Baptism in Rus' The name of Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich is associated with an outstanding event in the history of our state - the baptism of Russia. At first, Vladimir was an ardent supporter of paganism. Having established his power, he placed near the tower courtyard, where others were already standing

New world. 1988. No. 6. pp. 249-258.

In Soviet historical science devoted to Ancient Rus', there is no more significant and at the same time least explored question than the question of the spread of Christianity in the first centuries of baptism.

At the beginning of the 20th century, several extremely important works appeared at once, posing and resolving the question of accepting Christianity in different ways. These are the works of E. E. Golubinsky, academician A. A. Shakhmatov, M. D. Priselkov, V. A. Parkhomenko, V. I. Lamansky, N. K. Nikolsky, P. A. Lavrov, N. D. Polonskaya and many others. However, after 1913 this topic ceased to seem significant. It simply disappeared from the pages of the scientific press.

The purpose of my article, therefore, is not to complete, but to begin posing some problems associated with the adoption of Christianity, to disagree with, and perhaps contradict, conventional views, especially since established points of view often do not have a solid basis, but are a consequence of certain, unspoken and largely mythical “attitudes”.

One of these misconceptions stuck in general courses on the history of the USSR and other semi-official publications is the idea that Orthodoxy was always the same, did not change, and always played a reactionary role. There were even claims that paganism was better (“folk religion”!), more fun and “more materialistic”...

But the fact is that the defenders of Christianity often succumbed to certain prejudices and their judgments were to a large extent “prejudices.”

In our article we will dwell on only one problem - the national significance of the adoption of Christianity. I do not dare present my views as precisely established, especially since the most basic, initial data for the emergence of any reliable concept are generally unclear.

First of all, you should understand what paganism was as a “state religion”. Paganism was not a religion in the modern sense - like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. It was a rather chaotic collection of various beliefs, cults, but not a teaching. This is a combination of religious rituals and a whole heap of objects of religious veneration. Therefore, the unification of people of different tribes, which the Eastern Slavs so needed in the 10th-12th centuries, could not be achieved by paganism. And in paganism itself there were relatively few specific national features characteristic of only one people. At best, individual tribes and the population of individual localities were united on the basis of a common cult. Meanwhile, the desire to escape from the oppressive influence of loneliness among sparsely populated forests, swamps and steppes, the fear of abandonment, the fear of formidable natural phenomena forced people to seek unification. There were “Germans” all around, that is, people who did not speak an understandable language, enemies who came to Rus' “out of the blue,” and the steppe strip bordering Russia was an “unknown country”...

The desire to overcome space is noticeable in folk art. People erected their buildings on the high banks of rivers and lakes in order to be visible from afar, held noisy festivals, and performed religious prayers. Folk songs were designed to be performed in wide spaces. Bright colors were required to be noticed from afar. People sought to be hospitable and treated merchant guests with respect, for they were messengers about a distant world, storytellers, witnesses to the existence of other lands. Hence the delight in rapid movements in space. Hence the monumental nature of art.

People built mounds to remember the dead, but graves and grave markers did not yet indicate a sense of history as a process extended over time. The past was, as it were, one, antiquity in general, not divided into eras and not ordered chronologically. Time was a repeating annual cycle, with which it was necessary to conform in one’s economic work. Time as history did not yet exist.

Time and events required knowledge of the world and history on a large scale. It is worthy of special attention that this craving for a broader understanding of the world than that given by paganism was felt primarily along the trade and military roads of Rus', primarily where the first state formations grew. The desire for statehood was not, of course, brought from outside, from Greece or Scandinavia, otherwise it would not have had such phenomenal success in Rus', which marked the 10th century of Russian history.

Baptism of Rus'. New Empire Creator

The true creator of the huge empire of Rus' - Prince Vladimir I Svyatoslavich in 980 makes the first attempt to unify paganism throughout the entire territory from the eastern slopes of the Carpathians to the Oka and Volga, from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, which included East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Turkic tribes. The chronicle reports: “And Volodimer began his reign as one in Kiev, and placed idols on a hill outside the courtyard of the tower”: Perun (Finno-Ugric Perkun), Khorsa (god of the Turkic tribes), Dazhbog, Stribog (Slavic gods), Simargl, Mokosh (goddess Mokosh tribe).

The seriousness of Vladimir’s intentions is evidenced by the fact that after the creation of the pantheon of gods in Kyiv, he sent his uncle Dobrynya to Novgorod and he “placed an idol over the Volkhov River, and the priest would honor his people like a god.” As always in Russian history, Vladimir gave preference to a foreign tribe - the Finno-Ugric tribe. This main idol in Novgorod, which Dobrynya set, was the idol of the Finnish Perkun, although, apparently, the cult of the Slavic god Beles, or otherwise Volos, was most widespread in Novgorod.

However, the interests of the country called Rus' to a more developed and more universal religion. This call was clearly heard where people of different tribes and nations communicated most with each other. This call had a long history behind it; it echoed throughout Russian history.

The great European trade route, known from Russian chronicles as the route from the Varangians to the Greeks, that is, from Scandinavia to Byzantium and back, was the most important in Europe until the 12th century, when European trade between south and north moved to the west. This route not only connected Scandinavia with Byzantium, but also had branches, the most significant of which was the route to the Caspian Sea along the Volga. The main part of all these roads ran through the lands of the Eastern Slavs and was used by them primarily, but also through the lands of the Finno-Ugric peoples who took part in trade, in the processes of state formation, in military campaigns against Byzantium (it is not for nothing that Kiev is one of the most famous places there was a Chudin yard, that is, a farmstead of merchants of the Chud tribe - the ancestors of today's Estonians).

Numerous data indicate that Christianity began to spread in Rus' even before the official baptism of Rus' under Vladimir I Svyatoslavich in 988 (there are, however, other supposed dates of baptism, the consideration of which is beyond the scope of this article). And all this evidence speaks of the emergence of Christianity primarily in centers of communication between people of different nationalities, even if this communication was far from peaceful. This indicates again and again that people needed a universal, world religion. The latter was supposed to serve as a kind of introduction of Rus' to world culture. And it is no coincidence that this entry onto the world stage was organically connected with the emergence in Rus' of a highly organized literary language, which would consolidate this inclusion in texts, primarily translated ones. Writing made it possible to communicate not only with modern Russian cultures, but also with past cultures. She made it possible to write her own history, a philosophical generalization of her national experience, and literature.

Already the first legend of the Primary Russian Chronicle about Christianity in Rus' tells about the journey of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called from Sinopia and Korsun (Chersonese) along the great path “from the Greeks to the Varangians” - along the Dnieper, Lovat and Volkhov to the Baltic Sea, and then around Europe to Rome.

Christianity already in this legend acts as a principle that unites countries, including Rus' as part of Europe. Of course, this journey of the Apostle Andrew is a pure legend, if only because in the 1st century the Eastern Slavs did not yet exist - they did not form into a single people. However, the appearance of Christianity on the northern shores of the Black Sea at a very early time is also recorded by non-Russian sources. The Apostle Andrew preached on his way through the Caucasus to the Bosporus (Kerch), Feodosia and Chersonesus. In particular, Eusebius of Caesarea (died around 340) speaks about the spread of Christianity by the Apostle Andrew in Scythia. The Life of Clement, Pope of Rome, tells about Clement's stay in Chersonesus, where he died under Emperor Trajan (98-117). Under the same emperor Trajan, Patriarch Hermon of Jerusalem sent several bishops one after another to Chersonesus, where they suffered martyrdom. The last bishop sent by Hermon died at the mouth of the Dnieper. Under Emperor Constantine the Great, Bishop Kapiton appeared in Chersonesus, and also died a martyr. Christianity in Crimea, which needed a bishop, was reliably recorded already in the 3rd century.

