work “About Man, His Mortality and Immortality” (1792㭜), “Abridged Narrative of the Acquisition of Siberia” (1791 96), “Description of the Tobolsk Viceroyalty”, etc. .

In 1796, Paul I allowed Radishchev to settle in his homeland in Nemtsov under the strictest police supervision. He received complete freedom in March 1801 under Alexander I.

Involved in the Commission for the Compilation of a Code of Laws, he was involved in the development of draft legislative reforms. Radishchev's legislative works included the demand for the abolition of serfdom and class privileges, and the arbitrariness of the authorities. The Chairman of the Commission, Count P. Zavadovsky, threatened Radishchev with a new exile to Siberia. Driven to despair, Radishchev committed suicide on September 12 (24 n.s.) 1802 by taking poison.

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev - Russian writer, poet, philosopher - was born on August 31 (August 20 according to the old style) 1749 in Moscow, was the son of a large landowner-landowner. It was on his estate near Moscow, with. Nemtsovo, Radishchev’s childhood passed; for some time he lived in Verkhny Ablyazov. The home education the boy received was excellent, and in Moscow, where he ended up at the age of 7, Sasha had the opportunity to study with the children of his uncle A.M. Argamakov, who for several years was the director of the newly opened Moscow University. Here with Alexander and his cousins Professors and teachers from the university gymnasium were in charge, and the boy was personally cared for by a French tutor, a former parliamentary adviser fleeing persecution from his government. Therefore, without attending an educational institution, the future famous writer most likely completed, if not the entire gymnasium course program, then at least partially.

At the age of 13, Radishchev became a student of a privileged educational institution - the Corps of Pages, where he studied until 1766, after which he was among 13 young nobles who were sent to the University of Leipzig to study as a lawyer. In addition to law, Radishchev studied literature, medicine, natural sciences, and studied several foreign languages. The worldview of the young Radishchev was largely formed under the influence of the works of Helvetius and other French enlightenment encyclopedists.

Upon returning to St. Petersburg in 1771, Radishchev was appointed to work in the Senate as a protocol clerk. During 1773-1775. he served at the headquarters of the Finnish division as a chief auditor, thanks to which he had the opportunity to learn first-hand about the slogans proclaimed by Pugachev (his uprising was just underway), get acquainted with the orders of the military department, the affairs of soldiers, etc., which left a noticeable imprint on his ideological development. He soon retired, although he performed his duties conscientiously.

Since 1777, Radishchev served in the Commerce Board, headed by A. Vorontsov, who had a negative attitude towards the policies of Catherine II. The liberal official made him his confidant, and in 1780, thanks to his recommendation, Radishchev began working at the St. Petersburg customs; being a civil servant, he in the 80s. supported educators Novikov, Krechetov, Fonvizin. At the same time, Radishchev appeared as a writer: thus, in 1770 his philosophical article “The Tale of Lomonosov” appeared, in 1783 - the ode “Liberty”. Radishchev was a member of the “Society of Friends of Verbal Sciences” organized in 1784 in St. Petersburg, which included former students university.

Since 1790, Radishchev worked as director of customs; in the late 90s. The main work in Radishchev’s creative biography was released - the philosophical and journalistic story “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” which denounced the socio-political system of serfdom that existed at that time, sympathetically depicting life common people. The book was immediately confiscated, and 3 weeks after its publication, an investigation was launched under the personal supervision of the empress herself. The words of Catherine II that Radishchev was a rebel worse than Pugachev went down in history. The author of the seditious book was sentenced to death penalty, but at the behest of the empress the punishment was replaced by 10 years of exile in a distant prison in Siberia.

During the years of exile, Radishchev was not idle: fulfilling the instructions of A. Vorontsov, he studied the economy of the region, folk crafts, peasant life. He also wrote a number of works, in particular, philosophical work“About man, his mortality and immortality.” In 1796, Paul I, who took the throne, gave Radishchev permission to live in Nemtsovo, his own estate, under strict police supervision. He acquired true freedom only under Alexander I.

In March 1801, this emperor attracted Radishchev to the work of the commission for drafting laws, however, even in his new position, Radishchev proposed to abolish serfdom, class privileges. Count Zavadovsky, who headed the work of the commission, put the presumptuous employee in his place, hinting to him about a new exile. Being in great mental turmoil, Radishchev took poison on September 24 (September 12, O.S.), 1802 and took his own life. There are other versions of his death: tuberculosis and an accident due to the fact that the writer mistakenly drank a glass of aqua regia. It is unknown where the grave of Alexander Nikolaevich is located.

Russian writer, representative of “enlightenment philosophy” A.N. Radishchev was born on August 20 (31), 1749 in the village of Verkhnee Ablyazovo, Kuznetsk district, Saratov province (now the village of Radishchevo, Kuznetsk district, Penza region). His grandfather, Afanasy Prokofievich Radishchev, was one of Peter the Great's amusements, rose to the rank of brigadier and gave his son, Nikolai Afanasyevich, a good education for that time. Nikolai knew several foreign languages, was familiar with history and theology, and read a lot. He was a wealthy landowner, but the peasants, and there were more than 3 thousand of them, loved him very much. During Pugachev revolt, when Nikolai and his older children hid in the forest, and gave the younger children into the hands of the peasants, no one gave him up.

Alexander was his eldest son and the favorite of his mother, Fekla Stepanovna, née Argamakova. The Argamakov family belonged to the advanced Moscow noble intelligentsia. Alexander's parents were cultured people and tried to give my son a good education. Radishchev spent his childhood in Ablyazov; The Radishchevs' house was large, rich, and crowded. Alexander Nikolayevich had 6 brothers and 4 sisters, the children grew up surrounded by serf "housekeepers" and knew the village well. He learned Russian literacy from the Book of Hours and the Psalter. The future writer was followed by an uncle, apparently also a serf, Pyotr Mamontov, who told the boy fairy tales.

When Alexander was 6 years old, a French teacher was assigned to him, but the choice turned out to be unsuccessful: the teacher, as they later learned, was a fugitive soldier. Then the father decided to send the boy to Moscow. Here Radishchev was placed with a relative of his mother, M.F. Argamakov, an intelligent and enlightened man, and was entrusted to the care of a very good French tutor, former advisor Rouen parliament, fleeing persecution from the government of Louis XV. Obviously, from him Radishchev learned for the first time some provisions of the philosophy of enlightenment. M.F. Argamakov, due to his connections with the newly opened Moscow University (another Argamakov, Alexei Mikhailovich, was the first director of the university), provided Radishchev with the opportunity to take advantage of the professors' lessons. There were university professors in the house who gave lessons to the master's children, with whom little Radishchev studied.

The end of the 1750s - the beginning of the 1760s, the time of Radishchev's life and study in Moscow, were years of fermentation of minds and the rise of literary struggle. Magazines were published in Moscow, literary and scientific societies and circles gathered; In cultured noble houses and the offices of commoners, there were disputes about the government, serfdom, bureaucracy, education, and poetry. The atmosphere of dissatisfaction with the government did not defuse even under Peter III, who caused even greater indignation in various strata of society. All this, as well as lectures by progressive thinkers and professors and a liberal environment, influenced the boy Radishchev. This was the first “leaven” of the future Jacobinism.

