The main ideas of Buddhism briefly. Like other religions, Buddhism promises people deliverance from the most painful aspects of human existence - suffering, adversity, passions, fear of death

BC, in the middle of the 1st millennium, as a counterweight to the prevailing Brahmanism, Buddhism arose in the northern part of India, which is still considered one of the most ancient ideologies in the world. Taking a major position in philosophy, Buddhism originates from the preaching of the Buddha (Prince Siddhartha Gautama) about the four sublime truths that were revealed to him at the moment of Enlightenment. Buddha, which is translated from Sanskrit as enlightened one.

At first, Buddhism was a doctrine, ideology and philosophy, only later it became a religion. In a rational system of well-founded views on the world around us, on man and knowledge, lies Buddhist philosophy, which has developed within the framework of different directions and schools of Buddhism. The course of events that shaped the philosophy of Buddhism and the philosophy of Brahmanism differed in the way of speculation.

The Brahmanistic worldview was guided by the age-old power of religiosity and mythopoetic traditions, which developed a special concept of way of life and thinking. The philosophy of Buddhism, on the other hand, determines the nature of human consciousness and psyche during the accumulation of acquired knowledge. The founder of Buddhism reasonably explains the subtle and deep morality that comprehended him at the moment of Enlightenment, transforming the consciousness of people and changing the structure of their psyche to work in a new order of salvation or liberation. Buddhist philosophy is based on three principles:

1. Anitya or theory of all-round transformation and instability

Everything that exists is subject to modification and dynamism. “All things are subject to change and decomposition; everything that exists is created by special conditions, disappearing with their elimination. Everything that has a beginning also has an end,” said Buddha;

2. Pratitya-samutpada or the theory of interdependent arising

The variability inherent in everything that exists is not chaos, because it is subject to the rule of the interdependent emergence of dharma. A single and instinctive rule of connection determines all events in the spiritual and material worlds. Without the support of a conscious leader, Dharma acts intuitively. The emerging root cause accompanies the effect. Everything that exists is predetermined and has a reason. Nothing happens without a reason;

3. Anatmavada or the theory of non-existence of the soul

The state of denial of the absolute higher Self or Atman. The Buddha does not deny the indivisibility of an identical substance (soul) in a person and a single series of flows of situations. The ongoing flow of situations is life, depending on previous conditions that give rise to subsequent states. The formation of vital unity is most often interpreted as a burning lamp throughout the night, because its flame is subject to the conditions of the moment of burning. The soul, in this theory, is replaced by a continuous stream of consciousness. In this situation, the transmigration of souls into other bodies does not exist.

Ideas of Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama or Shakyamuni was not the Creator or God, he was an ordinary person who found the opportunity to understand life - the source of external and internal difficulties. Having overcome his own difficulties and limitations, he realized an effective opportunity to help other people, becoming a Buddha - completely Enlightened. He proved by his example that any person can achieve Enlightenment, because he has the abilities, capabilities and factors that allow transformation to take place - the “Buddha nature” predominates in everyone.

Everyone has a mind, a capacity for understanding and knowledge; has a heart and a gift for showing feelings towards others. Everyone is gifted with communication and energy, that is, the ability to act. While teaching people individual systems and methods, the Buddha understood that people are not identical and are characterized by different inclinations, and therefore did not put forward any one dogmatic teaching. Stimulated people to accept faith and test it through their own experience.

Buddhism contains the idea of ​​equality of all people in terms of having the same opportunities. In Buddhism there is no idea of ​​​​the kingdom of an infinite soul that atones for sins, but a person’s actions will certainly return, causing karma, but not divine punishment. Human actions are the result of thoughts and actions.

The Supreme Head, Guru of all Gurus and spiritual mentor of all Buddhists in the world today is the Dalai Lama. According to him, the path to happiness lies through three stages: knowledge, humility and creation. Everyone has the will to choose what is closest to them. Lama chose two paths: knowledge and creation. Buddhism tells people about themselves, causing true interest, exciting the consciousness and mind, helping a person find harmony with himself and being the shortest path to understanding his own existence.

Despite this, not everyone is given the opportunity to understand and achieve full knowledge; only those who see the root of their failures will be able to perceive the highest plan of the Universe. The desire to establish contact between oneself and the Universe, asking the question “Who are we and where did we come from?” gives people the opportunity and strength for self-improvement. The main and primary ideas of Buddhism are:

• The world is a deep ocean of suffering and sorrow that surrounds us everywhere;
• The basis of suffering lies in man's selfish desires;
• Internal work on oneself, getting rid of desires and selfishness - allows you to achieve Enlightenment and liberation from suffering or Nirvana - bliss and freedom of thought, which are the primary source of all troubles.

Every person is given the opportunity to follow simple rules leading to happiness, but in the modern world it is difficult to follow, because there are many temptations that weaken our will. Most adherents of Buddhism leave their homes and go to monasteries, ridding themselves of thoughts of temptation. This is the true, but difficult path to understanding the meaning and achieving nirvana.

Buddhist doctrine - truths and foundations

There are basic concepts of the Buddhist faith:

• Karma is a fundamental principle that explains the causes and consequences of events that happen to a person. "What goes around comes around";
• Incarnation is the rule of rebirth of one living being into another. This rule differs from the “transmigration of souls”, since it does not recognize the existence of a permanent soul, like. Karma passes from one living being to another.
• The Four Noble Truths formulated by Shakyamuni.

Achieving Nirvana is one of the basic goals of Buddhism. Nirvana is the highest degree of awareness achieved through renunciation of oneself and comfortable conditions. After long meditations and deep reflection, the Buddha realized self-control over consciousness, which led him to the conclusion about human attachments to worldly goods and excessive concern about the opinions of other people.

In this regard, the human soul ceases to improve and begins to degrade, but only the achievement of nirvana will help to escape from “slave” behavior. There is a circle of basic beliefs that serve as the basics of Buddhist teachings. These basic considerations contain 4 noble axioms:

1. About suffering. Every person is influenced to one degree or another by Dukhi - negative thoughts, anger, fears and suffering;
2. The root cause of suffering. Dukhi has a cause that contributes to the emergence of dependence on greed, weakness of will, lust and other destructive desires;
3. About self-elimination of the root causes of suffering. Everyone is given a chance to get rid of Dukkha;
4. About the path of liberation. Complete liberation from Dukkha lies on the path to Nirvana.

The first truth says that a person exists in suffering, dissatisfaction, disappointment, and happy moments, in the future, also lead to suffering. Suffering or torment is a reason, in the form of a great desire to master something, lying in attachment to people and people to the existing world.

