Russian Nobel Prize laureates of the 20th century. Nobel laureates from Russia and the USSR

An excellent indicator of shifts in scientific, and not only scientific thinking of the 20th century. are Nobel Prizes. When the Swedish engineer and inventor Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) established a prize named after him and began to be awarded in 1901, he set a condition: it should honor discoveries of the most important practical, and not just purely scientific significance. That is why the list of “Nobel” sciences included physics and chemistry, later medicine, and even later economics, but not mathematics, which was still presented as a kind of “art for art’s sake” (though gossips claimed that mathematics fell into disgrace due to the fact that Nobel’s wife left him for a mathematician).

Be that as it may, if at first the Nobel Prizes were awarded for discoveries that had an unconditional and immediate practical use, then at the end of the 20th century. they were awarded with increasing frequency of discovery conceptual, of a fundamental nature. At the end of the 20th century, this prize, respectable in all respects (including material - now it reaches 1 million dollars), was awarded to a Belgian physical chemist, a native of Russia Ilya Prigogine(1917-2003) precisely for the conceptual discovery - the development of the foundations of the concept of self-organization, in 1975. its winner was a person who emigrated from the USSR to the USA L. V. Kantorovich(1912-1986) - for the application of mathematical models to the analysis of economic processes and their management.

It is significant in this sense that Einstein received the Nobel Prize not for creating the theory of relativity (which has no practical application!), but for research in the field of the photoelectric effect. First Nobel laureate in physics in 1901 became Conrad Roentgen for the discovery of X-rays (as he called them himself), in the coming years, prizes in physics and chemistry were awarded for research into radioactivity ( E. Rutherford, A. Becquerel, P. Curie, M. Sklodowska-Curie). In 1908, the winner was a Frenchman G. Lippman for research in the field of color photography, in 1909 Italian G. Marconi- for the wireless telegraph (our A. Popov, who created it earlier, did not think of patenting it). In 1911 the Dutchman G. Kamerlin-Ones discovered superconductivity (1913 prize).

Nobel Prizes in Medicine at the beginning of the century went to I. I. Pavlov- for the discovery of the relationship between physiological and mental processes in the body, I. Mechnikov- for research in the field of immunity, R. Koch- for tuberculosis research, French A. Carrel- for methods of suturing blood vessels, Frenchman J. Richet- for the discovery of anaphylactic shock.

Only in 1918 Nobel Prize was awarded (it took time to comprehend) M. Planck, only in 1922 received it N. Bor, in 1929 - de Broglie, in 1932 - W. Heisenberg. Of the pre-war Nobel Prizes, we also note: for the discovery of neutrons ( J. Chadwick, prize 1935), synthesis of radioactive elements ( 1935, F. and P. Joliot-Curie), discovery of artificial radioactivity ( 1938, E. Fermi). At the same time, Einstein issued an appeal to physicists around the world to temporarily stop research in this area.

The most outstanding successes of medicine during this same period include the discovery of insulin (1923), vitamins (1928), coenzymes (1929), blood groups (1930), the work E. Adrian And Ch. Sherrington on physiology of the central nervous system, the discovery of penicillin (1945), which saved thousands of lives in the war. Also in 1945, weapons were tested for the first time mass destruction unprecedented power - American atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

In 1948, a transistor was designed (in the USA), but this was awarded the Nobel Prize only in 1956. In the same 1948 D. Gabor at the University of London, he formulated the principles of holography, but the prize went to him only in 1971. In the same 1948, the effect of DDT on insects was discovered, and then no one had yet imagined that the harm from it would significantly exceed the benefits. In 1950, plastics were synthesized, and in 1952, the Bell telephone company released the first solar cells that found practical use. In the same year, American biochemist J. Watson and English physicist F. Crick at the University of Cambridge (England) they discovered the structure of DNA (prize 1962). In the same 1952, she conquered the climbers for the first time highest peak world - Everest.