On June 28, 1762, as a result of a palace coup, Catherine II ascended the throne. Having overthrown her husband Peter III, the new empress publicly condemned him as a despot sovereign and contrasted herself, the enlightened empress, with the deposed tsar. Thus, Catherine immediately characterized her reign as an enlightened monarchy, different from states with a despotic system. The circumstances couldn't have been better for Radishchev. During the celebrations in Moscow associated with the coronation of Catherine II, on November 25, 1762, the Empress “bestowed 13-year-old Alexander Radishchev as a page.” He was enrolled in the Corps of Pages in St. Petersburg. This was arranged, no doubt, through the efforts of the Argamakovs. At first, Catherine and the government were in Moscow, where the coronation was to take place. Only at the beginning of 1764 did the court return to St. Petersburg, followed by pages, including the “newly granted” Alexander Radishchev.

The Corps of Pages was not serious educational institution. His main goal was that, while serving at court, pages would have the opportunity to receive education and upbringing. During Radishchev’s time, pages were taught all sciences by one teacher, the Frenchman Morambert. The page corps trained courtiers, and pages were required to serve at balls, in the theater, and at state dinners. Radishchev came to court from an atmosphere of serious intellectual and social interests. From among the Argamakovs, Fonvizins, Kheraskovs, he brought with him the ideals of public service, rejection of slavery, despotism, contempt for the baseness of flatterers, and now he saw with his own eyes meanness, intrigue, theft - the whole mechanism of slave-owning despotism, saw all this in the palace itself, and to him, a humble page, opened up reverse side imperial court. In the Corps of Pages, Radishchev was friends with Alexei Mikhailovich Kutuzov. This ardent, ideally disposed young man became the person closest to Radishchev. They lived in the same room for 14 years, read the same books, studied together, dreamed. During his years in the Corps of Pages, Radishchev also became close to A.K. Rubanovsky, P.I. Chelishchev, S.N. Yanov, met with, whose brother was Radishchev’s comrade in the corps. Here he became familiar with educational philosophy and literature, familiarity with which in that era was a kind of sign of secular education. At the same time, Radishchev had the opportunity to observe the constant struggle between courtiers for high places in the palace hierarchy and for influence on the empress.

For four years Radishchev studied in the building, and, being in the palace, could observe the morals of the court. In 1765, Catherine ordered twelve young nobles to be sent to Leipzig, including six pages, the most distinguished in behavior and academic success, so that they studied at the university there and, having become educated lawyers, could subsequently serve in the government apparatus. Among these twelve was Radishchev.

When sending students abroad at the end of September 1766, instructions were given regarding their studies, written in Catherine II’s own hand. In this instruction we read: “1) Learn all Latin, French, German and, if possible, Slavic languages, in which you should educate yourself by talking and reading books. 2) Everyone learn moral philosophy, history, and especially natural and popular law and Roman history and law. Other sciences should be left to everyone to learn at their own discretion." Huge funds for those times were allocated for the maintenance of students - 800 rubles (since 1769 - 1000 rubles) per year for each. But Major Bokum, assigned to the nobles as an educator (“chamber”), withheld a significant part of the money for his own benefit, so the students were in great need. They were placed in a damp, dirty apartment. Radishchev, according to a report from Yakovlev’s office courier, “was ill throughout (Yakovlev’s) stay in Leipzig, and even after leaving he had not yet recovered, and could not go to the table for his illness, but food was given to him for his apartment. He is talking about his illness, by serving bad food, one suffers direct hunger."

Bokum was a rude, uneducated and cruel man, who allowed himself to use corporal punishment, sometimes very severe, on students. In addition, he was extremely boastful and intemperate, which constantly put him in awkward and comical situations. From the moment he left St. Petersburg, Bokum began to clash with students; their displeasure against him grew and finally expressed itself in a major story. Bokum tried to portray the students as rebels, turned to the assistance of the Leipzig authorities, demanded soldiers and put all Russian students under guard. Intervention only Russian Ambassador, Prince, did not allow this story to end the way Bokum directed it. The ambassador freed the prisoners, stood up for them, and although Bokum remained with the students, he began to treat them better, and the clashes did not recur. Bokum was fired only when Radishchev was about to go home.

But this was not the only such case. The students staged another strike of sorts when they refused to take a course in international law from Professor Boehme, a dry old man alien to the ideological demands of youth, and declared that they would rather study Mably's book on the same subject. At this time, Abbot Gabriel Bonneau de Mably was already known as a political writer, democrat and radical; the putting forward of his name could not have been accidental, “innocent.” The election of a confessor for the students was also unsuccessful: Hieromonk Pavel, a cheerful and good-natured man, but poorly educated, aroused ridicule from the students and had no influence on their minds and morals, was sent with them. As a result, young people played pranks and free-thinked.

Of Radishchev's comrades, Fyodor Vasilyevich Ushakov was especially noticeable for the influence he had on Radishchev, who wrote his "Life" and published some of Ushakov's works. Gifted with a fiery mind, 19-year-old Ushakov was the oldest of the entire group who went to Leipzig. Before leaving abroad, he served as a secretary under the Secretary of State and Privy Councilor G.N. Teplov, worked on drawing up the Riga trade charter. Ushakov was predicted to quickly rise up the administrative ladder; “many learned to revere him in advance.” When Catherine II ordered the nobles to be sent to Leipzig, Ushakov neglected his career and decided to go abroad to join the young men in school. Thanks to Teplov's petition, he managed to fulfill his wish. Ushakov was more experienced than his other comrades, who immediately recognized his authority. He was an example of serious studies for students, guided their reading, and instilled in them strong moral convictions. He taught, for example, that he can overcome his passions who tries to know the true definition of a person, who “finds the greatest pleasure in being useful to the fatherland and being known to the world.” Ushakov's health was upset even before his trip abroad, and in Leipzig it worsened due to his lifestyle and excessive activities; he became dangerously ill. When the doctor, at his insistence, announced that “tomorrow he will no longer be involved in life,” Ushakov firmly accepted the death sentence, although “as he descended into the coffin, he saw nothing beyond it.” He said goodbye to his friends, then, calling one Radishchev to him, handed him his papers and said: “Remember that you need to have rules in life in order to be blessed.” Ushakov’s last words “marked an indelible mark in the memory” of Radishchev. Before his death, suffering terribly, Ushakov asked his comrades to give him poison so that his torment would end as quickly as possible. He was denied this, but this gave Radishchev the idea “that an unbearable life should be forcibly interrupted.” Since then, suicide has become one of his favorite subjects of thought. Ushakov died in 1770 at the age of 21.

During his stay in Leipzig (1767-1771), in addition to legal sciences, Radishchev studied natural science, chemistry, and medicine. A special role in its formation was played by the works of French enlightenment philosophers - Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Mably, Holbach, especially Helvetius, from whose book “about the mind,” according to Radishchev, he and his comrades “learned to think.” Radishchev showed brilliant abilities in teaching. He was a master in everything: from dancing to philosophical discussions about the frailty of existence.