The meaning of the first two axioms is overcome by the next two, where they talk about the generation of reasons for suffering and their subordination to human will - to interrupt the vicious circle of suffering and disappointment, it is necessary to give up desires. The key to getting rid of the causes of suffering is found in the fourth axiom, which is confirmed in the eightfold noble path. “The good eightfold path is right views, intentions, speech, error-free actions, lifestyle, right effort, awareness and concentration.” The Eightfold Path has three main components:

• a culture of behavior (unerring thoughts, words and actions), including the commandments: do not kill, do not steal, do not lie and do not commit adultery; and virtues; generosity, good behavior, humility and purification;
• culture of meditation (conscious concentration) - a set of exercises aimed at achieving inner peace, detachment from the world and pacification of passions;
• culture of wisdom (right views) – knowledge of the 4 noble truths.

Of all the noble axioms, the Eightfold Path forms the Buddhist philosophy. But not a single religion in the world recognizes the possibility of a person becoming a god-like being through his own efforts. You should not rush to extremes, but by maintaining the “middle path” or the “golden” mean of the spiritual and material worlds, you can get closer to God.

A Brief History of the Origin of Buddhism

In the philosophy of Ancient India, Buddhism, which allows one to comprehend Zen, is and has been in a leading position in society. Briefly examining the origins of Buddhism, we note that its emergence was facilitated by changes in the life situation of the people of India. Approximately, in the middle of the sixth century BC, society was affected by economic and cultural crises. The generally accepted customs that existed before the emergence of the new religion underwent transformation.

The most important fact was that class relations in society were being formed at that time. The appearance of ascetics, who formed their own vision of the world, contributed to the emergence of Buddhism, which opposed the traditions of the past. Prince Siddhartha Gautama, born into the family of a wealthy ruler of the Shakya tribe, in 560 BC, was the future founder of Buddhism. The rich prince, from childhood to adolescence, did not feel disappointment or need, was surrounded by luxury, being unaware of the existence of illness, old age and death.

One day, while walking outside the palace, the prince encountered a real shock: old, sick people and a funeral procession. The sight he saw had such a strong influence on Siddhartha that at the young age of 29 he joined the wandering hermits. Since then, he began to search for the truth of existence, trying to understand the nature of human problems, looking for ways to eliminate them. In search of answers to questions of interest from the sages, he realized that an endless string of reincarnations is inevitable if one does not free oneself from suffering in the present incarnation.

During 6 years of pilgrimages, Gautama tried various techniques and practices of yoga, moving on to other ways to achieve Enlightenment. The way that worked was through reflection and daily prayer. At the moment of reflection under the famous Bodhi tree, he achieved Enlightenment and found the long-awaited answers to his questions. For several days he remained in one place, after this and unexpected understanding. Then, going to the valley of the Ganges River, he received the name “Enlightened One” and began to preach the teachings to people, starting from the city of Varanasi in northeast India.

Hello, dear readers – seekers of knowledge and truth!

As you know, knowledge of any subject begins with studying its basics. Therefore, we invite you today to talk briefly about the main ideas of Buddhism: learn the most important things about this storehouse of wisdom, go back two and a half thousand years ago, get acquainted with Buddha Shakyamuni and study the main provisions of his philosophical heritage.

This article will also tell about the fundamental truths, commandments, scriptures and outline the boundaries between different schools of Buddhism.

A little history

The concept of “Buddhism” was introduced not by adherents of this movement, but by European figures about two centuries ago.

Today Buddhism is known on all continents. He is especially revered in Asian countries and the Far East. But Buddhists, who number almost half a billion people, also live in Western countries.

There are Buddhist communities in many large European cities. Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Russia - this is not the entire list of countries where the legacy of Shakyamuni is revered.

Key Ideas

It is important to understand that Buddhism is not a religion in the usual sense, it is rather a philosophy, a tradition, a system of views on life, the main goal of which is to achieve enlightenment.

There is no God here whose origin is transcendental and whose worship is resigned. Buddha is not God, he is a man who managed to achieve nirvana, and he tells his disciples his path.

The emphasis is on the fact that a person himself must have the desire to change, understand the nature of this world, clear the mind of vain thoughts, indulge in deep reflection, achieve harmonious relationships with the world around him, get rid of passions, desires and be saved. This is called nirvana - complete liberation from suffering.

Nirvana can be achieved by observing strict ethical rules, constant meditation, reciting mantras, a modest, ascetic behavior, and also with the support of various bodhisattvas and buddhas - beings who have already achieved Enlightenment.

Nirvana ends the rotation of the wheel of samsara - a series of rebirths. Buddhists do not doubt the idea of ​​reincarnation, but in every life people are born, get sick, die, which in itself is suffering. By leaving, you can get rid of it forever.

An important concept in the Buddhist tradition, known to many, is. Any of our actions, feelings and even thoughts are reflected in the future. They, good or destructive, will leave a karmic imprint and will inevitably lead to consequences.

The laws of cause and effect are inextricably linked with this view. Shakyamuni taught that everything has conditions of occurrence and entails certain consequences.

Buddha said: “A good cause produces a good result. A bad reason means a bad result. My reason is my result.”

Philosophy defines the core values:

• Buddha is a great Teacher, and everyone who has reached the truth along his path is called a Buddha;
• – doctrine, its provisions, concepts;
• Sangha is a Buddhist community that teaches correct adherence to rules and immutable principles.

On the path to liberation, you need to learn to confront difficulties and brush aside the so-called “three poisons”:

• ignorance, departure from the truth;
• indulgence of passions and bodily desires;
• angry, uncontrollable behavior.

The Buddhist tradition adheres to the main ideas:

• four noble truths;
• five commandments;
• middle way;

Truths

Shakyamuni told his disciples four noble truths:

• there is a lot of suffering in the world - dukhi;
• they have a reason behind them - desires;
• there is a way to get rid of suffering;
• this path leads to nirvana.

Commandments

• do not harm living beings, do not kill them;
• don't steal;
• dont lie;
• do not commit adultery;
• do not use intoxicants.

Middle way

Buddha bequeathed to his descendants to adhere to the “middle path.” This means that one should not rush to extremes from a life entirely consisting of pleasures to complete asceticism, which can cause harm to a person. We need to find a middle ground that will contribute to spiritual and physical development.