At the first ecumenical council in Nicaea (325) there were representatives from Bosporus, Chersonesus and Metropolitan Gottfil. located outside the Crimea, to which, however, the Tauride bishopric was subordinated. The presence of these representatives is established on the basis of their signatures under the council resolutions. The church fathers - Tertullian, Athanasius of Alexandria, John Chrysostom, Blessed Jerome - also speak about the Christianity of some of the Scythians.

The Christian Goths who lived in Crimea formed a strong state that had a serious influence not only on the Slavs, but on the Lithuanians and Finns - at least on their languages.

Connections with the Northern Black Sea region were then complicated by the great migration of nomadic peoples in the second half of the 4th century. However, trade routes still continued to exist, and the influence of Christianity from the south to the north undoubtedly took place. Christianity continued to spread under Emperor Justinian the Great, covering the Crimea, the North Caucasus, as well as the eastern shore of the Sea of ​​Azov among the Trapezite Goths, who, according to Procopius, “revered the Christian faith with simplicity and great calmness” (VI century).

With the spread of the Turko-Khazar horde from the Urals and the Caspian Sea to the Carpathians and the Crimean coast, a special cultural situation arose. Not only Islam and Judaism, but also Christianity were widespread in the Khazar state, especially due to the fact that the Roman emperors Justinian II and Constantine V were married to Khazar princesses, and Greek builders erected fortresses in Khazaria. In addition, Christians from Georgia, fleeing from Muslims, fled to the north, that is, to Khazaria. In the Crimea and the North Caucasus within Khazaria, the number of Christian bishops naturally grew, especially in the middle of the 8th century. At this time, there were eight bishops in Khazaria. It is possible that with the spread of Christianity in Khazaria and the establishment of friendly Byzantine-Khazar relations, a favorable environment is created for religious disputes between the three dominant religions in Khazaria: Judaism, Islam and Christianity. Each of these religions sought spiritual dominance, as evidenced by Jewish-Khazar and Arab sources. In particular, in the middle of the 9th century, as evidenced by the “Pannonian Life” of Cyril-Constantine and Methodius, the enlighteners of the Slavs, the Khazars invited theologians from Byzantium for religious disputes with Jews and Muslims. This confirms the possibility of Vladimir’s choice of faith described by the Russian chronicler - through surveys and disputes.

Baptism of Rus'. Age of Christianity

It seems natural that Christianity in Rus' also appeared as a result of the awareness of the situation that developed in the 10th century, when the presence of states with a Christian population as the main neighbors of Rus' was especially obvious: here were the Northern Black Sea region, and Byzantium, and the movement of Christians across the main trade routes that crossed Rus' from south to north and from west to east.

A special role here belonged to Byzantium and Bulgaria.

Let's start with Byzantium. Rus' besieged Constantinople three times - in 866, 907 and 941. These were not ordinary predatory raids; they ended with the conclusion of peace treaties that established new trade and state relations between Russia and Byzantium.

And if in the treaty of 912 only pagans participated on the Russian side, then in the treaty of 945 Christians came first. In a short period of time the number of Christians has clearly increased. This is also evidenced by the adoption of Christianity by the Kyiv princess Olga herself, whose magnificent reception in Constantinople in 955 is described by both Russian and Byzantine sources.

We will not go into consideration of the most complex question of where and when Olga’s grandson Vladimir was baptized. The 11th century chronicler himself refers to the existence of different versions. Let me just say that one fact seems obvious; Vladimir was baptized after his matchmaking with the sister of the Byzantine emperor Anna, for it is unlikely that the most powerful emperor of the Romans, Vasily II, would have agreed to become related to a barbarian, and Vladimir could not but understand this.

The fact is that the predecessor of Vasily II, Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, in his well-known work “On the Administration of the Empire,” written for his son, the future Emperor Roman II (father of Emperor Vasily II), forbade his descendants to marry representatives of barbarian peoples, referring to the Equal-to-the-Apostles Emperor Constantine I the Great, who ordered the inscription of St. Sophia of Constantinople prohibits Romans from becoming related to strangers - especially to the unbaptized.

It should also be taken into account that from the second half of the 10th century the power of the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest strength. By this time, the Empire had repelled the Arab threat and overcome the cultural crisis associated with the existence of iconoclasm, which led to a significant decline in the fine arts. And it is noteworthy that Vladimir I Svyatoslavich played a significant role in this flowering of Byzantine power.

In the summer of 988, a selected six-thousand-strong detachment of the Varangian-Russian squad, sent by Vladimir I Svyatoslavich, saved the Byzantine Emperor Vasily II, completely defeating the army that tried to take the imperial throne of Bardas Phocas. Vladimir himself accompanied his squad, which was going to help Vasily II, to the Dnieper rapids. Having fulfilled their duty, the squad remained to serve in Byzantium (later the guard of the emperors was the squad of the Anglo-Varangians).

Along with the consciousness of equality, the consciousness of the common history of all mankind came to Rus'. Most of all, in the first half of the 11th century, Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev, a Rusyn by origin, showed himself in the formation of national consciousness in his famous “Sermon on Law and Grace,” where he depicted the general future role of Rus' in the Christian world. However, back in the 10th century, “The Philosopher’s Speech” was written, which is a presentation of world history, into which Russian history was supposed to merge. The teachings of Christianity gave, first of all, awareness of the common history of mankind and the participation of all peoples in this history.

How was Christianity adopted in Rus'? We know that in many European countries Christianity was imposed by force. Baptism in Rus' was not without violence, but in general the spread of Christianity in Rus' was quite peaceful, especially if we remember other examples. Clovis forcibly baptized his squads. Charlemagne forcibly baptized the Saxons. Stephen I, King of Hungary, forcibly baptized his people. He forcibly forced those who managed to accept it according to Byzantine custom to abandon Eastern Christianity. But we do not have reliable information about mass violence on the part of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich. The overthrow of the idols of Perun in the south and north was not accompanied by repressions. The idols were lowered down the river, just as dilapidated shrines were later lowered - old icons, for example. The people cried for their defeated god, but did not rebel. The revolt of the Magi in 1071, which the Initial Chronicle tells about, was caused by famine in the Belozersk region, and not by the desire to return to paganism. Moreover, Vladimir understood Christianity in his own way and even refused to execute the robbers, declaring: “... I’m afraid of sin.”

Christianity was conquered from Byzantium under the walls of Chersonesos, but it did not turn into an act of conquest against its people.

One of the happiest moments of the adoption of Christianity in Rus' was that the spread of Christianity proceeded without special requirements and teachings directed against paganism. And if Leskov in the story “At the End of the World” puts into the mouth of Metropolitan Plato the idea that “Vladimir hastened, but the Greeks were deceitful - they baptized the ignorant and unlearned,” then it was precisely this circumstance that contributed to the peaceful entry of Christianity into people’s life and did not allow the church to occupy sharply hostile positions in relation to pagan rituals and beliefs, but on the contrary, gradually introduce Christian ideas into paganism, and in Christianity see a peaceful transformation of people's life.

So, double faith? No, and not dual faith! There cannot be dual faith at all: either there is only one faith, or there is none. The latter could not have happened in the first centuries of Christianity in Rus', because no one was yet able to take away from people the ability to see the unusual in the ordinary, to believe in the afterlife and in the existence of the divine principle. To understand what happened, let us return again to the specifics of ancient Russian paganism, to its chaotic and non-dogmatic character.

Every religion, including the chaotic paganism of Rus', has, in addition to all kinds of cults and idols, also moral principles. These moral foundations, whatever they may be, organize people's life. Old Russian paganism permeated all layers of the society of Ancient Rus' that began to feudalize. From the records of the chronicles it is clear that Rus' already possessed the ideal of military behavior. This ideal is clearly visible in the stories of the Primary Chronicle about Prince Svyatoslav.