Students' activities in Leipzig were varied. They listened to philosophy from Platner, who, when he visited him in 1789, recalled with pleasure his Russian students, especially Kutuzov and Radishchev. Students listened to Gellert's lectures or, as Radishchev wrote, "enjoyed his teaching in verbal sciences." They listened to history from Boehm, and indeed from Hommel. According to an official letter from 1769, “everyone admits with surprise that in such a short time They (the students) showed remarkable success, and are not inferior in knowledge to those who have been studying there for a long time. They especially praise and find extremely skillful: firstly, the senior Ushakov (there were two Ushakovs among the students), and after him Yanov and Radishchev, who exceeded the aspirations of their teachers."

By his own “volition,” Radishchev studied medicine and chemistry, and seriously, so that he passed the exam to become a doctor and then successfully practiced treatment. Chemistry classes also remained one of his favorite things. According to the instructions, students studied languages; How this teaching went is unknown to us, but Radishchev knew German, French and Latin well, and later learned English and Italian. After spending several years in Leipzig, he, like his comrades, greatly forgot the Russian language, so upon returning to Russia he studied it under the guidance of A.V. Khrapovitsky, Catherine's secretary. In general, Radishchev acquired a variety of scientific knowledge in Leipzig and became one of the most educated people of its time, not only in Russia. He did not stop studying and reading diligently throughout his life.

In the fall of 1771, Radishchev and his comrades returned to St. Petersburg. They returned to their homeland, full of high thoughts of serving society, ardent devotion to the fatherland, full of desire to implement the progressive ideals that they had learned over the years. Soon, Radishchev, like his comrade Alexei Kutuzov, entered the service of a “small fry” - a protocol clerk with the rank of titular adviser in the Senate, “the repository of laws,” according to Catherine’s definition. But the friends did not serve there long: they were hampered by their poor knowledge of the Russian language and were burdened by the rude treatment of their superiors. Just 2 years later, unable to bear the petty routine, Kutuzov moved to military service, and Radishchev entered the headquarters of the commander of the Finnish Division in St. Petersburg, Chief General Count Y.A. Bruce, as chief auditor (divisional prosecutor), and stood out for his conscientious attitude to his duties. Of course, this service, which took place during the years of the peasant uprising of E. Pugachev, was not pleasant for Radishchev: the military court was perhaps the most ferocious weapon of the class rule of the landowners.

The beginning of his literary activity dates back to this time. In 1771, still in Leipzig, a translation of the pamphlet of the Greek-Albanian politician Anton Ghika “The Desires of the Greeks for a Christian Europe” was published. The brochure called public opinion stand up for the Greeks and their independence. Radishchev emphasized in his text the theme of oppression and slavery of the people. So, for example, he translates: “In a slave state, every virtue is a crime, which is considered a crime against a tyrant.” In the translation that appeared later in Vedomosti, this passage looks less harsh: “All generous virtues are considered a crime in people of this condition.”

In 1772, Radishchev met N.I. Novikov, who published the magazine "Painter". In the fifth issue of The Painter, an essay entitled “Excerpt from a trip to ***I***T***” was anonymously published. Scientists have argued for a long time about who was the author of the “Excerpt,” which had an anti-serfdom character. Only recently it was established that he was Alexander Radishchev. "Excerpt" created a stir in society. Those at the “top” were extremely dissatisfied with him and accused the author of insulting “the entire noble corps.” But neither Novikov nor Radishchev were afraid. At the same time, in “The Painter,” he published his translation of Mably’s “Reflections on Greek History” (1773), in which he characterized autocracy as “the state most contrary to human nature.” The hated service did not prevent Radishchev from making acquaintances both in the “big world” and among writers. The charm of his personality, his education, depth of thought, and at the same time noble appearance made him a welcome guest in high society drawing rooms, in the English Club, and in writers' offices. Radishchev's first appearances in print became the beginning of his tragic journey as a preacher of freedom, and his first original work was a sketch of his main work - "Travels from St. Petersburg to Moscow."

In 1775, one of Radishchev’s comrades in Leipzig, Rubanovsky, introduced him to the family of his older brother, whose daughter, Anna Vasilievna, he married. In the same year, the year of the reprisal against Pugachev, Radishchev retired with the rank of army second major - according to family circumstances, and went to the estate, where he lived for some time with his wife in solitude.

At the very end of 1777, Radishchev returned to St. Petersburg and, on the recommendation of Count A.R. Vorontsov was again appointed to serve, this time to the State Commerce Collegium for an assessor position. He quickly became familiar with the details of the trade affairs entrusted to the board, and established himself as a person of strong character and utmost honesty. Soon he had to participate in the resolution of one case, where a whole group of employees, if accused, was subject to heavy punishment. All members of the board were in favor of the prosecution, but Radishchev, having studied the case, decisively came to the defense of the accused. He did not agree to sign the verdict and filed a dissenting opinion; in vain they persuaded him, frightened him with the disfavor of the president of the board, Count A.R. Vorontsov, - Radishchev did not yield; I had to report his persistence to Vorontsov. At first he was really angry, but still demanded the case, carefully reviewed it and agreed with Radishchev’s opinion: the accused were acquitted. However, this did not contribute to his peace of mind, since most officials at that time, without a twinge of conscience, took bribes and laughed at this champion of justice.

From the Commerce Collegium of Radishchev in 1788, on the recommendation of A.R. Vorontsov was transferred to the St. Petersburg customs, as an assistant manager, and then (from 1790) as a manager. In his service at customs, Radishchev also managed to stand out for his selflessness, devotion to duty, serious attitude to the point. At the same time, he took part in the work of the Commission on Commerce and was a member of the treasury chamber of the St. Petersburg provincial government.

After the death of his beloved wife, Anna Vasilyevna (1783), Radishchev began to seek solace in literary work. This is how Radishchev described his moral state: “The death of my wife plunged me into sadness and despondency and temporarily distracted my mind from all exercise.” Probably at this time he participated in the publication of "Mail of Spirits", but this cannot be considered proven. For real literary activity Radishchev begins only in 1789, when he published “The Life of Fyodor Vasilyevich Ushakov with the introduction of some of his works.”

On his main work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” A.N. Radishchev worked for several years, from the mid-1780s. Having completed the first edition of the book in mid-1788, he supplemented and expanded it until April 1790. In 1789, Radishchev put the manuscript of “Travel” through the censorship of the Deanery Board. The St. Petersburg chief of police N.I. Ryleev approved the book for publication without reading it and, probably, relying on the “innocent” title or to please one of Radishchev’s noble patrons. Taking advantage of Catherine II’s decree on free printing houses, Radishchev acquired printing press and started a home printing press, in which typesetting and printed works produced by his servants under his direction. In this printing house, Radishchev published at the beginning of 1790 “A Letter to a Friend Living in Tobolsk”, and at the end of May - “A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, with an epigraph from Telemakhida: “The monster is loud, mischievous, huge, yawning and barking.” .