Eightfold Path

You need to go through eight stages on the road to self-improvement, the main reward of which will be the highest stage - nirvana. All steps are important, they interact, so it is important to point in the right direction:

• understanding, vision of the world;
• thoughts, intentions;
• words;
• actions;
• Lifestyle;
• efforts, efforts;
• attention, mental and sensory control;
• concentration, which is achieved through meditation.

Holy books

The main book, like the Bible for Christians, like the Koran for Muslims, for Buddhists is the Tripitaka. It is a collection of scriptures compiled into three different volumes. Hence the name, which translates as “three baskets”.

• Vinaya-Pitaka. Describes the rules of behavior of monks within the community, about five hundred rituals performed, gives examples from the life of the Awakened One and interesting parables about some traditions.
• Sutra Pitaka. It contains over ten thousand famous sayings of the Teacher and reveals the details of his life.
• Abhidharma Pitaka. A section on the theory of philosophy, which systematizes concepts, knowledge, and fundamental principles of Dharma.

Schools

Over the course of centuries of history, the Buddhist view has spread far beyond the borders of the homeland, attracting thousands of adherents. It transformed, changed, flowed from one form to another. The basis of Buddhism remains intact, but still some views on the world order may differ from one direction to another.

In one of them, for example, the person of the Buddha is worshiped and deified by bodhisattvas, while in another there may be no recognition of any authority except one's own heart. According to one school, only monks who have accepted asceticism can become a Buddhist, while another accepts into its ranks everyone who sincerely believes.

There can be a lot of such examples, so it is customary to separate the main currents, which, in turn, are divided into smaller directions.

Theravada

The most ancient school, which appeared shortly after Shakyamuni's parinirvana. It is considered the most strict and conservative. According to Theravadins, only a monk can achieve nirvana.

There are no special rituals, a pantheon of saints, or images in the form of sculptures. At the heart of everything are the actions, thoughts and correct behavior of a person.

Mahayana

A school that gives hope even to the laity to break out of the circle of rebirth, which means suffering, and achieve Awakening. It is also known as the "Great Chariot".

This direction presents images of saints - boddhisattvas, buddhas, so that they help believers in such a difficult matter.

Vajrayana

Known to many as the “Diamond Chariot”, it places tantra at the center of dharma - the art of self-development, healing through various practices, meditation, self-control, and self-awareness.

Nowadays, the geography of Buddhism is incredibly wide; there are several classifications of its movements, and in their listing, many call the average number eighteen. Among them are Tibetan schools, for example, Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma, as well as Japanese Shingon, Zen , neo-Buddhism and many other branches.

Conclusion

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! The Buddhist world is amazing, we are just beginning to discover it. Share this article on social networks, and let's search for the truth together.

Literally these words contain the whole meaning of Buddhist teaching, at least in its original form. The founder and main object of worship in Buddhism is Prince Gautama Siddhartha, who lived in 563 - 483 BC, which suggests that this religion is one of the oldest in the world.

The concept of God in Buddhism

Some individual sects revere Buddha as God, but other Buddhists see him as their founder, mentor and enlightener. Buddhists believe that enlightenment can only be achieved through the infinite energy of the Universe. Thus, the Buddhist world does not recognize a creator God, omniscient and omnipotent. Every person is a part of the deity. Buddhists do not have one permanent God; every enlightened person can achieve the title of “Buddha”. This understanding of God makes Buddhism different from most Western religions.

The essence of Buddhist practice

Buddhists strive to purify the clouded states of mind that distort reality. These are anger, fear, ignorance, selfishness, laziness, jealousy, envy, greed, irritation and others. Buddhism cultivates and develops such pure and beneficial qualities of consciousness as kindness, generosity, gratitude, compassion, hard work, wisdom and others. All this allows you to gradually learn and clear your mind, which leads to a lasting sense of well-being. By making the mind strong and bright, Buddhists reduce anxiety and irritation, which lead to adversity and depression. Ultimately, Buddhism is a necessary condition for the deepest insights that lead to the final liberation of the mind.

Buddhism is a religion not so much of a mystical as of a philosophical nature. Buddhist doctrine contains 4 main “noble truths” about human suffering:

On the nature of suffering;
about the origin and causes of suffering;
about ending suffering and eliminating its sources;
about ways to end suffering.

The last, fourth truth, points to the path to the destruction of suffering and pain, otherwise called the eightfold path to achieving inner peace. This state of mind allows you to immerse yourself in transcendental meditation and achieve wisdom and enlightenment.

Morals and ethics of Buddhism

Buddhist morals and ethics are built on the principles of non-harm and moderation. At the same time, a person’s sense of morality, concentration and wisdom is nurtured and developed. And with the help of meditation, Buddhists learn the mechanisms of the mind and the cause-and-effect relationships between bodily, spiritual and psychological processes. The teachings of Buddhism have become the basis of a number of schools, which are united by the fact that each, at its own level of understanding of the life and teachings of the Buddha, is aimed at the comprehensive development of man - the meaningful use of body, speech and mind.

But since Buddhist teaching is multifaceted and is based not on faith, but on experience, it is not enough to limit ourselves to only describing its content. The features of this spiritual path become visible only in comparison with other worldviews and religions. And one should approach the teachings of the Buddha only after freeing the energy of the mind from strict moral standards.

Development of Buddhism in the world

The call for freedom from suffering and belief in the energy of the Universe led to the emergence of Western mentalist doctrines of the 19th and 20th centuries. The first adherents of Buddhism in the West were mainly immigrants from Asia and the East, who were tormented by internal anxiety, and then they were joined by agnostics and atheists of all affiliations.

In Tibet, Buddhism was the state religion and before the capture of Tibet by China, the main Buddhist of the country, the Dalai Lama, was also the head of the state. After the Chinese invasion in the 50s of the last century, the 14th Dalai Lama was forced to leave the country and go to India in order to bring the light of teaching to his followers from there. He is the recipient of the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize. Worship of the Dalai Lama is prohibited in Tibet, and even for possessing a photograph of the Dalai Lama, Tibetans face serious punishment.

In the USA and Europe, Buddhism received its large-scale spread in the form of Zen Buddhism, a movement that arose in the 12th century in Japan. The Buddhist monk Shaku Soen, a representative of this trend, gave a stormy speech at the World Congress of Religions in Chicago (1893) about the “divinity of mind” of Zen Buddhism. After this day, Zen and yoga are the most popular eastern teachings in the West, where control of the mind over the body is considered a priority. Zen practices an emphasis on individual meditation and a lack of authority on scriptures, prayers and teachings. As in Buddhism, in Zen wisdom is comprehended through experience, and its highest hypostasis is enlightenment (awakening). It is possible that such interest in Zen Buddhism in the West arose due to the simplicity of this teaching. After all, according to the teachings of the Buddha, every person himself is capable of becoming a Buddha, which means that everyone is part of the earthly deity. And you need to look for answers only in yourself.