Here is his famous speech addressed to his soldiers: “We no longer have children, willingly or unwillingly, we are against it; let us not disgrace the Russian lands, but let us lie down with bones, for the dead have no shame in the imam. If we run away, it’s a disgrace to the imam. The imam will not run away, but we will stand strong, and I will go before you: if my head falls, then provide for yourself.”

Once upon a time, students of Russian secondary schools learned this speech by heart, perceiving both its chivalrous meaning and the beauty of Russian speech, as, incidentally, they also learned other speeches of Svyatoslav or the famous description given to him by the chronicler: “...walking easily, like a pardus (cheetah), You create many wars. Walking, he did not carry a cart, nor cooked a cauldron, nor cooked meat, but he cut up a thin horse meat or an animal or beef on coals, baked a meat, no name for a tent, but laid a lining and a saddle in the heads; The same goes for his other warriors. And he sent to the countries saying: “I want to go to you.”

I purposely cite all these quotes without translating them into modern Russian, so that the reader can appreciate the beauty, accuracy and laconicism of ancient Russian literary speech, which enriched the Russian literary language for a thousand years.

This ideal of princely behavior: selfless devotion to one’s country, contempt for death in battle, democracy and the Spartan way of life, directness in dealing even with the enemy - all this remained even after the adoption of Christianity and left a special imprint on the stories about Christian ascetics. In the Izbornik of 1076 - a book specially written for the prince, who could take it with him on campaigns for moral reading (I write about this in a special work) - there are the following lines: “... beauty is a weapon for a warrior and sails for a ship, This is also the righteous man’s book veneration.” The righteous is compared to a warrior! Regardless of where and when this text was written, it also characterizes high Russian military morale.

In the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, most likely written at the end of the 11th century, and possibly at the beginning of the 12th century (the exact time of writing does not play a significant role), the fusion of the pagan ideal of the prince’s behavior with Christian instructions is clearly visible. Monomakh boasts of the number and speed of his campaigns (the “ideal prince” is visible - Svyatoslav), his courage in battles and hunting (two main princely deeds): “And I will tell you, my children, my work, I have worked better than myself, the ways of my deeds.” (going on hikes) and fishing (hunting) from the age of 13.” And having described his life, he notes: “And from Shchernigov to Kiev, I went to see my father several times (more than a hundred times), during the day I moved until Vespers. And all the paths are 80 and 3 great, but I can’t remember the lesser ones.”

Monomakh did not hide his crimes: how many people he beat and burned Russian cities. And after this, as an example of truly noble, Christian behavior, he cites his letter to Oleg, the content of which, amazing in its moral height, I had to write about more than once. In the name of the principle proclaimed by Monomakh at the Lyubech Congress of Princes: “Let everyone keep his homeland” - Monomakh forgives the defeated enemy Oleg Svyatoslavich (“Gorislavich”), in the battle with whom his son Izyaslav fell, and invites him to return to his homeland - Chernigov: “ What are we, sinful and evil people? “live today, and die in the morning, today in glory and honor (in honor), and tomorrow in the grave and without memory (no one will remember us), or divide our meeting.” The reasoning is completely Christian and, let’s say in passing, extremely important for its time during the transition to a new order of ownership of the Russian land by princes at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries.

Education after the baptism of Rus'

Education was also an important Christian virtue under Vladimir. After the baptism of Rus', Vladimir, as evidenced by the Initial Chronicle,... These lines gave rise to various guesses about where this “book teaching” was carried out, whether it was schools and what type, but one thing is clear: “book teaching” became a subject of state concern.

Finally, another Christian virtue, from Vladimir’s point of view, was the mercy of the rich towards the poor and wretched. Having been baptized, Vladimir began to primarily care for the sick and poor. According to the chronicle, Vladimir “commanded every beggar and wretched person to come to the prince’s courtyard and collect all their needs, drink and food, and from the women in kunami (money).” And for those who could not come, the weak and sick, deliver supplies to their yards. If this concern of his was to some extent limited to Kiev or even part of Kiev, then even then the chronicler’s story is extremely important, because it shows what exactly the chronicler considered the most important in Christianity, and with him the majority of his readers and rewrites of the text - mercy, kindness. Ordinary generosity became mercy. These are different acts, for the act of good deed was transferred from the person giving to those to whom it was given, and this was Christian charity.

In the future, we will return to another moment in the Christian religion, which turned out to be extremely attractive when choosing faiths and for a long time determined the nature of East Slavic religiosity. Now let us turn to that lower layer of the population, which before the baptism of Rus' was called smerds, and after, contrary to all the usual ideas of scientists of modern times, the most Christian layer of the population, which is why it got its name - the peasantry.

Paganism here was represented not so much by the highest gods, but by a layer of beliefs that regulated labor activity according to the seasonal annual cycle: spring, summer, autumn and winter. These beliefs turned work into a holiday and instilled love and respect for the land, which was so necessary in agricultural work. Here Christianity quickly came to terms with paganism, or rather, with its ethics, the moral foundations of peasant labor.

Paganism was not united. This idea, which we repeated above, should also be understood in the sense that in paganism there was a “higher” mythology associated with the main gods, which Vladimir wanted to unite even before the adoption of Christianity, organizing his pantheon “outside the courtyard of the tower,” and mythology “lower”, which consisted mainly in connection with beliefs of an agricultural nature and cultivated in people a moral attitude towards the land and towards each other.

The first circle of beliefs was decisively rejected by Vladimir, and the idols were overthrown and lowered into the rivers - both in Kyiv and Novgorod. However, the second circle of beliefs began to become Christianized and acquire shades of Christian morality.

Research in recent years (mainly the wonderful work of M. M. Gromyko “Traditional norms of behavior and forms of communication of Russian peasants of the 19th century.” M. 1986) provides a number of examples of this.

The moral role of the baptism of Rus'

In particular, there remained in different parts of our country peasant pomochi, or cleanup, - common labor performed by the entire peasant community. In the pagan, pre-feudal village, pomochi were performed as a custom of general rural work. In a Christian (peasant) village, pomochi became a form of collective assistance to poor families - families that have lost their head, the disabled, orphans, etc. The moral meaning contained in pomochi intensified in the Christianized rural community. It is remarkable that pomochi was celebrated as a holiday, had a cheerful character, was accompanied by jokes, witticisms, sometimes competitions, and general feasts. Thus, all the offensive character was removed from peasant assistance to low-income families: on the part of neighbors, assistance was performed not as alms and sacrifice, which humiliated those who were helped, but as a cheerful custom that brought joy to all participants. To help, people, realizing the importance of what was being done, came out in festive clothes, the horses were “put away in the best harness.”

“Although the work done by clearing is hard and not particularly pleasant, nevertheless clearing is a pure holiday for all participants, especially for children and young people,” reported a witness to a clearing (or helping) in the Pskov province.

The pagan custom acquired an ethical Christian overtones. Christianity softened and absorbed other pagan customs. For example, the initial Russian chronicle talks about the pagan kidnapping of brides near the water. This custom was associated with the cult of springs, wells, and water in general. But with the introduction of Christianity, beliefs in water weakened, but the custom of meeting a girl when she walked with buckets on the water remained. Preliminary agreements between the girl and the guy took place near the water. Perhaps the most important example of preserving and even enhancing the moral principles of paganism is the cult of the earth. Peasants (and not only peasants, as V.L. Komarovich showed in his work “The Cult of Family and Land in the Princely Environment of the 11th-13th Centuries”) treated the land as a shrine. Before starting agricultural work, they asked the land for forgiveness for “ripping open its chest” with a plow. They asked the earth for forgiveness for all their offenses against morality. Even in the 19th century, Raskolnikov in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” first of all publicly asks for forgiveness for the murder from the ground right in the square.