In 1856, the Nobel Prize recognized research into semiconductors and the creation of transistors. In 1957, 18 German nuclear physicists led by Otto Gann published the “Göttingen Manifesto”, in which they declared their refusal to participate in the manufacture, testing and use of nuclear weapons, and in 1958, on the initiative of the American Linus Pauling A similar appeal was signed by 11,000 scientists. In 1959, the USSR launched an artificial Earth satellite, and in 1961 it flew into space Yuri Gagarin. When N. S. Khrushchev was asked who should be nominated for the Nobel Prize for this, he replied: “The entire Soviet people.”

In 1960, the radiocarbon age detection method was noted archaeological finds, as well as the clonal selection theory of immunity. In 1964, the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded for the creation of lasers; in 1965, the genetic code was deciphered in the USA (1968 prize). In 1967 K. Barnard transplanted for the first time in South Africa human heart. In 1969, the founders of econometrics were honored - applications dynamic models to the analysis of economic processes, as well as the theory of quarks - elementary particles with fractional charge. In 1973, the founder of ethology, the Austrian biologist K. Lorenz, became the laureate; in 1974, the discovery of pulsars was noted, which introduced new details into the picture of the Universe. In 1974 at the I International Conference on Ethical Problems molecular biology and genetic engineering in the United States, a worldwide moratorium on all experiments with recombination was proclaimed genetic material. Soon after this, however, cloning experiments began full swing, in the 90s. In Britain, Dolly the sheep was cloned and had to be euthanized in 2003.

The last quarter of the twentieth century passed under the sign computer technology, where the Americans set the tone. During this period, the overwhelming number of Nobel Prizes went to US scientists, which is understandable. World science enters the 21st century with amazing discoveries - with new prospects and new threats to humanity.

An excellent indicator of shifts in scientific, and not only scientific thinking of the 20th century. are Nobel Prizes. When the Swedish engineer and inventor Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) established a prize named after him and began to be awarded in 1901, he set a condition: it should honor discoveries of the most important practical, and not just purely scientific significance. That is why the list of “Nobel” sciences included physics and chemistry, later medicine, and even later economics, but not mathematics, which was still presented as a kind of “art for art’s sake” (however, evil tongues claimed that mathematics fell into disgrace because the fact that Nobel's wife left him for a mathematician).

Be that as it may, if at first the Nobel Prizes were awarded for discoveries that had unconditional and direct practical application, then at the end of the 20th century. they were awarded with increasing frequency of discovery conceptual, of a fundamental nature. At the end of the 20th century, this prize, respectable in all respects (including material - now it reaches 1 million dollars), was awarded to a Belgian physical chemist, a native of Russia Ilya Prigogine(1917-2003) precisely for the conceptual discovery - the development of the foundations of the concept of self-organization, in 1975. its winner was a person who emigrated from the USSR to the USA L. V. Kantorovich(1912-1986) - for the application of mathematical models to the analysis of economic processes and their management.

It is significant in this sense that Einstein received the Nobel Prize not for creating the theory of relativity (which has no practical application!), but for research in the field of the photoelectric effect. The first Nobel laureate in physics in 1901 was Conrad Roentgen for the discovery of X-rays (as he called them himself), in the coming years, prizes in physics and chemistry were awarded for research into radioactivity ( E. Rutherford, A. Becquerel, P. Curie, M. Sklodowska-Curie). In 1908, the winner was a Frenchman G. Lippman for research in the field of color photography, in 1909 Italian G. Marconi- for the wireless telegraph (our A. Popov, who created it earlier, did not think of patenting it). In 1911 the Dutchman G. Kamerlin-Ones discovered superconductivity (1913 prize).

Nobel Prizes in Medicine at the beginning of the century went to I. I. Pavlov- for the discovery of the relationship between physiological and mental processes in the body, I. Mechnikov- for research in the field of immunity, R. Koch- for tuberculosis research, French A. Carrel- for methods of suturing blood vessels, Frenchman J. Richet- for the discovery of anaphylactic shock.