Since he received permission to publish the book, Radishchev openly printed it in 650 copies, and then, in May 1790, he calmly put it on sale. At the end of the book it was even stated: “With the permission of the Deanery Board.” The book looked quite harmless, but hidden under the travel notes in the form of which the work was written was harsh criticism the slavish condition of serfs and the vices of the degraded nobility. The book begins with a dedication to “A.M.K., my dearest friend,” i.e. Comrade Radishchev, A.M. Kutuzov. In this dedication, the author writes: “I looked around me - my soul became wounded by human suffering.” To achieve bliss, one must remove the veil that covers the natural senses. Anyone can become a participant in the bliss of his own kind by resisting error. “This is the thought that prompted me to write what you will read.”

The Journey is divided into chapters; the first is called “Departure”, and the subsequent ones bear the names of stations between St. Petersburg and Moscow; The book ends with the arrival and exclamation: “Moscow! Moscow!” “Journey to Moscow,” which brought misfortune and glory to Radishchev, was, in general, a very mediocre work with a “barbaric style.” Complaints about the unhappy state of the people and the violence of the nobles are exaggerated and vulgar. Outbursts of sensitivity, affected and puffed up, are sometimes extremely funny. What was Radishchev’s goal in publishing this book? It is unlikely that he himself could answer this question satisfactorily. His influence was negligible. Everyone has read the book and forgotten it, despite the fact that it contains several sensible thoughts, well-intentioned assumptions. If you think about what kind of people surrounded Catherine’s throne, then Radishchev’s act will seem like the act of a madman. A petty official, a man without any power, without any support, dares to arm himself against the general order, against the autocracy, against Catherine! Radishchev was alone. He had neither comrades nor accomplices.

In May 1790, Radishchev handed over 25 copies of the printed book to the bookseller Zotov for sale. The author gave several books to his friends; one sent G.R. Derzhavin as a sign of respect for his work. The book was not immediately noticed, probably because the first pages were extremely boring and tedious, but then the noise began. The copies sold by Zotov sold out instantly. Many came to Zotov at Gostiny Dvor and asked for the book that was being talked about in the city. Her bold thoughts about serfdom and other phenomena of social and state life attracted the attention of Catherine II, to whom someone delivered “The Journey.” Catherine read these bitter, outrageous satires for several days in a row. And although the book was published with the permission of the established censorship, prosecution was nevertheless brought against the author. At first they did not know who the author was, since his name was not indicated on the book; but, having arrested the merchant Zotov, they soon learned that the book was written and published by Radishchev.

Radishchev managed to burn all the remaining copies of the book, but on June 30, 1790, the writer was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. His case was “entrusted” to the famous detective S.I. Sheshkovsky, the head of the secret police, an executioner who was directly subordinate to the empress; he was called "whip fighter", his name inspired horror. Catherine reacted to Radishchev’s book with strong irritation, she herself composed question points for Radishchev, “a rebel worse than Pugachev,” herself, through Prince A.A. Bezborodko was in charge of the whole affair.

The investigation proceeded quickly, especially since the accusation of publishing a rebellious book was proven by the book itself, and Radishchev did not deny his authorship. Interrogated by Sheshkovsky, Radishchev declared his repentance, renounced his book, but at the same time, in his testimony he often expressed the same views as presented in “Travel.” Radishchev was deeply shocked by the turn of the case, the threat of the death penalty hanging over him, and especially the threat of extending the punishment to his children. He wrote letters of repentance to Catherine and Sheshkovsky, very pathetic and rhetorical, but completely insincere. In addition to Radishchev, many people involved in the publication and sale of “Travel” were interrogated; investigators looked to see if Radishchev had accomplices, but there were none. Radishchev took all the “blame” upon himself and did not name any of his friends, students and like-minded people, although Sheshkovsky sought the names of his “accomplices.” Radishchev's book was read aloud as material evidence. The court was so afraid of his seditious ideas that even the court secretaries were expelled from the courtroom during this reading. Radishchev's fate was decided in advance: he was found guilty in the very decree to bring him to trial. The task of the Criminal Chamber was only to give legal form to the conviction of Radishchev, to find and draw up the laws under which he was to be convicted. This task was not easy, since it was difficult to blame the author for a book published with proper permission, and for views that had recently enjoyed patronage. The Criminal Chamber applied to Radishchev the articles of the Code on an attempt on the sovereign's health, on conspiracies and treason.

After interrogating those involved in the printing and sale of the book, the process ended. On July 24, the Chamber sentenced Radishchev to death for publishing a book “filled with the most harmful speculations, destroying public peace and belittling due respect for the authorities, seeking to create indignation among the people against the bosses and authorities and offensive, violent expressions against dignity and royal power." Since Radishchev was a nobleman, his sentence had to be approved by the government. On July 26, the verdict was submitted to the Senate, and on August 8, senators approved it. The report on the Senate's decision was presented to Catherine on August 11. She ordered it to be considered by the State Council, hinting that Radishchev, among other things, had insulted her personally with his book. On August 19, the Council approved the verdict. As a result, Radishchev waited 1 month and 11 days for the death penalty. Only on September 4, 1790, Catherine’s personal decree was signed, which found Radishchev guilty of violating the oath and office of a subject. It was pointed out that Radishchev’s guilt is such that he deserves the death penalty, to which he was sentenced by the court, but “out of mercy and for everyone’s joy,” on the occasion of the conclusion of peace with Sweden, the death penalty was replaced by exile to Siberia, to the Ilimsk prison, “for a ten-year sentence.” hopeless stay" and deprivation of ranks and nobility.

The sad fate of Radishchev attracted everyone's attention: the sentence seemed incredible, rumors arose more than once in society that Radishchev had been forgiven and was returning from exile, but these rumors were not justified. Radishchev was taken to the Ilimsk prison in January 1792 and stayed there until the end of Catherine’s reign. It cannot be said that Radishchev’s life in exile was difficult. His position in Siberia was facilitated by the fact that Count A.R. Vorontsov continued to support the exiled writer, sending him books, magazines, scientific instruments, etc. Radishchev received the right to move freely around Ilimsk; he was given a five-room house with numerous outbuildings and 8 servants at his full disposal.

Radishchev was then a widower. His wife’s sister, Elizaveta Vasilievna Rubanovskaya, came to him in Siberia to share his sad solitude with the exile, and brought her younger children (the older ones stayed with their relatives to receive an education). Hot friendship grew into love. In Ilimsk, Radishchev married E.V. Rubanovskaya. Three more children of the writer appeared here.

In Ilimsk, Radishchev indulged in literary pursuits. Here he wrote most of his works - “Letter on the Chinese Trade” (1792), a major philosophical work “On Man, His Mortality and Immortality” (1792-1796), “Abridged Narrative of the Acquisition of Siberia” (1791-1796), "Description of the Tobolsk governorship" and others. He studied Siberian life and nature, made meteorological observations, and read a lot. He conducted chemical experiments in the laboratory and devoted a lot of time to raising children, teaching them history, geography and foreign languages. But Radishchev was not entirely happy. Like all great people, in exile he felt unnecessary Russian society, moreover, powerless to help the serfs doomed to slave labor. He felt such a desire for literary work that even in the fortress, during the trial, he took advantage of permission to write and wrote a story about Philaret the Merciful. In Ilimsk, he also treated the sick, generally tried to help anyone in any way he could and became, according to a contemporary, “a benefactor of that country.” His caring activities extended 500 miles around Ilimsk.