Hello, dear readers!

Today in our article we will talk about what Buddhism is and give a brief description of this religion.

Buddhism is one of the main world religions along with Christianity and Islam. There are about 500 million “pure” Buddhists in the world who profess only Buddhism. However, this religion does not prohibit adherence to any other faith. Recently, Buddhism has been very popular in the Western world, many people come to the desire to join it. Perhaps the peacefulness and tranquility of this religion plays no small role in this.

Story

First, let's find out where and how this religious and philosophical movement appeared.

Buddhism originated in the 6th century BC. in India. From India, Buddhism spread to other Asian countries. The more popular it became, the more branches it formed.

The founder of Buddhism was Prince Gautama Siddhartha. He was born into a rich family, and his life was full of luxury and fun.

According to legend, at the age of 29, the prince had an epiphany: he realized that he was wasting his life. Deciding to leave his previous existence, he becomes an ascetic. For the next six years, Gautama was a hermit: he wandered and practiced yoga.

Legend has it that at the age of over 30, having achieved spiritual enlightenment, the prince began to be called , which means “enlightened one.” He sat under a tree and meditated for 49 days, after which his mind became detached and bright. He realized a state of joy and peace.

Later, the Buddha's disciples called this tree "", or the tree of enlightenment. Buddha had many followers. His disciples came to him, listened to his speeches about the teachings, or dharma, listened to his sermons, and meditated in order to also become enlightened.

Buddhism says that anyone can become enlightened by achieving high awareness of their soul.

Basic concepts in Buddhism

Since in Buddhism there are many philosophical concepts that reflect the essence of this Eastern ideology, let's dwell on the main ideas and analyze their meanings.

One of the main views is the concept. Samsara- this is the wheel of earthly reincarnations of all living beings. In the process of this life cycle, the soul must “grow”. Samsara depends entirely on your past actions, your karma.

- these are your past accomplishments, noble and not so noble. For example, you can reincarnate into higher forms: a warrior, a human or a deity, or you can reincarnate into lower forms: an animal, a hungry ghost or a resident of hell, i.e. karma directly depends on your actions. Worthy deeds entail reincarnation into higher species. The end result of samsara is nirvana.

Nirvana- this is a state of enlightenment, awareness, the highest spiritual being. Nirvana frees us from karma.

- This is the teaching of Buddha. Dharma is the maintenance of world order by all living beings. Everyone has their own path and must follow it in accordance with ethical standards. Since Buddhism is a very peaceful religion, this aspect is incredibly important: do not harm another.

Sangha is a community of Buddhists who adhere to the rules and laws of the Buddha's teachings.

Buddhism is based on four noble truths:

1. Life is suffering. We all suffer, experience anger, anger, fear.
2. Suffering has its causes: envy, greed, lust.
3. Suffering can be stopped.
4. The path to nirvana will help you escape from suffering.

The goal of Buddhism is to escape from this suffering. Stop experiencing negative feelings and emotions, get rid of various addictions. According to the Buddha, the true path, which is also the path to the state of nirvana, is the middle one, it is located between excesses and asceticism. This path is called in Buddhism. You need to go through it in order to become a noble, conscious person.

Stages of the Eightfold Path

1. Correct understanding, worldview. Our actions are the result of our thoughts and conclusions. Wrong actions that bring us pain rather than joy are the result of wrong thoughts, so we need to develop awareness and monitor our thoughts and actions.
2. Correct aspirations and desires. You need to limit your selfishness and everything that causes pain. Live in peace with all living beings.
3. Correct speech. Do not use foul language, avoid gossip and evil expressions!
4. Correct actions and deeds. Do not harm the world and all living things, do not commit violence.
5. The right way of life. Right actions will lead to a righteous lifestyle: without lies, intrigue, deception.
6. The right effort. Focus on the good, monitor your thoughts, get away from the negative image of consciousness.
7. Correct thinking. It comes from right effort.
8. Correct concentration. To achieve calmness and abandon disturbing emotions, you need to be conscious and focused.

The concept of God in Buddhism

As we have already seen, Buddhism is a very unusual ideology for our mentality. Since in any religion one of the main concepts is the concept of God, let's figure out what this means in Buddhism.

In Buddhism, God is all living things that surround us, a divine essence that manifests itself in humans, animals, and nature. Unlike other religions, there is no humanization of God. God is everything around us.

This religion or even spiritual teaching focuses on the psychological state of a person, his spiritual growth, rather than on ritual or symbolic actions, during which we honor the main deity. Here you yourself can achieve a divine state by working on yourself.

Directions of Buddhism

Buddhism is divided into three main branches, which we will talk about now:

1. Hinayana (Theravada), or Small Vehicle, is southern Buddhism, widespread in southeast Asia: Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam. It is considered the earliest school of this religious teaching. The essence of Theravada is individual spiritual enlightenment, i.e. one must complete the eightfold path, become liberated from suffering, and therefore achieve nirvana.
2. , or Great Vehicle - Northern Buddhism. It became widespread in northern India, China, and Japan. Arose as a opposition to orthodox Theravada. From the Mahayana point of view, Theravada is a rather selfish teaching, because... provides a path to enlightenment for an individual. Mahayana preaches helping others achieve a state of awareness, divinity. Anyone who chooses this path can achieve Buddhahood and can count on help.
3. , or Tantric Buddhism formed within the Mahayana. It is practiced in the Himalayan countries, Mongolia, Kalmykia, and Tibet. The ways to achieve enlightened consciousness in Vajrayana are: yoga, meditation, recitation of mantras and worship of the teacher. Without the help of a guru, it is impossible to begin your path of awareness and practice.

Conclusion

So, dear readers, today we talked about what is included in the concept of Buddhism, about its principles and essence, and got acquainted with this teaching. I hope that getting to know him was interesting and useful for you.

Write comments, share your thoughts and subscribe to blog updates to receive new articles in your email.

All the best to you and see you again!

1) Vedas ( Skt.वेद, véda IAST - “knowledge”, “teaching”) - a collection of the most ancient sacred scriptures of Hinduism and Sanskrit

For many centuries the Vedas were transmitted orally in poetic form and were only written down much later.