Only in 1918 was the Nobel Prize awarded (it took time to comprehend) M. Planck, only in 1922 received it N. Bor, in 1929 - de Broglie, in 1932 - W. Heisenberg. Of the pre-war Nobel Prizes, we also note: for the discovery of neutrons ( J. Chadwick, prize 1935), synthesis of radioactive elements ( 1935, F. and P. Joliot-Curie), discovery of artificial radioactivity ( 1938, E. Fermi). At the same time, Einstein issued an appeal to physicists around the world to temporarily stop research in this area.

The most outstanding successes of medicine during this same period include the discovery of insulin (1923), vitamins (1928), coenzymes (1929), blood groups (1930), the work E. Adrian And Ch. Sherrington in the physiology of the central nervous system, the discovery of penicillin (1945), which saved thousands of lives in the war. Also in 1945, weapons of mass destruction of unprecedented power were tested for the first time - American atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

In 1948, a transistor was designed (in the USA), but this was awarded the Nobel Prize only in 1956. In the same 1948 D. Gabor at the University of London, he formulated the principles of holography, but the prize went to him only in 1971. In the same 1948, the effect of DDT on insects was discovered, and then no one had yet imagined that the harm from it would significantly exceed the benefits. In 1950, plastics were synthesized, and in 1952, the Bell telephone company released the first solar cells that found practical use. In the same year, American biochemist J. Watson and English physicist F. Crick at the University of Cambridge (England) they discovered the structure of DNA (prize 1962). In the same year, 1952, the highest peak in the world, Everest, was conquered by climbers for the first time.

In 1856, the Nobel Prize recognized research into semiconductors and the creation of transistors. In 1957, 18 German nuclear physicists led by Otto Gann published the “Göttingen Manifesto”, in which they declared their refusal to participate in the manufacture, testing and use of nuclear weapons, and in 1958, on the initiative of the American Linus Pauling A similar appeal was signed by 11,000 scientists. In 1959, the USSR launched an artificial Earth satellite, and in 1961 it flew into space Yuri Gagarin. When N. S. Khrushchev was asked who should be nominated for the Nobel Prize for this, he replied: “The entire Soviet people.”

In 1960, the radiocarbon method of detecting the age of archaeological finds, as well as the clonal selection theory of immunity, were noted. In 1964, the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded for the creation of lasers; in 1965, the genetic code was deciphered in the USA (1968 prize). In 1967 K. Barnard performed the first human heart transplant in South Africa. In 1969, the founders of econometrics were noted - the application of dynamic models to the analysis of economic processes, as well as the theory of quarks - elementary particles with a fractional charge. In 1973, the founder of ethology, the Austrian biologist K. Lorenz, became the laureate; in 1974, the discovery of pulsars was noted, which introduced new details into the picture of the Universe. In 1974, at the International Conference on Ethical Issues of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering in the USA, a worldwide moratorium on all experiments with the recombination of genetic material was proclaimed. Soon after this, however, cloning experiments began in full swing in the 90s. In Britain, Dolly the sheep was cloned and had to be euthanized in 2003.

The last quarter of the twentieth century passed under the sign of computer technology, where the Americans set the tone. During this period, the overwhelming number of Nobel Prizes went to US scientists, which is understandable. World science enters the 21st century with amazing discoveries - with new prospects and new threats to humanity.

Throughout the history of the Nobel awards, Russian names have been heard in Stockholm many times.

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov received his well-deserved Nobel Prize in 1904 “for his work on the physiology of digestion.” Pavlov is a unique scientist on a global scale, who managed to form his own school in the difficult conditions of a state under construction, to which the scientist made considerable claims. Pavlov collected paintings, plants, butterflies, stamps, and books. Scientific research led him to abandon meat food.

Ilya Mechnikov

Ilya Mechnikov - one of the greatest scientists late XIX- beginning of the 20th century. Thus, it was Mechnikov who proved the unity of origin of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. His wife died of tuberculosis and Mechnikov, already contemplating suicide, devoted his life to the fight against tuberculosis. Having retired as a sign of protest against the reactionary policy in the field of education carried out by the tsarist government and right-wing professors, he organized a private laboratory in Odessa, then (1886, together with N. F. Gamaleya) the second in the world and the first Russian bacteriological station to combat infectious diseases diseases.