There are many examples that can be given. The adoption of Christianity did not abolish the lower layer of paganism, just as higher mathematics did not abolish elementary mathematics. There are no two sciences in mathematics, and there was no dual faith among the peasantry. There was a gradual Christianization (along with the dying out) of pagan customs and rituals.

Now let's turn to one extremely important point in.

The initial Russian chronicle conveys a beautiful legend about the test of faith by Vladimir. The ambassadors sent by Vladimir were from the Mohammedans, then from the Germans, who served their service according to Western custom, and finally came to Constantinople to the Greeks. The last story of the ambassadors is extremely significant, for it was the most important reason for Vladimir to choose Christianity from Byzantium. I will give it in full, translated into modern Russian. Vladimir's ambassadors came to Constantinople and came to the king. “The king asked them - why did they come? They told him everything. Hearing their story, the king rejoiced and did them great honor that same day. The next day he sent to the patriarch, saying to him: “The Russians have come to test our faith. Prepare the church and clergy and dress yourself in the saint’s vestments, so that they can see the glory of our God.” Hearing about this, the patriarch ordered to convene the clergy, performed a festive service according to custom, and lit the censer, and organized singing and choirs. And he went with the Russians to the church, and they placed them in the best place, showing them the beauty of the church, the singing and the hierarchal service, the presence of the deacons, and telling them about serving their God. They (that is, the ambassadors) were in admiration, marveled and praised their service. And kings Vasily and Constantine called them, and said to them: “Go to your land,” and sent them away with great gifts and honor. They returned to their land. And Prince Vladimir called his boyars and elders and said to them: “The men we sent have come, let’s listen to everything that happened to them.” I turned to the ambassadors: “Speak before the squad.”

I omit what the ambassadors said about other faiths, but here’s what they said about the service in Constantinople: “and we came to the Greek land, and led us to where they serve their god, and did not know whether we were in heaven or on earth : for there is no such spectacle and such beauty on earth and we don’t know how to tell about it. We only know that God is with the people there, and their service is better than in all other countries. We cannot forget that beauty, for every person, if he tastes the sweet, will not then taste the bitter; So we can no longer remain in paganism here.”

Architecture

Let us remember that the test of faith did not mean which faith is more beautiful, but which faith is true. And the main argument for the truth of the faith, Russian ambassadors declare its beauty. And this is no coincidence! It is precisely because of this idea of ​​​​the primacy of the artistic principle in church and state life that the first Russian Christian princes built up their cities with such zeal and erected central churches in them. Together with church vessels and icons, Vladimir brings from Korsun (Chersonese) two copper idols (that is, two statues, not idols) and four copper horses, “about which the ignorant think that they are marble,” and places them behind the Tithe Church, on the most solemn place in the city.

The churches erected in the 11th century are to this day the architectural centers of the old cities of the Eastern Slavs: Sofia in Kiev, Sofia in Novgorod, Spas in Chernigov, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, etc. No subsequent temples and buildings have overshadowed what was built in the 11th century.

None of the countries bordering Russia in the 11th century could compare with it in the grandeur of its architecture and in the art of painting, mosaics, applied art and in the intensity of historical thought expressed in chronicles and work on translated chronicles.

The only country with high architecture, complex both in technique and in beauty, which, besides Byzantium, can be considered the predecessor of Rus' in art, is Bulgaria with its monumental buildings in Pliska and Preslav. Large stone temples were built in Northern Italy in Lombardy, northern Spain, England and the Rhine region, but this is far away.

It is not entirely clear why in the countries adjacent to Rus', mainly rotunda churches were widespread in the 11th century: either this was done in imitation of the rotunda built by Charlemagne in Aachen, or in honor of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, or it was believed that the rotunda was most suitable for performing the baptismal ceremony.

In any case, churches of the basilica type are replacing rotunda churches, and it can be considered that in the 12th century the adjacent countries were already carrying out extensive construction and were catching up with Rus', which nevertheless continued to maintain primacy until the Tatar-Mongol conquest.

Returning to the heights of the art of pre-Mongol Rus', I cannot help but quote from the notes of Pavel Aleppo, who traveled around Russia under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and saw the ruins of the Church of Sophia in Kiev: “The human mind is not able to embrace it (the Church of Sophia) due to the variety of colors of its marbles and their combinations, the symmetrical arrangement of parts of its structure, the large number and height of its columns, the elevation of its domes, its vastness, the numerousness of its porticos and vestibules.” Not everything in this description is accurate, but one can believe the general impression that the Temple of Sophia made on a foreigner who saw the temples of both Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula. One might think that the artistic moment was not accidental in the Christianity of Rus'.

The aesthetic moment played a particularly important role in the Byzantine revival of the 9th-11th centuries, that is, just at the time when Rus' was baptized. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople in the 9th century, in an address to the Bulgarian prince Boris, persistently expressed the idea that beauty, harmonious unity and harmony as a whole distinguish the Christian faith, which is precisely what distinguishes it from heresy. In the perfection of the human face nothing can be added or subtracted - and so it is in the Christian faith. In the eyes of the Greeks of the 9th-11th centuries, inattention to the artistic side of worship was an insult to divine dignity.

Russian culture was obviously prepared to perceive this aesthetic moment, for it stayed with it for a long time and became its defining element. Let us remember that for many centuries Russian philosophy was closely connected with literature and poetry. Therefore, it must be studied in connection with Lomonosov and Derzhavin, Tyutchev and Vladimir Solovyov, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chernyshevsky... Russian icon painting was speculation in colors, expressing, first of all, a worldview. Russian music was also a philosophy. Mussorgsky is the greatest and still far from being discovered thinker, in particular a historical thinker.

It is not worth listing all the cases of the moral influence of the church on Russian princes. They are generally known to everyone who, in one way or another, to a greater or lesser extent, is impartially and unbiasedly interested in Russian history. Let me say briefly that the adoption of Christianity by Vladimir from Byzantium tore Rus' away from Mohammedan and pagan Asia, bringing it closer to Christian Europe. Whether this is good or bad - let the readers judge. But one thing is indisputable: the perfectly organized Bulgarian written language immediately allowed Rus' not to start literature, but to continue it and create works in the very first century of Christianity that we have the right to be proud of.

Culture itself does not know the starting date, just as the peoples, tribes, and settlements themselves do not know the exact starting date. All anniversary starting dates of this kind are usually conventional. But if we talk about the conventional date for the beginning of Russian culture, then, in my opinion, I would consider the year 988 to be the most reasonable. Is it necessary to delay anniversary dates into the depths of time? Do we need a date of two thousand years or one and a half thousand years? With our world achievements in the field of all types of arts, it is unlikely that such a date will in any way elevate Russian culture. The main thing that the Eastern Slavs have done for world culture has been done over the last millennium. The rest is just assumed values.

Rus' appeared on the world stage with its Kiev, the rival of Constantinople, exactly a thousand years ago. A thousand years ago, high painting and high applied art appeared in our country - precisely those areas in which there was no lag in East Slavic culture. We also know that Rus' was a highly literate country, otherwise how would it have developed such a high literature at the dawn of the 11th century? The first and most amazing work in form and thought was the work of the “Russian” author, Metropolitan Hilarion (“The Word of Law and Grace” - a work the likes of which no country had in his time - ecclesiastical in form and historical and political in content.