There are four Vedas:

Rig Veda- consists of mantra hymns intended to be repeated by the chief priests.

Yajurveda- contains mantras intended for assistant priests adhvaryu.

Samaveda- contains mantras intended to be repeated by priest-chanters udgatri.

Atharvaveda- is a collection of mantra-spells.

Philosophical schools who accept the authority and revelation of the Vedas are called astika. Other traditions, such as Mijain Buddhism, reject the Vedas and are therefore classified as nastika. Besides Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism also does not accept the authority of the Vedas.

The Vedas are considered one of the most ancient scriptures in the world. According to modern Indological science, the Vedas were compiled over a period that lasted about a thousand years. It began with the composition of the Rig Veda around XVI century BC e.

Due to the fragility of the material on which the Vedas were written (tree bark or palm leaves were used), the age of the surviving manuscripts does not exceed several hundred years.

The philosophical and mystical explanation of the meaning of the Vedas that emerged in Vedantic philosophy has its roots in the Brahmana texts

The six auxiliary disciplines related to the Vedas are traditionally called Vedanga (vedāṅga IAST ) "offshoots of the Vedas." Scholars define these texts as additions to the Vedas. Vedangas explain the correct pronunciation and use of mantras in ceremonies, and also assist in the correct interpretation of Vedic texts. These topics are presented in Sutras, which scientists date to the period lasting from the end of the Vedic until the appearance Mauryan Empire. They reflected the transition from Vedic Sanskrit to classical Sanskrit. The six main themes of Vedanga are:

Phonetics (Shiksha)

Meter (Chandas)

Grammar (Vyakarana)

Etymology (Nirukta)

Astrology (Jyotisha)

Ritual (Kalpa)

Other Vedas

Ayurveda - “medicine”, adjacent to the “Atharva Veda”.

Dhanur Veda - “martial arts”, adjacent to the “Yajur Veda”.

Gandharva Veda - “music and sacred dances”, is adjacent to the “Sama-Veda”.

2) Upanishads(Skt.उपनिषद्, Upaniṣad IAST ) - ancient Indian treatises of a religious and philosophical nature. They are part of the Vedis and belong to the sacred scriptures of Hinduism in the category of Ruti. They mainly discuss philosophy, meditation and the nature of God. It is believed that the Upanishads set out the main essence of the Vedas - therefore they are also called “Vedanta” (the end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism. The Upanishads mainly describe the impersonal Brahman.

According to scientists, they arose between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC. e., and some appeared only in the Middle Ages.

The Upanishads contain the fundamentals of Hindu philosophy - the concept of the universal spirit of Brahman, the individual soul of Atman or Jiva, the Supersoul of Paramatma and the Supreme God in His personal form of Bhagavan or Ishvara. Brahman is described as primordial, transcendental and omnipresent, absolute eternal and infinite, the totality of everything that ever was, is or will be.

The Upanishads also contain the first and most complete explanation of the syllable "Om" as a transcendental, cosmic sound that is the basis of all existence

3)Karma, Kamma(Sanskrit.कर्म, palikamma - “cause-effect, retribution”, Sanskrit.कर्मन्karman IAST - “deed, action, labor”) is one of the central concepts in Indian religions and philosophy, the universal cause-and-effect law, according to which a person’s righteous or sinful actions determine his fate, the suffering or pleasure he experiences. Karma underlies the cause-and-effect series called samsara and is used mainly to understand connections that go beyond one existence

The law of karma implements the consequences of human actions, both positive and negative, and thus makes a person responsible for his life, for all the suffering and pleasure that it brings him. The results, or "fruits of karma", are called karma-phala

The concept of karma has its roots in the early Upanishads, according to which all living beings are responsible for their karma - their actions and their consequences - and for their liberation from the cycle of birth and death of samsara.

Reincarnation, reincarnation(lat. reincarnatio"reincarnation") metempsychosis(Greek: μετεμψύχωσις, “transmigration of souls”) - a group of religious and philosophical doctrines, according to which the immortal essence of a living being (in some variations - only humans) is reincarnated again and again from one body to another. This immortal entity is called the spirit-soul, the "divine spark", the "higher" or the "true self" in various traditions; in each life, a new personality of the individual develops in the physical world, but at the same time a certain part of the individual’s “I” remains unchanged, passing from body to body in a series of reincarnations. In a number of traditions, there are ideas that the chain of reincarnations has a certain purpose and the soul undergoes evolution in it. The idea of ​​the transmigration of souls is inherent not only in a number of religious systems, but is also found in isolation from any religious system

Caste(via German Kaste or fr. caste from port. casta- “origin”, originally “pure breed”) - class or race into which the population of India is divided. From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature it is known that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (Sanskrit “color”). : Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, cattle breeders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

During the early Middle Ages, although the varnas were preserved, they broke up into numerous castes (jatis), which even more strictly consolidated class affiliation.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that those who follow the rules of their caste will rise to a higher caste by birth in a future life, while those who violate these rules will lose social status.

Buddhism is the oldest world religion, the role of which remains great to this day in a number of countries in Central, South and Southeast Asia, as well as in Europe and America. Buddhism is five centuries older than Christianity, and Islam is 12 centuries older, but to this day it is a living organism. The importance of Buddhism in the history of each country is not the same: in some - the Buddhist worldview became the basis for many centuries of the moral code of conduct of the people, in others - Buddhism was quite soon supplanted by the ancient beliefs revived at a new stage, in others - it came quite recently, taking an extremely stingy a set of philosophical positions and practices, almost abandoning ritualism.

The opportunity to profess Buddhism to any person, without regard to race, nationality, country, gender, is inherent in the very essence of religion, which consists in recognizing the equality of people, putting the improvement of the individual’s consciousness in the first place. The emphasis on the need for an adept to work with his own consciousness in order to change it in the right direction is one of the main philosophical principles of Buddhism and its differences from other religions.

Already in the first centuries of the history of Buddhism, texts appeared that touched upon ideological issues, and “Buddhist philosophy” was created. The impetus for the development of philosophical thought was the need to answer the question: if life is suffering, and the cessation of suffering means a way out of being, then how can one get out of this being. This is how the doctrine of dharmas appeared - certain individual essences that establish what is perceived as a person, as any other living being, as the world around us.