In 1887 he left Russia and moved to Paris, where he was given a laboratory at the institute created by Louis Pasteur. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize together with Paul Ehrlich for research in the field of immunity.

Lev Landau

In 1962, the Royal Swedish Academy awarded Landau the Nobel Prize "for his fundamental theories of condensed matter, especially liquid helium." For the first time in history, the award took place in a Moscow hospital, since shortly before the presentation, Landau was involved in a car accident. For 6 weeks the scientist was unconscious, and then for almost another three months he did not even recognize his loved ones. Physicists from all over the world took part in saving the scientist’s life. A 24-hour watch was organized at the hospital. Medicines that were not available in the Soviet Union were delivered by plane from Europe and the USA. Landau’s life was saved, but, alas, after the accident the scientist was never able to return to scientific research.

Peter Kapitsa

In 1978, academician Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “for fundamental inventions and discoveries in the field of low-temperature physics.” At the award ceremony, the Soviet scientist broke tradition and dedicated Nobel speech not those works that were noted by the Nobel committee, but their own relevant modern research. Then Pyotr Leonidovich changed another tradition: the whole money prize he took it for himself, depositing it in a Swedish bank account. Previous Soviet laureates were forced to share with the state.

Alexander Prokhorov

One of the founders of quantum electronics and creator of laser technologies. Together with another Soviet scientist Nikolai Basov, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which led to the creation of generators and amplifiers based on the laser-maser principle.

Pavel Cherenkov

This Soviet physicist discovered an effect that later received his name - the Cherenkov effect. And then in 1958 he received, together with other Soviet physicists Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm, the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect.

Zhores Alferov

Every modern man benefits from the discoveries of Zhores Alferov, the Russian Nobel Prize laureate in 2000. In all mobile phones There are heterostructure semiconductors created by Alferov. All fiber optic communications operate on its semiconductors and the Alferov laser. Without the Alferov laser, CD players and disk drives of modern computers would not be possible. Zhores Ivanovich's discoveries are used in car headlights, traffic lights, and in supermarket equipment - product label decoders. Alferov was one of the creators of the electronic reality that we encounter every day. At the same time, he began work on it at a time when it was not talked about not only here, but also in the West. Alyerov made discoveries that led to qualitative changes in the development of all electronic technology back in 1962-1974. The Nobel Prize recognized both his “former” services to physics and modern ones - the creation of ultra-fast supercomputers.

Nobel Alfred Bernhard (1833-1896), Swedish engineer, inventor, industrialist, founder of the Nobel Prizes.

He was a chemist, engineer and inventor.

He spoke well in French, German, Russian and English languages as if they were family to him.

He had the largest library and was an expert in modern literature.

During his life, Nobel amassed an impressive fortune. He received most of his income from his 355 inventions, of which the most famous was dynamite.

In 1888, Alfred Nobel read his own obituary in a French newspaper entitled “The Merchant of Death is Dead,” published by mistake by reporters. The article made Nobel think about how humanity would remember him. After this, he decided to change his will.

Every year on the anniversary of his death, a solemn ceremony presentation of the Nobel Prizes.

"Everything that is movable and real estate must be converted by my executors into liquid assets, and the capital thus collected placed in a reliable bank. The income from investments should belong to a fund, which will distribute them annually in the form of bonuses to those who, during the previous year, have brought the greatest benefit to humanity... The specified interest must be divided into five equal parts, which are intended: one part - to the one who will do the most important discovery or invention in the field of physics; another - to the one who makes the most important discovery or improvement in the field of chemistry; the third - to the one who makes the most important discovery in the field of physiology or medicine; fourth - to the one who creates the most outstanding literary work; fifth - to the one who has made the most significant contribution to the unity of nations, the abolition of slavery or the reduction of the size of existing armies and the promotion of peace congresses ... It is my special desire that in the awarding of prizes the nationality of the candidates shall not be taken into account ... "

According to Nobel's instructions, the Norwegian Nobel Committee, whose members were appointed in April 1897 shortly after the will came into force, became responsible for awarding the Peace Prize.