The emperor, soon after his accession to the throne, “to spite his mother,” returned Radishchev from Siberia (Imperial command of November 23, 1796), restored him to rank and nobility, treated him graciously and made him promise not to write anything contrary to the spirit of the government. Radishchev kept his word. During the entire reign of Paul he did not write a single line. Radishchev was ordered to live on his estate in the Kaluga province, the village of Nemtsov, where he was only engaged in raising his children, and the governor watched his behavior and correspondence. Humbled by experience and years, Radishchev even changed the way of thinking that marked his stormy youth. He did not harbor any malice in his heart for the past and sincerely made peace with the glorious memory of the great queen. The Emperor allowed Radishchev to go to the Saratov province to visit his elderly and sick parents. But evil rock He was preparing another test for him: his wife Elizaveta Vasilievna, dear to his heart, died on the road. Widowed for the second time, Radishchev settled with his children in the village of Nemtsovo, which he did not leave until the death of Paul I.

After the accession of Alexander I, Radishchev received complete freedom by decree of March 15, 1801; he was summoned to St. Petersburg and appointed a member of the Commission to draw up laws. In the last years of his life he wrote the poem "Bova", the poem "The Eighteenth Century". But creativity no longer brought satisfaction to the writer. Stories have been preserved that Radishchev, who surprised everyone with his “youth of gray hairs,” enthusiastically set about creating a new project of the “State Code”, submitted a project on the necessary legislative reforms - a project where the liberation of the peasants was again put forward, as well as the destruction of the Table of Ranks, freedom of speech and religion. Contemporaries say that when Radishchev submitted his liberal reform project, the chairman of the commission, Count P.V. Zavadovsky, made him a strict reprimand for his way of thinking, reminding him of his previous hobbies and even mentioning Siberia. According to A.S. Pushkin, the count said reproachfully: “Eh, Alexander Nikolaevich, you still want to talk idle talk! Or was Siberia not enough for you?” Radishchev saw a threat in these words. It was from this moment that fatal changes occurred in his character: he constantly experienced a feeling of anxiety, ardently took on some task, or suddenly lost interest in it and sat motionless for several days. Relatives were seriously alarmed by these manifestations of emotional instability, and subsequently mental illness. Radishchev, a man in poor health and with broken nerves, was so shocked that he decided to commit suicide.

On the night of September 11 (23) to September 12 (24), 1802, Alexander Radishchev committed suicide by taking a lethal dose of poison. He drank the aqua regia that his son used to clean his epaulettes. Death overtook him in terrible agony. He seemed to remember the example of Ushakov, who taught him that “an unbearable life must be forcibly interrupted.” Radishchev was buried at the Volkovskoye cemetery in St. Petersburg. His grave was soon forgotten and lost. It is assumed that the first noble revolutionary was buried near the stone Church of the Resurrection. For a long time, a memorial plaque hung on the wall of the church at the Volkovsky cemetery.

In 1807-1811, a collection of Radishchev’s works was published in St. Petersburg, in six parts, but without the “Travel” and with some omissions in the “Life of Ushakov.” Only in 1858, “Travel” was published in London, with a foreword by Herzen, and ceased to be a bibliographic rarity. From this edition, "The Journey" was reprinted in Leipzig in 1876. In 1868, the Highest Order allowed the publication of “Journey” on the basis of general censorship rules, but in Russia Radishchev’s book was first published only in 1888 in the printing house of the “pro-government” publisher A.S. Suvorin, who received permission to publish only 100 copies at a huge selling price - 25 rubles for each book.

Radishchev's name was banned for a long time. Soon after his death, several articles about him appeared, but then his name almost disappeared in the literature; Only fragmentary and incomplete data are provided about it. Pushkin wrote to Bestuzhev: “How can you forget Radishchev in an article about Russian literature? Who will we remember?” Later, Pushkin became convinced that remembering the author of “Journey” is not so easy: his article about Radishchev was not passed by the censors and appeared in print only 20 years after the poet’s death. Only in the mid-1850s was the ban lifted from Radishchev’s name; There are many articles and notes about him in the press, full biography Radishchev, however, is still missing.

Life of Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev, outstanding writer and political figure of the 18th century, can hardly be called simple. Indeed, despite the unsettled personal life and misunderstanding on the part of his contemporaries, he continued to create and desperately defend his daring views on the reality around him. As often happens, best sons fatherland are not accepted by society and are forced to be outcasts all their lives, and this is a difficult test for any person. So it was this time.

“Man is the only creature on earth who knows the bad, the evil. The special property of man is the unlimited possibility of both improving and being corrupted.”

A.N. Radishchev

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev was born on August 20 (31), 1749 in Moscow into a noble family. The future writer spent his childhood in the village of Nemtsovo, then his family moved to the village of Verkhnee Ablyazovo. Elementary education Alexander Nikolaevich received houses. In 1756, his father took Radishchev to Moscow. The boy was placed with A. Argamakov, who at that time served as the director of Moscow University. Radishchev was trained there by a specially hired French tutor.

In 1762, Alexander Nikolaevich was granted a page and sent to the St. Petersburg Page Corps. In 1766, by order of Catherine II, he was sent to Germany, where he entered the Faculty of Law at the University of Leipzig. During this period of his short biography, Radishchev became interested in the works of Voltaire, Rousseau, Helvetius, and Raynal.

Career and beginning of literary activity

In 1771, Alexander Nikolaevich returned to St. Petersburg. Having received the title of adviser, he got a job as a secretary in the Senate. In the same year, an excerpt from the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was anonymously published for the first time in the magazine “Zhivopiets”.

Since 1773, Radishchev entered military service as a chief auditor at the headquarters of the Finnish division. The writer publishes a translation of Mably's book and completes the works "Officer's Exercises" and "Diary of One Week."

In 1775, Alexander Nikolaevich retired.

In 1777, Radishchev entered the service of the Commerce Collegium, which was headed by Count A. Vorontsov. Since 1780, Alexander Nikolaevich has been working at the St. Petersburg customs, ten years later he becomes its head. In 1783, the writer created the ode “Liberty”, in 1788 - the work “The Life of F.V. Ushakov”.

Exile to Siberia

In 1790, Radishchev completed work on his most important work, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” and published it in his home printing house. In the book, the writer boldly talked about the serfdom system in Russia. This caused a sharp protest from the empress. Alexander Nikolaevich was arrested and sentenced to death, but it was replaced by ten years of exile in the Siberian prison of Ilimsk.

While in Siberia, Radishchev, whose biography was inextricably linked with writing, studied the traditions of the region, created “Letter on the Chinese Trade”, “About Man, His Mortality and Immortality”, “Abridged Narrative of the Acquisition of Siberia”, etc.

Life after exile

In 1796, Emperor Paul I returned Radishchev from exile. The date May 31, 1801 marked the complete liberation of the writer - Alexander I issued a decree on amnesty, returned him noble title. Radishchev was summoned to St. Petersburg and appointed a member of the Commission for Drafting Laws. In one of the projects, Alexander Nikolaevich proposed to abolish serfdom, but he was threatened with a new exile to Siberia. This was a serious shock for the ill and morally broken writer.