Dharmas are divided into five categories, giving a total of 100 different varieties. The composition of a conscious living being includes all these varieties. Dharmas are impermanent, instantaneous, connecting with each other, they give rise to that movement of states that is called life. Thus, life is the existence of the real world, the appearance and disappearance of combinations of dharmas. The pacification of dharmas, i.e., the non-emergence of any new combinations, was declared to be the cessation of suffering and the exit from existence, i.e., the ultimate goal of the life process, which is considered world suffering. The more perfect life is, the calmer it is. The extinction of the bustle of life forever is the ultimate distant impersonal ideal; it opposes the impersonal bustle of the world process of life.

With the development of Buddhist philosophy, the concept of dharma became more complex and filled with new additional meanings and meanings, such as “the teachings of the Buddha”, “existence”, “law”, “absolute, truly real”, “object, thing”. The theory of dharmas is the basis of Buddhist dogma. It has extremely detailed terminology and makes it possible to describe observations of cognitive phenomena and religious experiences in the most direct way.

Based on the theory of dharmas, Buddhism denies the existence of a single soul, believing that it is only a flow of states that replace each other. There is no unity either in the material or in the spiritual world. Just as matter consists of atoms of particles, so the soul is composed like a heap of grains, and consists of individual mental phenomena, spiritual elements, or spiritual atoms.

Buddhism included many different concepts, but there was a certain general set of ideas that were accepted by all branches of Buddhism.

First, there is the idea of ​​a “middle way.” Buddhism opposed extremes. The idea that extremes should be avoided was, according to legend, expressed by the Buddha in his first sermon. At the same time, both the extremes of worldly love of life and the extremes of ascetic mortification of the flesh were rejected. If we treat our flesh too harshly, the Buddha said, it becomes tired and our mind becomes sluggish; if we treat it too gently, our feelings become pampered and our will weakens. Just as weeds harm a field, so passion harms a person.

Secondly, there are the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths say:

1. Life in the world is full of suffering;

2. There is a cause for this suffering;

3. Suffering can be stopped;

4. There is a path leading to the end of suffering.

The first “noble truth” states that life in the world is full of suffering. Birth, old age, illness, death, grief, sadness, desire, despair - everything that is generated by attachment to earthly things is suffering. Suffering is not just something random, it exists everywhere; even what appears to be pleasure is actually a source of suffering.

The second “noble truth” states that there is a cause for this suffering. Suffering is the result of birth in this world, since birth is caused by attachment to everything earthly. And our desires ultimately come from ignorance. If we understood the structure of the world and, therefore, understood the causes of suffering, then we would not have an addiction to earthly things. Then birth would cease, and with it suffering.

The third “noble truth” says that if you eliminate the conditions that create suffering, then suffering will stop. Liberation from suffering is achievable, but only if certain conditions are met. If the necessary conditions are met, a state of liberation will occur - nirvana (literally translated: “attenuation”, “destruction”) - the extinguishing of passions, and with them suffering. Nirvana - a state of serenity, equanimity and dispassionate composure - is a guarantee against rebirth. But nirvana is not inactivity. Buddha himself, having achieved nirvana, doubted for some time whether he should spread his teaching further, should he work for the liberation of his neighbors? And he decided that the raft, built with such difficulty, on which he sailed across the stream of suffering, should not disappear, but should be passed on to others. Hence the conclusion - you need to work for the moral upliftment of your neighbors.

The fourth “noble truth” is a description of the path to liberation from suffering. The Buddha's teaching is mainly an answer to one fundamental question: how to achieve nirvana? To do this, you need to go through the “eightfold path”, which includes the following stages.

1. Right View - Correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

2. Right determination - a firm intention to transform life. At this stage, renunciation of attachment to the world, renunciation of bad intentions and enmity towards other people are required.

3. Correct speech - control over speech, abstaining from lies, slander, cruel words and frivolous conversations.

4. Correct behavior - refusal to destroy living things, from theft, from improper satisfaction of the senses.

5. Right way of life - earning a living in an honest way.

6. Right effort is a constant effort to eradicate old bad thoughts and consolidate good ideas in the mind (otherwise you may go astray).

7. The right direction of thought is the knowledge that all things are transitory in nature, therefore there should be no attachment to things and no sadness over their loss.

8. Correct concentration, which includes 4 stages:

1) enjoying the joy of detachment and pure thinking;

2) joy, peace and inner calm, giving rise to reflection, awareness of joy and peace;

3) an attempt to move to a state of indifference, a transition to complete equanimity and liberation from the feeling of corporeality;

4) an attempt to free oneself even from the consciousness of liberation and equanimity and from all the feelings of joy and inspiration that the person previously experienced.

Buddhists assured that completing the Eightfold Path provides a person with complete peace of mind, which cannot be disturbed by anything. Anyone who has achieved this state will no longer be incarnated in the world and will not be subject to rebirth and suffering. Buddhists were confident in man's unlimited possibilities for changing his nature and “liberation.”

An important point of Buddhism is the idea that knowledge and morality are inseparable from each other. Improving knowledge is impossible without morality, that is, without voluntary control over one’s passions and prejudices. In one of the conversations, the Buddha established that virtue and wisdom, which purify each other, are inseparable. In Nirvana a person achieves perfect wisdom, perfect virtue, perfect equanimity.

Buddhism emphasizes the importance of moral qualities such as benevolence, compassion, joy and equanimity. A person must overcome passion and envy, arrogance, pride and ignorance. If benevolence and compassion flourish in the world, then love will awaken in the soul, the whole world will be filled with the bright rays of our good thoughts, and these rays, entering the souls of others, will become majestic and incomparable. The Buddha believed that without benevolence and compassion, knowledge is impossible, and even if it is possible, it becomes useless.

Every person must acquire knowledge through his own efforts. “Do not accept as truth what is presented to you as truth, but everything that you have seen and heard for yourself, that you have understood, will be the truth,” the Buddha instructed.

Buddhism proceeds from the fact that evil, suffering, hardship and sorrow, the expectation of losses and failures, the experience of anxiety and other worldly problems stem from the internal psychological state of the individual, his “blindness”, ignorance. Thus, Buddhism did not call for the fight against injustice in the world, but for the elimination of human reactions to the world around us, for weakening the “fire of internal desires.” In a state of nirvana, a free spirit realizes the indifference of all qualities, the insignificance of all differences in the external world, he is freed from dependence on the external world.

Buddhism believes that the highest degree of perfection lies not only in coming to Nirvana oneself, but also in leading others to it, that is, saving not only oneself, but also others.