After some time, the organizations presenting the remaining awards were determined. On June 7, the Karolinska Institutet became responsible for the presentation of the Prize in Physiology or Medicine; On June 9, the Swedish Academy received the right to award a prize for literature; On June 11, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was recognized as responsible for awarding the prizes in physics and chemistry. On June 29, 1900, the Nobel Foundation was founded to manage the finances and organize the Nobel Prizes. The Nobel Foundation reached agreement on the basic principles of awarding prizes, and in 1900 the newly created foundation charter was accepted by King Oscar II.

In addition, regardless of Nobel’s will, since 1969, on the initiative of the Swedish Bank, a prize in his name in economics has also been awarded. It is awarded under the same conditions as other Nobel Prizes. In the future, the board of the Nobel Foundation decided not to increase the number of nominations.

The prize can only be awarded to individuals and not to institutions (except for peace prizes). The Peace Prize can be awarded as individuals, both official and public organizations, regardless of the number of people. working in them.

One or two works can be rewarded at the same time, but the total number of recipients should not exceed three. Although this rule was only introduced in 1968, it has always been de facto respected. In this case, the monetary reward is divided among the laureates as follows: the prize is first divided equally between the works, and then equally between their authors. Thus, if two different discoveries are awarded, one of which was made by two people, then they each receive 1/4 of the monetary part of the prize. And if one discovery is awarded, which was made by two or three, everyone receives equally (1/2 or 1/3 of the prize, respectively).

The prize cannot be awarded posthumously. However, if the applicant was alive at the time the prize was announced (usually in October), but died before the award ceremony (December 10 of the current year), then the prize remains with him.

The prize may not be awarded to anyone if the members of the relevant committee did not find worthy works among those nominated for competition. In this case, the prize money is retained until next year. If the prize is not awarded next year, the funds are transferred to the closed reserve of the Nobel Foundation.

Today, the name of Alfred Nobel is not primarily associated with achievements in the field of organization industrial production, and with the creation of a fund to support outstanding scientific achievements in various fields modern science.

These days, the Nobel Prize is widely known as the highest honor for human intelligence. Besides, this award can be attributed to the few awards known not only to every scientist, but also to most non-specialists. The value of the award is high, since only a small number of applicants with outstanding merit can hope to receive the award.

Strict rules for the selection of laureates, which began to apply since the establishment of the prizes, also played a role in recognizing the importance of the awards in question. As soon as the election of the current year's laureates ends in December, preparations begin for the election of next year's laureates. Such year-round activities, in which so many intellectuals from all over the world participate, orient scientists, writers and public figures for work in the interests of social development, which precedes the awarding of prizes for “contribution to human progress.”

According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, the following persons can nominate candidates for the physics prize:

1. members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences;

2. members Nobel Committee in physics;

3. Nobel Prize winners in physics;

4. permanently and temporarily working professors of physical sciences at universities and technical universities in Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, as well as the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm;

5. heads of relevant departments in at least six universities or university colleges selected by the Academy of Sciences in appropriate distribution by country;

6. other scientists from whom the Academy deems it necessary to accept proposals.

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was born in Lennep, a small town near Remscheid in Prussia, the only child in the family of a successful textile merchant, Friedrich Konrad Röntgen and Charlotte Constanza (nee Frowein) Röntgen. In 1848, the family moved to the Dutch city of Apeldoorn - the homeland of Charlotte's parents.

As a child, Wilhelm loved to walk in the dense forests around Apeldoorn, and this love of nature lasted throughout his life.

In 1862, Roentgen entered the Utrecht Technical School but was expelled for refusing to name a friend who had drawn an irreverent caricature of an unloved teacher. Without an official certificate of completion of a secondary educational institution, he formally could not enter higher education. educational institution, but as a volunteer he took several courses at Utrecht University.