On September 12 (24), 1802, Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev committed suicide by taking poison. The writer’s grave has not survived; it is assumed that he is buried at the Volkovskoye cemetery in St. Petersburg.

Chronological table

Other biography options

• The serfs taught little Radishchev to read and write. Since childhood, he learned about the hardships of peasant life, which revived in the writer’s soul hatred of the landowners and pity for the people.
• Alexander Nikolaevich was married twice. The first wife, Anna Rubanovskaya, died in childbirth; they had four children in total. The writer's second wife was younger sister Anna Elizaveta Rubanovskaya, they had three children.
• According to some reports, Radishchev died from a serious illness that struck the writer during his exile.
• Radishchev's work had a significant influence on Russian politics, including the Decembrist movement. A. Lunacharsky spoke of the writer as a prophet and forerunner of the revolution.
• At school, Radishchev's works are studied in the eighth and ninth grades.

Alexander Radishchev

Alexander Radishchev comes from a noble noble family. He received his education at the Corps of Pages and the University of Leipzig. Served in St. Petersburg, did brilliant career. A man of strict principles and a great original. When he was director of the St. Petersburg customs, he never took bribes - the only case in the history of this institution. After his death, English merchants working in St. Petersburg even offered Radishchev’s sons to fully pay the debts of the deceased - they were so amazed by the writer’s lack of silver, which they encountered on business for 12 years.

In 1790, at the age of forty, in his own home printing house he published “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” - a book in which he incredibly sharply criticized the political and social structure of the Russian state. Subject to trial. Sentenced to death. Pardoned by Catherine II. With the deprivation of ranks and awards, he was exiled to Siberia. He was returned from Siberia six years later by Paul I. After another five, he was finally pardoned by Emperor Alexander. Involved in the Law Drafting Commission. He died a year later, on the night of September 11-12, 1802, from poisoning.

Radishchev's death was described in detail by an eyewitness and the writer's first biographer, his son Pavel Radishchev. On the morning of September 11, Alexander Radishchev, being at home, having taken medicine (some kind of sedative), suddenly grabbed a glass of so-called “royal” or “strong” vodka and drank it.

Royal vodka is a mixture of concentrated acids: hydrochloric and nitric in a ratio of 1 to 3; yellow liquid with the smell of chlorine and nitrogen oxides. In Europe it is called royal water - “aqua regia”. The Russian name “royal vodka” comes from the substance’s ability to dissolve the royal metal – gold. Extremely dangerous for humans. Belongs to the group of cauterizing poisons. The most vulnerable organ is the stomach. Poisoning is accompanied by acute “dagger” pain up to loss of consciousness and fatal traumatic shock. The poison acts on the mucous membrane and changes its structure. The most common complication is a violation of the integrity of the stomach wall. In this case, neighboring organs suffer and peritonitis develops.

Radishchev had aqua vodka on hand by chance: the writer’s eldest son, an officer, was using it to clean the tinsel on his worn epaulettes. So, after drinking aqua regia, Radishchev became mad with pain and tried to cut his throat with a razor. His sons disarmed him. The priest was called. Radishchev confessed. The imperial physician Jacob Villiers arrived and tried to stop the effect of the poison with some mixtures. In vain. Another court physician arrived and stated that there was nothing to help. At half past midnight, Radishchev died in terrible agony.

No one has yet questioned Pavel Radishchev’s description. There is no reason not to trust the writer’s son in any way. The mystery lies elsewhere. For a century and a half now, there has been debate about the reasons that prompted Radishchev to drink a glass of this hellish mixture. There are three versions on this score, each of which has many supporters with very big names. This dispute was started, surprisingly, by Alexander Pushkin. In fact, he is the author of one of these three versions.

VERSION ONE: IMPULSIVE SUICIDE

Pushkin's version was announced in 1857, 20 years after the death of Alexander Sergeevich and 55 after the death of Radishchev himself. The 7th volume of the first scientific, regarding full meeting works of Pushkin, published by Pavel Annenkov. In this volume, Pushkin’s article “Alexander Radishchev,” written back in 1836 but not passed by the censorship at that time, was published for the first time. TO mid-19th century Radishchev is already a virtually forgotten author. Biographical information about him has not appeared in print. His rebellious book, of course, was not republished. The publication of Pushkin's article reminded the Russian public that there was such a writer.

The article is caustic. The late Pushkin did not share Radishchev’s political views at all, “...Radishchev’s crime will seem to us the action of a madman. A petty official, a man without any power, without any support, dares to arm himself against the general order, against the autocracy, against Catherine! And note: the conspirator relies on the united forces of his comrades; a member of a secret society, in case of failure, either prepares to earn a pardon by means of a letter, or, considering the large number of his accomplices, relies on impunity. But Radishchev is alone. He has neither comrades nor accomplices. If he fails, what kind of success can he expect? - He alone is responsible for everything, he alone appears to be a victim of the law. We never considered Radishchev a great man. His act always seemed to us a crime, unexcusable, and “Journey to Moscow” was a very mediocre book; but with all this, we cannot help but recognize him as a criminal with an extraordinary spirit; a political fanatic, mistaken of course, but acting with amazing selflessness and a kind of knightly conscience.”

Pushkin reports the following about the death of Radishchev. While working in the Law Drafting Commission, Radishchev proposed to his superiors an overly revolutionary project in the spirit of his “Journey”. For his inappropriate initiative, he received a playful reproach from his boss, Count Zavadovsky: “Was Siberia not enough for you?” Seeing a real threat in the joke, Radishchev returned home and poisoned himself. According to modern psychiatric classification, Pushkin’s version is automatic or impulsive suicide: “The end he had long foreseen and which he prophesied to himself!”

Impulsive suicide is the result of a snap decision. It can be provoked by the sight of some object suitable for suicide - a knife or the same glass of a poisonous substance. People who are not completely mentally balanced commit such suicide. In order to assert that Radishchev belongs to this particular type of suicide, it is necessary to understand his mental makeup more deeply.

Radishchev’s most inappropriate act, besides drinking a glass of acid, is, in fact, his main book. Pushkin directly calls the publication of “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” “the act of a madman.” There is no practical benefit. IN late XVIII century in Russia, even the most brilliantly written revolutionary book led to nothing other than criminal prosecution of the author. The educated class for the most part does not read anything in Russian. They read in French. There is not and cannot be any kind of revolutionary underground in the country. The fact that people live poorly in Russia is not news, including for Catherine herself. Publishing a book is a senseless and suicidal act.

But when, following Pushkin, they talk about publishing a book as a suicidal act of a madman, this is a certain metaphor. Otherwise, Radishchev was quite normal: consistent, practical and prudent. A brilliant career - until the arrest. There's nothing strange about the link either. Only just before his death, according to his son, due to troubles with Pyotr Zavadovsky and general professional failures, he fell into despondency.

He actually told the children that he was afraid to end up in Siberia again. Some fears were gnawing at him. Monstrous hypochondria. The treatment didn't help. However, he himself understood that something was wrong with him. I went to the doctor on my own initiative. He conscientiously took his medications, including before drinking a glass of acid. But the anxiety did not go away. It all ended with unexpected poisoning from aqua regia that accidentally came into contact with the eyes.