Buddhism was formed as an ethical teaching. When Buddha was asked questions about whether the soul is different from the body, whether it is immortal, whether the world is finite or infinite, etc., he refused to answer. Buddha believed that there are 10 useless questions:

1. Is the world eternal?

2. Or is he not eternal?

3. Is the world finite?

4. Or is it infinite?

5. Is the soul identical with the body?

6. Is the soul different from the body?

7. Is he who knows the truth immortal?

8. Or is he mortal?

9. Will he who knows the truth be both immortal and mortal at the same time?

10. Will he be neither immortal nor mortal?

Man, from the point of view of Buddhists, is a combination of a material body and an immaterial mind and consciousness. The combination of several physical elements (earth, water, fire, air) creates a body. We call the combination of our mental states the soul. The soul is not some kind of independent substance, but only a series of mental states replacing each other. One state passes into another, just as one flame is ignited by another. But at the same time, it is emphasized that there is a certain internal force that ensures the integrity of the personality and keeps its physical and mental properties in balance.

Since the soul is not some special substance, rebirth is illustrated by a figurative comparison: when a moving ball collides with another ball, it transfers its movement to it, and itself stops. During rebirth, the extinction of one mental state seems to ignite another mental state.

The attitude towards women has also changed. Women listened to the Buddha's sermons along with men; In addition to communities of monks, communities of nuns arose. Laywomen were allowed to remarry in the event of their husband's death. This was the radical divergence of Buddhism from Brahmanism, which denied women the right to any independent spiritual life.

Buddhism assumed tolerance towards other philosophical movements. Their adherents were also believed to possess a piece of “true knowledge”; The task of a Buddhist preacher is to give them the opportunity to gain complete knowledge. It should be noted that Brahmanism recognized only Sanskrit as the language of religious texts; Buddhists believed that their views could be propagated and recorded in any language. This moment also contributed to the rise in popularity of Buddhism.

The Vedas are the sacred books of the Brahmins, who believe that the texts came to people thanks to supernatural forces, since, according to the Indians, they appeared from nowhere and have always been there. The Vedas are divided into four collections: 1) Rig Veda (Veda of Hymns). 2) Samaveda (sacrifice songs). 3) Yajurveda (sacrificial sayings). 4) Atharvaveda (songs-spells). In the Vedas, for the first time, an attempt is made to approach a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, that is, to interpret the world around man, could not have been different in their content.

Ancient Vedic mythology is a pre-philosophical form of worldview, reflecting various stages of development of tribal relations during the eras of matriarchy and patriarchy. At the same time, due to the identity of man and nature (the unity of the natural-generic organism), the collective ideas of generic life were recorded as properties of things of nature and the human body, accessible to sensory perception. Simple things of nature, as if carrying “tribal ideas,” became semantic signs for a person of the tribal society, since the ideas of generic consciousness were fixed in the things of nature and the human body, this gave the effect of sensory perception of the entire tribal ideology. For example, we find a fixation of generic ideology in the anthropomorphic body of the first man Purusha: “From it, sacrificed, sacrificial oil was obtained, He was turned into those creatures that live in the air, in the forest and villages. From him, sacrificed, rigs and adobes arose, poetic meters arose from him, yajus arose from him.” The worldview perception of the movement of natural things as an example of tribal consciousness is one of the mechanisms for maintaining the latter. Since the ideas of generic consciousness are fixed not only in nature, but also in the generic body, they can only be reproduced to life through the action of the entire collective. And in order to pass on the traditions and experience of tribal life from generation to generation, effective methods must be used based on its task, based on the physical abilities of a person. Such means are: word-myth, when a person in collective communication pronounces (sings) in a loud speech the generic rules of life, thus passing them on to younger generations; ritual-gesture, movement (dance), when a person, pronouncing the rules, simultaneously performs the movements of their practical execution; taboo as rhythm, order, duration of words and movements. Myth, ritual, taboo produce order, orderliness, “decency” in the functioning of a single natural-generic organism until the era of patriarchy and the subsequent decomposition of tribal relations.

Buddhism: Basic Ideas

Buddhism is based on four basic truths: 1. Duhka (suffering). 2. The cause of suffering. 3. Suffering can be stopped. 4. There is a path leading to the end of suffering. Thus, suffering is the main idea that Buddhism contains. The main tenets of this religion say that suffering can be not only physical, but also mental. Already birth is suffering. And illness, and death, and even unsatisfied desire. Suffering is a constant component of human life and, rather, even a form of human existence. However, suffering is unnatural, and therefore we need to get rid of it.

From this follows another idea of ​​Buddhism: in order to get rid of suffering, it is necessary to comprehend the causes of its occurrence. Buddhism, whose core ideas are the pursuit of enlightenment and self-knowledge, believes that the cause of suffering is ignorance. It is ignorance that sets off the chain of events that lead to suffering. And ignorance consists of a misconception about one’s own self. One of the key theories of Buddhism is the negation of the individual self. This theory states that it is impossible to understand what our personality (i.e., “I”) is because our feelings, intellect, and interests are fickle. And our “I” is a complex of various states, without which the soul does not exist. The Buddha does not give any answer to the question of the existence of the soul, which allowed representatives of different schools of Buddhism to draw completely opposite conclusions in this regard. The so-called “middle path” leads to knowledge, and therefore liberation from suffering (nirvana). The essence of the “middle way” is to avoid any extremes, to rise above opposites, to look at the problem as a whole. Thus, a person achieves liberation by renouncing any opinions and inclinations, renouncing his “I”. As a result, it turns out that Buddhism, the main ideas of which are based on suffering, says that all life is suffering, which means that clinging to life and valuing it is wrong. A person who seeks to prolong his life (i.e. suffering) is an ignoramus. In order to avoid ignorance, it is necessary to destroy any desire, and this is possible only by destroying ignorance, which consists in the isolation of one’s “I”. So, we come to the conclusion that the essence of Buddhism is the renunciation of one’s self.

Pre-philosophy

China is a civilization of a special type. Social ethics and administrative practice have always played a much larger role here than mystical abstractions and individualistic searches for salvation. The sober and rationalist-minded Chinese never thought too much about the mysteries of existence and the problems of life and death, but he always saw before him the standard of the highest virtue and considered it his sacred duty to imitate it. If the characteristic ethnopsychological feature of the Indian is his introversion, which in its extreme expression led to asceticism, yoga, monasticism of a strict style, to the individual’s desire to dissolve in the Absolute and thereby save his immortal soul from the material shell that fetters it, then the true Chinese valued the material above all else. shell, i.e. your life. The greatest and generally recognized prophets here were considered, first of all, those who taught to live with dignity and in accordance with the accepted norm, to live for the sake of life, and not in the name of bliss in the next world or salvation from suffering. At the same time, ethically determined rationalism was the dominant factor that determined the norms of social and family life of the Chinese.