Attempts to substantiate the idea that they accepted Christianity according to Latin custom are devoid of any scientific documentation and are clearly tendentious in nature. Only one thing is unclear: what significance this could have if the entire Christian culture was adopted by us from Byzantium and as a result of relations between Rus' and Byzantium. From the very fact that baptism was accepted in Rus' before the formal division of the Christian churches into Byzantine-Eastern and Catholic-Western in 1054, nothing can be deduced. Just as nothing decisive can be deduced from the fact that Vladimir, before this division, received Latin missionaries in Kyiv “with love and honor” (what reason did he have to accept otherwise?). Nothing can be deduced from the fact that Vladimir and Yaroslav married their daughters to kings who belonged to the Western Christian world. Didn’t Russian tsars in the 19th century marry German and Danish princesses and marry off their daughters to Western royalty?

It is not worth listing all the weak arguments that Catholic historians of the Russian Church usually give; Ivan the Terrible rightly explained to Possevino: “Our faith is not Greek, but Christian.”

But it should be taken into account that Russia did not agree to the union.

No matter how we view the refusal of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Vasilyevich to accept the Union of Florence of 1439 with the Roman Catholic Church, for its time it was an act of the greatest political significance. For this not only helped preserve their own culture, but also contributed to the reunification of the three East Slavic peoples, and at the beginning of the 17th century, during the era of Polish intervention, helped preserve Russian statehood. This thought, as always with him, was clearly expressed by S.M. Soloviev: the refusal of the Florentine Union by Vasily II “is one of those great decisions that determine the fate of peoples for many centuries to come...”. Loyalty to ancient piety, proclaimed by Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich, supported the independence of north-eastern Rus' in 1612, made it impossible for the Polish prince to ascend the Moscow throne, and led to a struggle for the faith in the Polish possessions.

The Uniate Council of 1596 in the ominous Brest-Litovsk could not blur the line between the national Ukrainian and Belarusian cultures.

The Westernizing reforms of Peter I could not blur the line of originality, although they were necessary for Russia.

The hasty and frivolously conceived church reforms of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon led to a split in Russian culture, the unity of which was sacrificed for the sake of the church, purely ritual unity of Russia with Ukraine and Belarus.

Pushkin said this about Christianity in his review of N. Polevoy’s “History of the Russian People”: “Modern history is the history of Christianity.” And if we understand that by history Pushkin meant, first of all, the history of culture, then Pushkin’s position is, in a certain sense, correct for Russia. The role and significance of Christianity in Rus' were very changeable, just as Orthodoxy itself was changeable in Rus'. However, given that painting, music, to a large extent architecture and almost all literature in Ancient Rus' were in the orbit of Christian thought, Christian debate and Christian themes, it is quite clear that Pushkin was right, if his thought is broadly understood.

First of all, you should understand what paganism was in ancient Rus'. The pagan cult of the ancient Slavs did not represent an essentially complete system.Religious ideas were associated with the deification of the forces of nature, which was imagined to be inhabited by many spirits. They worshiped the elements of visible nature, first of all: God willing , Stribog And Veles .

Another important deity was Perun- god of thunder, thunder and deadly lightning. The cult of Perun was widespread throughout the territory of the Slavs: in Kyiv, Novgorod and Vladimir Rus'.The main myth about Perun tells about the battle of the god with the Serpent - the kidnapper of cattle, waters, luminaries and the wife of the Thunderer. The rise of the cult of Perun, his transformation into the supreme pagan god, begins with the military campaigns of the Kievites. They defeat the Khazars and fight with Byzantium. Human sacrifices are made to Perun at the foot of the sacred oak trees. Perun was called the “princely god” because he was the patron saint of princes and symbolized their power. Such a god was alien to most Slavic farmers.

Nevertheless, the images of the gods did not receive the same clarity and certainty among the Slavs as, for example, in Greek mythology. There were no temples, no special class of priests, no religious buildings of any kind. There were specialists only in fortune-telling and communication with mysterious forces - magicians, magicians, but even then not everywhere. Worship and sacrifices took place in special cult sanctuaries, temples, which were originally round wooden or earthen structures erected on embankments or hills. In the center of the temple there was a wooden or stone statue of an idol deity. Sacrifices were made to them, sometimes even human ones, and this was the limit of the cult side of idolatry.

Artist Elena Dovedova. Ancient temple

In addition, the Eastern Slavs worshiped not only the gods of nature, but also individual objects and places, for example, stones, trees, and even groves. So, on the shore of Lake Pleshcheevo in the ancient Russian city of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky there still lies a boulder stone - Sin-stone weighing 12 tons. In pre-Slavic times, he was worshiped by the native population of pagan Merians. Those who replaced the merya in the 9th - 11th centuries. the Slavs continued to worship the stone. When welcoming spring, the stone was decorated with ribbons and flowers, and round dances were performed around it.

Slavic paganism was, so to speak, uncompetitive - there were no holy books, no established cult... According to academician D.S. Likhachev, “paganism was not a religion in the modern sense - like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. It was quite chaotic a set of different beliefs, cults, but not a teaching. This is a combination of religious rituals and a whole heap of objects of religious veneration. Therefore, the unification of people of different tribes, which the Eastern Slavs so needed in the 9th-10th centuries, could not be achieved by paganism."

As MDA professor A.K. Svetozarsky points out, “recently, “sensations” have surfaced in the mass press - ancient Slavic “Vedic” books have allegedly been found. But any professional historian can easily recognize a fake here. Moreover, most often such fakes are the fruit of a deliberate activities of modern neo-pagan sects."

Population of ancient Rus'

Since ancient times, the European regions of present-day Russia were inhabited by various Slavic-Russian peoples and tribes, which did not have any institutions connecting them: clearing (territory of modern Poland),northerners (territory of Chernigov, Sumy, Bryansk, Kursk, Belgorod regions), Drevlyans (territory of modern Ukraine - Kyiv and Zhitomir), Radimichi (territory of modern Belarus),Vyatichi (territories of modern Moscow, Kaluga, Oryol, Ryazan, Smolensk, Tula and Lipetsk regions),Krivichi (area of ​​Polotsk, Pskov and Smolensk),Ilmen Slovenes (Novgorod lands),Dregovichi (Belarus), Volynians (territories of Western Ukraine and Poland),White Croats (territory of western Poland),Tiberians (territories of modern Moldova and Ukraine) And incriminate (area of ​​modern Dnepropetrovsk). They were ruled by their princelings and fought small wars among themselves. The purpose of their life was to acquire prey. Complete barbarism reigned. However, they were not able to protect themselves together against foreigners.

In addition to the Slavic peoples, many foreigners also lived on the territory of future Rus'. Finno-Ugric peoples : measuring (around Rostov, the territory of modern Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, eastern part of Moscow, eastern part of Tver, part of Vologda and western part of Kostroma regions); Muroma (on the Oka, where the river flows into the Volga); meshchera (territories of the Ryazan and Tambov regions, partially Saratov and Penza regions), Mordovians (Mordovia, as well as the territories of Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Tambov, Ryazan, Samara and Moscow regions); water (indigenous population of the Leningrad region), all (Karelia), Do you (Baltics); Chud (Estonia and east to Lake Ladoga) .

The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were Varangians(Normans who left Scandinavia for other countries), who lived “beyond the sea” and came to the Slavs “from beyond the sea”, Finno-Ugrians in the north ( territory of modern Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, eastern part of Moscow, eastern part of Tver, part of Vologda and western part of Kostroma regions),Volga Bulgarians And Khazars in the east, and prosperous Byzantium on South.

The beginning of Christianity in Rus'

An ancient legend says that Christian preaching in Rus' began as early as in the 1st century by Apostle Andrew the First-Called . Scientists are still arguing about its truth. Tradition tells that the Apostle Andrew preached the Gospel as far as the Dnieper Mountains, on which Kyiv later arose. Then he climbed up the Dnieper, reached Novgorod and returned back to Rome.