So, according to Pushkin, Radishchev offered Zavadovsky some kind of revolutionary project ( we're talking about about the draft Civil Code), he joked about Siberia, after which the writer returned home and was poisoned in his heart.

In this version, the most important point is the fear of ending up in Siberia again. Grigory Chkhartishvili (better known as Boris Akunin), in his book about suicidal writers, attributes Radishchev’s case to the so-called camp syndrome - this is when former prisoners commit suicide for fear of repeating what happened to them. This can very often be observed in the 20th century in the example of former prisoners of German and Soviet camps.

But this version did not suit many people and still does not suit them, despite all the authority of Pushkin. To accept it, you must agree that, at least before his death, Radishchev was not completely adequate. Following Pushkin’s story, we discover cowardice in Radishchev’s actions: his death is a kind of death of an official. It’s strange: in publishing “Journey,” Alexander Nikolaevich, on the contrary, showed rare, albeit reckless, courage.

Pavel Radishchev was the first to respond to the publication of Pushkin’s article in special “Remarks”. He consistently analyzes the essay, refuting various biographical inaccuracies, and at the same time defends his father from Pushkin’s critical arrows. Commenting on Pushkin’s description of the writer’s death, Pavel Nikolaevich notes: “Pushkin writes completely wrong about the death of Radishchev, without knowing reliably how it happened.” It's hard to argue. Pavel Radishchev has higher competence in this matter. Pushkin relied mainly on rumors and legends, while his opponent saw everything for himself.

According to Pavel Radishchev, his father had no reason to fear repeated exile. The very beginning of Alexander's reign. The young emperor is seriously thinking about liberal reforms. He and Radishchev called for government activities as an iconic figure, a legendary liberal. His appointment to the Law Drafting Commission is an important symbolic act. Most of the planned reforms will remain in the projects, but we know about this now, and then Alexander himself did not know this.

The Emperor would not exile Radishchev even for the most desperate projects; this is not in his custom. In addition, Radishchev’s main patron at court, Count Alexander Vorontsov, is the immediate superior of Count Pyotr Zavadovsky, State Chancellor and the actual head of the Commission. Most likely, Catherine’s former favorite Zavadovsky made an inappropriate joke. Radishchev had no reason to fear for his fate. But he could be offended.

According to Pavel Radishchev, the project was drawn up but not submitted. Zavadovsky was seriously annoyed with Radishchev, but not for a specific project, but for general direction thoughts, and threatened him with trouble, mentioning Siberia. That is, there were real threats, and not just subtle bossy humor. Next comes the most serious discrepancy. According to his son, either the conversation with Zavadovsky, or some other reasons, plunged Radishchev into despondency. He fell into a severe depression, which, intensifying, acquired the character of a mental disorder.

In this state, he grabbed a glass of acid. So the suicide was not senseless. Spontaneous, but also natural.

Both Pushkin and Pavel Radishchev, by and large, are supporters of the same version. It’s just that, according to Pushkin, Radishchev made the decision to commit suicide without any particular reason.

And Pavel Radishchev believes: his father’s suicide is the result of mental illness, severe depression and abusive treatment by Zavadovsky.

Pushkin’s article made Radishchev relevant again, and the time was right: the end of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the emergence of an era of enormous changes in Russian social and political life. Soon Radishchev will become a very important figure for the Russian intelligentsia. His death will no longer be of interest only to family members. Then the second version of the death of Alexander Radishchev will appear.

VERSION TWO: PHILOSOPHICAL SUICIDE

The second version of suicide can be designated as “philosophical,” i.e., leaving life as a deeply conscious step, a certain message, by revealing the meaning of which we will understand the motive. We know many such suicides. Disputes about them have not subsided for centuries and even millennia. Suicide as a gesture! Suicide is the last word! Suicide is like pointe at the end of life! For the 18th century, this topic was generally very important. One might say that philosophical suicide then became fashionable.

To confirm the version of philosophical suicide, it is necessary to prove that Radishchev was a consistent revolutionary, and then we can consider his voluntary departure from life not as an impulsive act, but as an action aimed at achieving a specific goal.

The publication of Pushkin's article about Radishchev in 1857 attracted the attention of Alexander Herzen to this forgotten writer. A year later, Herzen, in his Free Russian Printing House, published for the first time since 1790 full text“Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow” with its own introductory article. In it, Radishchev is called the historical predecessor of the Decembrists and next generation revolutionaries, to which Herzen himself belongs. In Pushkin, Radishchev is a dreamer, at first carried away by the ideas of the revolution, and then disillusioned and died, not fully understanding what he wants. Herzen is a consistent supporter of liberation. A posthumous dispute with Pushkin about Radishchev begins. Appears a large number of critical articles, then Scientific research. A lot of new information has been revealed that sheds additional light on the death of Radishchev.

This dispute continues to this day, and today simply not everyone remembers that it was started by Pushkin and Herzen.

The whole life of Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev makes him think about a pre-thought-out, mature method of care.

In Pushkin, Radishchev looks like a naive dreamer who does not fully understand the meaning of his actions. Everyone who studied at Soviet school, they know another Radishchev - the first Russian revolutionary, a fighter against the regime, not completely broken. In school textbooks these words sound clichéd – they are boring to believe. In fact, the perception of Radishchev as a consistent revolutionary throughout his life is rooted in the entire tradition of Russian liberal historiography - from Alexander Herzen to Nathan Eidelman and Yuri Lotman. Revolutionary and Enlightener. A model of Roman republican virtues. Such a Radishchev could not hysterically drink a glass of some rubbish and die incredibly stupidly.

Nathan Eidelman wrote: “We decisively reject the version of madness: the surviving documents and memories of Radishchev’s last months testify to intelligence and energy. Zavadovsky’s threat - “Siberia is not enough for you” - cannot drive to suicide someone who really stands firmly for his own, who clearly sees in Zavadovsky and others like him hated opponents. No, a revolutionary does not commit suicide when circumstances worsen or the siege intensifies.”

Yuri Lotman, the most famous Russian philologist and cultural historian, is a consistent supporter of the version of philosophical suicide. The scientist believed that Radishchev subordinated his life and even death to the doctrines of philosophers, but by his human make-up he was not a Stoic philosopher; on the contrary, he was a passionate and impulsive man. Hence the paradoxical conclusion: Radishchev’s impulsive actions are deliberate in nature. He thought about suicide for many years, went for it consciously, but the very execution of his plan was semi-spontaneous in nature: there was no poison - he drank “royal vodka”, and then tried to kill himself.

Radishchev, according to Yuri Lotman, is flesh and blood of the 18th century, or, as it is also called, the century of Enlightenment or the century of philosophers. The cornerstone of Enlightenment philosophy was the idea of ​​liberation through knowledge. Knowledge, cleared of prejudice, makes a person free - he begins to think and act rationally. From here it is one step to the demand for political and spiritual freedom, because the power of the church and the monarch is based on prejudices.