In China, too, there is a higher divine principle - Heaven. But the Chinese Heaven is not Yahweh, not Jesus, not Allah, not Brahman and not Buddha. This is the highest supreme universality, abstract and cold, strict and indifferent to man. You cannot love her, you cannot merge with her, you cannot imitate her, just as there is no point in admiring her. True, in the system of Chinese religious and philosophical thought there existed, in addition to Heaven, Buddha (the idea of ​​him penetrated into China along with Buddhism from India at the beginning of our era), and Tao (the main category of religious and philosophical Taoism), and Tao in its Taoist interpretation (there was another interpretation, Confucian, which perceived Tao in the form of the Great Path of Truth and Virtue) close to Indian Brahman. However, it is not Buddha or Tao, but rather Heaven that has always been the central category of supreme universality in China. philosophy China Confucianism Buddhism

The most important feature of ancient Chinese religion was the very minor role of mythology. Unlike all other early societies and corresponding religious systems, in which it was mythological tales and traditions that determined the entire appearance of spiritual culture, in China, since ancient times, the place of myths was taken by historicized legends about wise and just rulers. The legendary sages Yao, Shun and Yu, and then cultural heroes like Huangdi and Shennong, who became their first ancestors and first rulers in the minds of the ancient Chinese, replaced numerous revered gods. Closely associated with all these figures, the cult of ethical norms (justice, wisdom, virtue, the desire for social harmony, etc.) pushed into the background purely religious ideas of sacred power, supernatural power and the mystical unknowability of higher powers. In other words, in ancient China, from a very early time, there was a noticeable process of demythologization and desacralization of the religious perception of the world. The deities seemed to descend to earth and turn into wise and fair figures, whose cult in China grew over the centuries. And although from the Han era (III century BC - III century AD) the situation in this regard began to change (many new deities and mythological legends associated with them appeared, and this was partly caused by the emergence of and the recording of popular beliefs and numerous superstitions, which until then seemed to be in the shadows or existed among national minorities included in the empire), this had little effect on the character of Chinese religions. Ethically determined rationalism, framed by desacralized ritual, has already become the basis of the Chinese way of life since ancient times. It was not religion as such, but primarily ritualized ethics that shaped the appearance of Chinese traditional culture. All this affected the character of Chinese religions, starting with ancient Chinese.

For example, it is worthy of attention that the religious structure of China has always been characterized by an insignificant and socially insignificant role of the clergy and priesthood. The Chinese have never known anything like the ulema class or the influential Brahmin castes. They usually treated Buddhist and especially Taoist monks with poorly concealed disdain, without due respect and reverence. As for the Confucian scholars, who most often performed the most important functions of priests (during religious functions in honor of Heaven, the most important deities, spirits and ancestors), they were the respected and privileged class in China; however, they were not so much priests as officials, so their strictly religious functions always remained in the background.

7. Confucianism - an ethical and political doctrine that arose in Ancient China and had a huge influence on the development of spiritual culture, political life and social system of China for over two thousand years. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century. BC e. Confucius and then developed by his followers Mencius, Xunzi and others. From its very inception, Confucianism, expressing the interests of part of the ruling class (hereditary aristocracy), was an active participant in the socio-political struggle. It called for strengthening the social order and established forms of government through strict adherence to ancient traditions, idealized by the Confucians, and certain principles of relationships between people in the family and society. Confucianism was considered the universal law of justice, the natural and justified existence of exploiters and exploited, in its terminology - people of mental and physical labor, with the former ruling, and the latter obeying them and supporting them with their labor. In Ancient China, there were different directions, between which there was a struggle, which was a reflection of the acute social and political struggle of various social forces of that time. In this regard, there are conflicting interpretations by Confucian thinkers of the main problems of Confucianism (about the concept of “heaven” and its role, about human nature, about the connection of ethical principles with law, etc.). The main issues in Confucianism were ethics, morality and government. The basic principle of Confucian ethics is the concept of ren (“humanity”) as the highest law of relationships between people in society and family. Confucianism in brief. Ren is achieved through moral self-improvement based on compliance with li (“etiquette”) - norms of behavior based on deference and respect for elders in age and position, honor for parents, devotion to the sovereign, politeness, etc. According to Confucianism, only a select few can comprehend ren , so-called junzi (“noble men”), i.e. representatives of the upper strata of society; common people - xiaoren (literally - “small people”) are not able to comprehend ren. This opposition of the “noble” to the commoners and the assertion of the superiority of the former over the latter, often found in Confucius and his followers, is a clear expression of the social orientation, the class character of Confucianism. Confucianism paid great attention to the issues of the so-called. humane governance, based on the idea of ​​deifying the power of the ruler, which existed before Confucianism, but was developed and substantiated by him. The sovereign was declared the “son of heaven” (tianzi), who ruled at the command of heaven and carried out his will. The power of the ruler recognized Confucianism as sacred, given from above, by heaven. Believing that “to govern is to correct,” Confucianism attached great importance to the teaching of zheng ming (about “correction of names”), which called for putting everyone in society in their place, strictly and accurately defining the duties of everyone, which was expressed in the words of Confucius: “Sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject must be a subject, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” Confucianism called on sovereigns to rule the people not on the basis of laws and punishments, but with the help of virtue, an example of highly moral behavior, on the basis of customary law, and not burden the people with heavy taxes and duties. One of the most prominent followers of Confucius, Mencius (4-3 centuries BC), in his statements even admitted the idea that the people have the right to overthrow a cruel ruler by uprising. This idea was ultimately determined by the complexity of socio-political conditions, the presence of strong remnants of primitive communal relations, acute class struggle and strife between the kingdoms then existing in China. In such a situation, Confucianism, aimed at strengthening the existing social system, sometimes allowed criticism of individual rulers, contrasting them with the “wise” and “virtuous” sovereigns of distant times (i.e., tribal leaders) - Yao, Shun, Wen Wang, etc.

The new stage in the development of Confucianism dates back to the Song era (960-1279) and is associated with the name of Zhu Xi (1130-1200) - a famous historian, philologist and philosopher, who is the creator of updated Confucianism, the philosophical system of Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism adopted and preserved the basic principles of ancient Confucianism, its reactionary provisions about the inviolability of social orders, about the natural nature of the division of people into higher and lower, noble and vile, about the dominant role of the “son of heaven” - the ruler of the Universe.