The Holy All-Praised Apostle Andrew the First-Called erects a cross on the Kyiv Mountains (artist Roman Kravchuk)

On one of the Kyiv hills, the Apostle Andrew installed a cross and predicted the greatness and beauty of the future capital of Ancient Rus'. About the Apostle’s visit to Novgorod, only one mention remains in our chronicle of the custom of the Novgorodians to take a steam bath in the baths, which surprised the Apostle.

After this apostolic journey, for a long time no signs of Christianity were found in the sources on the territory of the future Russia. The only exceptions were Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. These were the border territories of the Byzantine Empire. Church hierarchs and political figures who were undesirable to the government were usually exiled here. Bishop Clement of Rome, St. John Chrysostom, Maximus the Confessor and others ended their days here.

The most favorable conditions for the spread of the Christian faith among the Slavic tribes arose only with the strengthening of their military power and the beginning of statehood.

Formation of the Old Russian State

The first mentions of Kievan Rus as a state entity date back to the 30s of the 9th century. Before this there were no signs of state life. Traditionally, the starting point of Russian statehood is the legendary calling of the Varangians .

According to the “Tale of the Calling of the Varangians”, contained in the “Tale of Bygone Years”, written by the monk Nestor in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra at the beginning of the 12th century, in the middle of the 9th century the Slavic and Finnish tribes of the Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud and Meri paid tribute to the Varangians who came from -beyond the seas. But in 862 these tribes expelled the Varangians, and after that strife began between them. To end internal conflicts, the Slavic (Chud, Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi) and Finno-Ugric tribes decided to invite the prince from the outside.

Varyag Rurik with his brothers Sineus and Truvor was invited to reign in Novgorod. The beginning of the statehood of the Eastern Slavs is traditionally counted from this event.

The first March of Rus' against Constantinople dates back to the same time (860), which the Tale of Bygone Years dates back to 866 and associates with the names Varangian princes Askold and Dir . According to some sources, Askold and Dir were boyars (combatants) of the Novgorod prince Rurik, who sent them on a campaign against Constantinople. The campaign was unsuccessful - many died during the siege of Constantinople. On the way back from Byzantium, princes Askold and Dir did not return to Novgorod to Rurik, but settled in Kyiv, seizing power over the glades, which at that time did not have their own prince, and paid tribute to the Khazars.

Thus, we can talk about the emergence of two main political centers of the Eastern Slavs - the southern one with the center in Kyiv (Kievan Rus) and the northern one with the center in Novgorod (Novgorod Rus). Under Askold, Kievan Rus included the lands of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi and the southwestern part of the northerners (with the city of Chernigov). The Novgorod lands included the territory of the Ilmen Slovenes, Chuds, Vesi and Meri. Between the two political centers lay the Krivichi region, which remained independent until 872.

The main interests of Askold Rus' covered the south and southeast. She was attracted by rich and powerful states - Khazaria, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Caucasian countries - Georgia, Armenia, Albania (Azerbaijan), even distant Baghdad. She maintained active trade and political contacts with them. In addition, the great European trade route, known from Russian chronicles as the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” passed through Kyiv.

In 879, Rurik died in Novgorod. The reign was transferred to Oleg (the Prophet), regent for Rurik’s young son Igor. Later, in 882, the Novgorod prince Oleg set off with an army and a hired Varangian squad on a campaign against Kyiv. On the way to Kyiv, Oleg captured Smolensk and a number of other lands, establishing his power there and putting his people under reign. Approaching Kiev, Oleg hid the soldiers in the boats and, calling himself a merchant sailing to the Greek lands, lured Askold and Dir to him by deception. When they arrived, the warriors got out of the boats and Oleg told Askold and Dir that they were not princes, not of a princely family, but he, Oleg, was of a princely family, and with him Rurik’s young son Igor. As a result, Askold and Dir were killed, and Oleg became the prince of Kyiv. He united the Novgorod and Kyiv lands into a single state and moved the capital from Novgorod to Kyiv.

By the end of the 9th century, Oleg managed to unite the scattered and disparate tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi under his rule. Until the Mongol invasion (1237-1240) Kyiv becomes the political and cultural center of the Eastern Slavs, the capital of Kievan Rus - ancient Slavic feudal state. Due to its location on the trade routes “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” i.e. from Scandinavia to Byzantium and back, Kyiv began to establish strong political and economic ties with the countries of Central and Western Europe, trade relations with Byzantium, where furs, wax, honey and servants, i.e. slaves, were sold.

According to the chronicle version, Oleg reigned for more than 30 years. Rurik's own son Igor took the throne only after Oleg's death around 912 and ruled until 945.

The political union of the entire Eastern Slavs created by Oleg, although it can be called, in a certain sense, the original Russian state, this young state was still very far from what we are accustomed to understand by this name. At the beginning of the 10th century, the Union of Eastern Slavs represented more of a federation under the leadership of the Kyiv prince than a single state in our sense of the word. Although the Eastern Slavs were united under the authority of one supreme leader and judge, under the authority of one sovereign (Grand Duke), but still with weak ties. In the main cities of the ancient Russian state there were posadniks of the Grand Duke - either tribal princes of the Eastern Slavs, or princely warriors, who were planted in individual volosts by the Grand Duke of Kiev. All these posadniks of the Grand Duke went to their places with part of the squad, and fed themselves from tributes and various extortions from the population, sending part of the tribute to the Grand Duke in Kyiv. These Varangian squads, located in the cities along with the princes and mayors, made it possible for the Grand Duke of Kyiv to keep the East Slavic tribes scattered over vast spaces in unity under his rule. The princes and men appointed by the Grand Duke were completely independent in governing their volosts, and their entire attitude towards the Grand Duke, who was in Kiev, was expressed precisely in the fact that they sent him their “lesson” and followed his call to war.

But despite all this, the significance of the accomplished fact cannot be denied. No matter how, common power appeared over many hitherto scattered Eastern Slavs in the person of the Kyiv princes. This power, connecting tribes, cities and towns in common military and trade enterprises, becoming an intermediary between them, regulating their relationships, strengthened their sense of unity and awakened national self-awareness. Together they began to travel to Constantinople, Khazaria and Bulgaria for trade and began to undertake long-distance military campaigns.

The first (Photievo, or Askoldovo) baptism of Rus'

Numerous data indicate that Christianity began to spread in Rus' even before the official baptism of Rus' under Vladimir I Svyatoslavich in 988. The so-called first Baptism of Rus' took place more than 100 years before Prince Vladimir, in the 9th century.

With the strengthening of military power, the Slavs began to make military campaigns in the border territories of the Byzantine Empire.

As a result of such campaigns, there were cases of Slavic squads adopting Christianity. Thus, in the biography of Stefan, bishop of the city of Surozh (now Sudak) in Crimea, an attack on the city by Slavic-Varangian squads is reported. Around 790, shortly after the death of Saint Stephen, under the leadership of the Novgorod prince Bravlin, the Slavs captured and plundered Surozh. Prince Bravlin himself burst into the temple where Bishop Stefan was buried and wanted to rob his grave, but was struck by miraculous power. Having returned the loot and liberated the city, he and his squad were baptized. A similar case is described in the life of St. George, bishop of the city of Amastris, located on the southern shore of the Black Sea. Around 842, the “Russians,” as the Greeks called the Slavs, attacked the city and wanted to excavate the tomb of St. George, but amazed by the miracle, they freed the prisoners, entered into an alliance with the residents and asked for baptism.

In addition, it is known from historical sources that Rus' besieged Constantinople three times - in 860 (866), 907 and 941. The first was siege of Constantinople by the squad of the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir in 860 (866) . The Greeks, taken by surprise, turned their last hope to God. Having performed the service, the residents of the city with the patriarch and emperor went out in procession to the shore of the Bosphorus and immersed the robe from the icon of the Mother of God into the sea. A strong storm arose and sank the Russian ships. Many of them died. Those who survived retreated, amazed by this miracle. Returning home, Askold and Dir sent an embassy to Byzantium to ask for baptism and instruction in the Christian faith. Soon, the princes Askold and Dir, with the boyars and a number of people, were baptized in Kyiv by a bishop sent by Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople. These events are sometimes called the first (Fotiev, or Askoldov) baptism of Rus' .