The ideological basis of the Great french revolution was precisely the philosophy of the Enlightenment. Some influential philosophers of this movement viewed suicide under certain circumstances as a freedom-loving act. This was not clearly stated anywhere. There is no book that can be called “Catechism of Suicides”. Suicide is an extreme case, the last argument, but a philosopher can resort to it if necessary, because the right to manage one’s life is the right of a free person. Most often, this type of suicide was committed when a person was physically deprived of freedom of choice: in a situation of arrest or death sentence. This was the choice of Socrates in antiquity.

The Great French Revolution was marked by the first epidemic of suicides in modern history. Someone stabbed himself to death right in the hall of the revolutionary tribunal. Someone committed suicide in prison. The famous philosopher Condorcet poisoned himself with opium, Robespierre tries to shoot himself, his brother throws himself out of a window. Six Jacobins, having heard the sentence to the guillotine, took turns stabbing themselves with one dagger. They died in unimaginable ways. One of Robespierre's supporters swallowed nails and died in agony. Hundreds and thousands of ordinary participants in the revolution cut themselves, shot, poisoned, caught up in the general epidemic and taking advantage of the right of a free person to voluntarily die.

When hated opponents, having trampled on your ideals, try to take your life of their own free will, you oppose them with your own will and die voluntarily.

The philosophy of the Enlightenment does not oppose the idea of ​​suicide to the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul. Moreover, some philosophers link these two ideas directly, considering the death of Christ as a kind of suicide. He knew that he would be killed, and he went to his death consciously. A few logical conclusions, and it turns out that the suicide does not destroy his immortal soul. By the way, only Blessed Augustine interpreted suicide as a grave sin - this is not a biblical tradition, but a later one.

According to Yuri Lotman, Radishchev, like the leaders of the French Revolution, viewed suicide as a civil act. By and large, what difference does it make between dying on the guillotine and being stabbed to death? The guillotine is even less painful. Suicide has one advantage - even in death you retain the right to freely choose, the right of a citizen. This is such an antique model.

During the Enlightenment, ancient designs were copied. Radishchev's suicide reproduced the death of Cato Uticus, the legendary Roman who committed suicide at the moment of the fall of the republic. Cato achieved his goal - his heroic suicide has been igniting the souls of freedom fighters for two millennia. This is the kind of Russian Cato that Radishchev wanted to become. By drinking poison, he not only sought personal liberation, but also hoped for political consequences.

Radishchev, by committing suicide, sought to change state policy. Working in the Law Drafting Commission meant taking the path of slow reform and gradual enlightenment. If Radishchev really had not abandoned the ideas of his famous book by that time, then this was not his path. Alexander was not so radical as to radically liberate his people.

Continuing his life meant numerous humiliating compromises for the writer. Radishchev would have been forced to abandon his previous views or act contrary to them.

The awakening of the people was imagined by Radishchev as the result of a kind of psychological shock: the heroic death of a magnanimous philosopher, consciously going to his death, would shock the people and awaken their political self-awareness. If there is no hope of causing a freedom-loving explosion among contemporaries, then “propaganda” suicide may have another goal - an appeal to history and descendants, to those who will resurrect the memory of their heroic predecessors.

Most researchers are still inclined towards the version of spontaneous or philosophical suicide - they only argue about the motives. Radishchev thought and wrote too much about suicide. This topic was extremely important to him. Pushkin drew attention to this. Pushkin's authority is too great.

But this version is not final either.

VERSION THREE: ACCIDENT

The third version is the most exotic and least common. Radishchev didn’t even think about poisoning himself. His death is an accident. The writer drank a glass of aqua regia by accident, confusing it with water. There was a suicide attempt, but after the unintentional poisoning, when, realizing what had happened, Radishchev tried to kill himself to stop the torment. The children got in the way. So, according to the third version, Radishchev did not commit suicide, but died due to a fatal accident.

Doctors deal with similar cases all the time. On the eve of his death, Radishchev was in a depressed state. It is in such circumstances that, as a rule, people lose concentration and poison themselves unintentionally.

The most detailed version of accidental poisoning was put forward by the Leningrad literary critic Dmitry Semenovich Babkin. His monograph on Radishchev, published in 1966, states that the writer died after accidentally drinking a glass of aqua regia. The main argument, however, is anecdotal: Radishchev could not commit suicide, because before last days retained an unshakable will for the revolutionary struggle. But fighters against the regime do not give up. Babkin’s book is so Soviet-style opportunistic and poorly argued that the version of death presented in it was perceived by historians and philologists as no more than a curiosity. Nevertheless, perhaps Babkin was not mistaken, but accidentally stumbled upon the truth.

Indeed, the beginning of Alexander’s reign for Radishchev was the time of greatest success. Pavel returned him from Siberia, but at the same time only changed the place of exile to the Kaluga estate, without restoring his rights. For early XIX century, a nobleman deprived of his rights is a pariah.

And then Alexander comes. The verdict is demonstratively and completely overturned. Moreover, Radishchev is called to St. Petersburg and appointed to a responsible post. He is the only one of the entire Commission for Drafting Laws, except for the highest authorities, who was summoned to the coronation in Moscow. His friend and patron Vorontsov is in force. Radishchev could perceive everything that was happening as a triumph of justice.

But Radishchev is seriously ill, he has old syphilis. As modern researcher Vladimir Kantor writes, “It also does not seem that a person who knew that he was sick with a bad disease, essentially killed his wife, rewarded his children with all the consequences of this disease, then in the same way killed his sister-in-law - his second wife and never whoever thought about suicide as a gesture of repentance would have been frightened by the empty words of the nobleman, which, of course, could not seem serious to him, an experienced person who had been through real arrest and prison. Which they weren't. Moreover, as everyone knows, suicides want to die so as not to suffer in this life, and whenever possible they avoid painful deaths.”

His death did not cause any special action on the part of the authorities; no one perceived it as a political act. Alexander, of course, did not forbid Radishchev. Five years after his death, a collection of the writer’s works was published, but “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was not in it. No matter how liberal the tsar was at that time, such harsh criticism social order He could not allow Russia to make it public. Moreover, “The Journey” does not show his beloved grandmother Ekaterina in the best light. And everything written by Radishchev, except for “Journey,” is of no particular interest to a non-specialist. The publication of his works went unnoticed. So the writer is forgotten. Then times changed. Nicholas is the emperor under whom, even for sins less than those of Radishchev, people were made into soldiers and sent to the far outskirts of the empire. It became impossible to mention Radishchev in the press. Thus came oblivion.

And when, thanks to Herzen, and then Plekhanov and Lenin, Radishchev was proclaimed a kind of John the Baptist of Russian free-thinking, it became important that the first Russian revolutionary, through his death, suicide, would get even with the autocracy.

Meanwhile, it would be easy for a sick person, a hypochondriac and a syphilitic, to confuse the water with aqua regia. Freshly prepared aqua regia is colorless, and only after a few seconds it acquires Orange color. You can grab a glass (as stated in the doctor’s report) with “strong vodka prepared in it to burn out the old officer’s epaulettes of the eldest son” automatically.

The burial documents indicate a natural death. On the record of the church Volkovsky cemetery in St. Petersburg from September 13 1802 Among those buried is “college adviser Alexander Radishchev; fifty-three years old, died of consumption, the priest Vasily Nalimov was at the carrying out.”