Arrival of the bishop in Kyiv. Engraving by F. A. Bruni, 1839

In honor of the miraculous deliverance of Constantinople, the Feast of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary was established. Today this holiday is practically forgotten by the Greeks, but in Russia it is considered great and is still solemnly celebrated. In honor of this holiday, many churches were built, including the famous Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. The surprising thing is that for the Russians the battle ended in defeat. No nation in the world has a holiday in honor of military defeat.

After the baptism of Askold and Dir with their retinue, Christianity gradually entered the life of Ancient Rus', but was finally established only more than 100 years later, under Prince Vladimir.

Thus, we see that by the end of the 10th century, Christians already lived in Rus', there were already churches, and Christian doctrine was not perceived as something completely new and alien.

But we should especially focus on the last two decades before the Baptism of Rus' by Vladimir.

The period from Princess Olga to Prince Vladimir

As you know, for many years the wife of Igor Rurikovich, a Christian princess, ruled on the Kiev throne. St. Olga(945-969). They had an only son, Svyatoslav. And if Blessed Olga did not have time to attract him to Orthodoxy, because... at the time of her adoption of Christianity (944) he was already quite an adult, and, moreover, absorbed in a passion for military exploits, it is possible that she succeeded in relation to her grandchildren, who were in her care.

Svyatoslav, like a true pagan, was a polygamist. From different women he fathered three sons - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir. The mothers of the first two were his legal wives, and Vladimir was born from the concubine Malusha, the housekeeper of Princess Olga.Before leaving for the war with Byzantium in 970, Svyatoslav placed his eldest son, Yaropolk, in Kyiv, Oleg in Ovruch, and his youngest, Vladimir, in Novgorod. But due to his youth, he appointed his governors as their rulers: Yaropolk - Sveneld, and Vladimir - his uncle, Dobrynya. Then a quarrel arose between the brothers, the consequence of which was the death of Oleg and Vladimir’s flight across the sea to the Varangians.

Being a prince in Kyiv, and remaining a pagan, Yaropolk, apparently under the influence of his grandmother’s upbringing, greatly patronized Christians, who in the 80s of the 10th century were already among ordinary townspeople, boyars and merchants. But the majority of the inhabitants, both of the ancient capital and of other large cities, were undoubtedly pagans who coexisted peacefully with the Christian minority. The population of the villages was the most conservative; The cultivation of pagan beliefs persisted here for many centuries.

But for meRopolka there were no differences between Christians, Latins and Greeks. Therefore, he had diplomatic contacts with the German Emperor Otto I and negotiated with Rome. Most likely, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (as it was officially called) acted as a kind of mediator in the negotiations between Rus' and Rome. As a result, in 979, ambassadors from Pope Benedict VII came to Yaropolk in Kyiv with a proposal for the Baptism of Rus' (according to the Latin rite). True, these contacts of Yaropolk did not bring any results, because A coup took place in Kyiv - using the betrayal of the governor Blud, Vladimir killed Yaropolk and reigned in Kyiv.

Immediately after the coup, Vladimir declared himself a zealous pagan, which provided him with the support of the pagan part of the Kievites, probably dissatisfied with the pro-Christian policies of Yaropolk.

Paradoxically, it was to Vladimir that the Russian land subsequently owed its Christian Baptism.

Prince Vladimir before baptism

The first years of his reign, Vladimir was a rather depraved young man. Under Vladimir, human sacrifices were made to the pagan gods in Rus'. So, for example, after Vladimir’s victorious campaign against the Yatvingians (area of ​​the future Principality of Lithuania) in 983, Theodore and John, two Christian Varangians, father and son, were killed, who became the first martyrs of the faith in Rus', whose names are known to us. They wanted to sacrifice their son to the pagan gods. The father, of course, did not allow this, and as a result they were both killed. But the blood of martyrs, as has always been the case in the history of the Church, only brought the victory of Christianity closer. In 983 Vladimir still made human sacrifices, and five years later he accepted Christianity.

This was the deepest revolution in the prince’s soul. From the abysses of hell, he managed to rise to God. This is the holiness of the Equal-to-the-Apostles prince, who realized the abyss of lack of spirituality into which paganism plunges, and who managed to find a way out of this abyss, not only by turning to the true God, but also by bringing with him all his people. To understand the greatness of the feat of Saint Prince Vladimir, you need to appreciate what he was like before baptism. He was essentially a fratricide and performed human sacrifices. Drunken orgies are a common pastime for the prince and his squad. In addition, it is known how depraved his temper was. He did not disdain to marry the Polotsk princess Rogneda, whose father he killed before her eyes. In the same way, the wife of the murdered brother Yaropolk found herself in the harem of a depraved pagan. In a word, Vladimir, before his baptism, was a very cruel and terrible person.

But paganism could not satisfy the prince. The extremes of pagan immorality probably reinforced the impression of spiritual impasse. The dominance of paganism in the country and on international relations had a negative impact. In the 9th-10th centuries, a process of gradual Christianization of the countries of Central Europe took place, and the states of Southern and Western Europe were Christianized even earlier. Islam was widespread among the Volga Bulgars, and Judaism among the Khazars. By the 10th century, Rus' found itself, to some extent, in a state of isolation from the Christian states of Europe. In this case, inter-dynastic marriages played a significant role, ensuring the parties’ loyalty to the contract. Indeed, when pursuing their foreign policy, feudal sovereigns usually entered into alliances with emperors, kings, and princes who headed neighboring powers. And Russian pagan princes and their sons were deprived of the opportunity to marry princesses of European houses who converted to Christianity. In addition, trade relations between Kyiv merchants and Christian countries, whose clergy was irreconcilable with other religious systems, also became difficult. And Russian merchants and princes were vitally interested in trade with Western countries, where they sold surplus products received from the population (bread, wax, furs, etc.) and received goods not produced in their country. Paganism was an obvious brake on the development of a new, more progressive, albeit cruel, feudal system.

But it was not only and not so much political calculation that guided the prince in choosing his faith, as historians usually imagined. Personal spiritual search, of course, occupied a key place in the Kyiv prince’s rejection of paganism. He was a religious person, seeking the truth. And this was the main thing that forced Vladimir to look for a new faith for himself and his people.

Prince Vladimir's choice of faith

There were many legends about exactly how Vladimir was baptized and how he baptized his people.

Vladimir, the monarch of the largest European power, was tried to be lured into their faith by both the Mohammedans and the Khazars, who were completely defeated by his father, who were actually left without a state at that time, and, even more so, by representatives of the Vatican. Several embassies of Vladimir are known to different countries. As a politician, Vladimir thought of becoming related to the Byzantine dynasty, which would mean practically equalizing the Russian princes, if not with the Roman basileus, then at least with the great European monarchs of that time and significantly strengthening the world authority of the Kyiv state.

Ambassadors began to come to Vladimir. One of the first were the Jews. During a conversation with them, Vladimir, according to the chronicler, asked where their homeland was. They answered him: “We have no homeland. For our sins God scattered us.” It was, of course, about the dispersion of Jews from Palestine and their spread throughout the world. Vladimir answered the Jews that he did not want to accept the faith, which would then lead to the loss of the fatherland. Moreover, the prince’s answer had a double subtext: he could mean not only the fate of Israel, but also the fate of the Khazars, who lost themselves after their elite adopted Judaism. Vladimir also talked with Muslims who apparently came from Volga Bulgaria. It is significant here that in his religious search the prince had already reached the understanding of monotheism. However, he is still childishly naive, wanting to find an easy path to God. Thus, Islam initially seduces the voluptuous prince with the possibility of polygamy and the promise of a dubious “paradise” in which the faithful supposedly enjoy abundant benefits in the society of the Gurias. However, as the chronicler says, another passion temporarily won: having learned that the Koran prohibits the consumption of wine, Vladimir utters the historical phrase: “Rus' has joy in drinking.”

It is interesting that Vladimir’s conversation with Western Christians was much shorter. Obviously, Vladimir was repelled by the already fully formed ideology of papism by that time, with the requirement of vassal submission to the Roman high priest as the earthly ruler of the Christian world. Vladimir answered the papal envoys that his ancestors did not accept the Latin faith. It would seem not a completely logical statement when it comes to choosing a new faith. However, Vladimir probably remembers how, under Olga, the Latin bishop Adalbert came to Rus' on a mission, whom the people of Kiev soon expelled with indignation. There is also some information about unsuccessful negotiations with the Latins that took place under Yaropolk. For Prince Vladimir, it obviously meant a lot to the wise Olga that she abandoned Western Christianity and accepted baptism from the Orthodox Greeks.

Filatov. The choice of Vera by Prince Vladimir

At the same time, Vladimir was in no hurry to choose faith. The most interesting moment in the story of Rev. Nestor is a conversation between the prince and a monk-philosopher who came from Byzantium. This missionary, unknown to us by name, showed Vladimir the icon of the Last Judgment, and thereby clearly demonstrated to him Christian eschatology and the posthumous fate of sinners and righteous people. We can believe that this episode is the most vivid and truthful in the story about the choice of faith. Because the icon is a testimony to the Incarnate God, “a reflection in colors.” We have before us an interesting historical example of how an icon was used for preaching purposes. This is a purely Orthodox argument from an artistic image - an icon. In general, it is very characteristic of the Orthodox culture of Ancient Rus' that Russians perceived Orthodoxy more at the level of an artistic image. In the Middle Ages, Rus' knew few outstanding theologians, but created the greatest iconography. Prince Vladimir received a strong emotional impression from the sermon of the Greek monk and from the icon, favorable, unlike other religions. But still this was far from the final choice. The prince tried to do it thoughtfully and carefully.

Vladimir then sent ambassadors to various countries, and these ambassadors confirmed his impression. The chronicle tells us about the stunned state of Vladimir's ambassadors after the service in the Hagia Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople. Undoubtedly, this story is very true.

According to academician D.S. Likhachev, “the test of faith did not mean which faith is more beautiful, but which faith is true. And the main argument for the truth of faith, Russian ambassadors declare its beauty. And this is not accidental! It is precisely because of this idea about the primacy of the artistic principle in church and state life, the first Russian Christian princes with such diligence built up their cities, erected central churches in them."

However, even after the positive response of the ambassadors, which coincided with Vladimir’s own reaction to Orthodoxy, Vladimir is still in no hurry to be baptized. The reason for this now is most likely the complex political relationship between Rus' and Byzantium. But this is like an external outline of events, behind which there is some kind of gigantic spiritual struggle for the soul of the prince himself, for the fate of his state. Therefore, the process of Vladimir’s conversion was very difficult. The transformation of a wild barbarian who made human sacrifices into a meek lamb, a saint, of course, required special circumstances, the special Providence of God. The events that ultimately led to the baptism of Vladimir, and then of Rus', developed gradually.

Baptism of Prince Vladimir

The Byzantine emperors, brothers-co-rulers from the Macedonian dynasty Basil II the Bulgarian Slayer and Constantine VIII, were going through a very difficult period. A rebellion arose in the empire, forcing them to turn to Vladimir for military help. Vladimir promised support, but on the condition that Vasily II and Constantine VIII would give him their sister Anna as his wife. The insolence was unheard of at that time. It was not customary for Byzantine princesses to marry “despicable” foreigners. In addition, Vladimir was a pagan. However, the hopelessness of the situation forced the emperors to reconcile. The crown bearers agreed to the marriage if the Russian prince accepted baptism and married her according to the Christian rite.

A Russian squad of 6 thousand soldiers rose to the defense of Constantinople and in April 988 defeated the usurper Varda Phokas, who threatened to overthrow the legitimate emperors from the throne.

Vladimir, in exchange for military services, demanded the hand of the Byzantine princess, but he was refused. Perhaps the bad reputation of the pagan prince, an immoral barbarian, played a role. But the most significant thing was that Vladimir, despite all his already fully formed desire for Christianity, had not been baptized by this time. In addition, the Byzantine emperors dreamed of finding a much better place for their sister. And they wooed the Byzantine princess - a blue-eyed and well-built beauty - from everywhere.

Suspecting Vasily II and his brother of not wanting to marry Anna to him, Vladimir, outraged by the cunning of the emperors, decides to act by force.He goes to war against the Greeks, now having a pretext for this: the emperors deceived him and did not give Anna as his wife. After a long siege, the prince takes possession of the Crimean outpost of Byzantium - ancient Chersonesus, called Korsun by the Russians (today it is part of the city of Sevastopol). Vladimir demands Anna as his wife in exchange for the return of Chersonesos to Byzantium.

The wedding flotilla arrived in Chersonesos. Anna arrived on two galleys with priests, an icon of the Mother of God in Greek writing, many holy relics and other shrines. But despite the requirement being fulfilled, Vladimir still delayed baptism. Then the intervention of God's Providence was inevitable: when Princess Anna had already arrived in Chersonesus, and Vladimir was celebrating victory, a miracle of admonition occurred - Vladimir became blind. And Anna sent to her groom to say: “If you are not baptized, you will not escape your illness.”

Soon, in the main temple of Chersonese - in the Church of St. Basil - priests from Constantinople, after the announcement, baptized the Grand Duke of Kyiv and gave him the Christian name - Vasily, in memory of the great Archbishop of Caesarea of ​​Cappadocia. After this, a miracle happened - Vladimir received his sight. He received his sight physically and spiritually. And the work of his conversion was ultimately accomplished not by human wisdom, but by the power of the Holy Spirit. Perhaps that is why a completely different person came out of the font to the altar for the wedding with Anna, as we later see St. Vladimir, which retained nothing of its former pagan appearance.

V. Vasnetsov. "The Baptism of Prince Vladimir"

Cruel and vindictive in paganism, Vladimir after baptism became a model of meekness and love. He did not want to punish even criminals, and his fabulous generosity struck the hearts of the common people. The chronicle itself, not without surprise, reports that Vladimir ordered every beggar and wretched to come to the princely court and take what he needed - money, food, drink... And for those who cannot come themselves, deliver everything they need through the streets, asking townspeople about the sick, old and infirm. Vladimir did such alms not only at the princely court or in Kyiv, but throughout the entire Russian land, throughout the entire state.

The baptism of Prince Vladimir, the further Christianization of Rus' and the kinship of the ruling family with the Byzantine court introduced Rus' into the family of European nations on completely equal terms. The son of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Svyatopolk, married the daughter of the Polish king Boleslav the Brave. Vladimir's daughter Maria Dobrogneva was married to the Polish prince Casimir I. Yaroslav the Wise's daughter Elizabeth married the Norwegian king Harold the Bold, who had been seeking her hand for several years. Another daughter of Yaroslav, Anna, was the queen of France, remaining a widow after the death of her husband Henry I. Yaroslav’s third daughter, Anastasia, was married to the Hungarian king Andrew I. It would be possible to list for a long time the family ties of the Russian princes of the 11th-12th centuries, according to They testify to themselves the enormous prestige of Rus' among all the peoples of Europe.

Baptism of Kievites

The first step of Saint Vladimir was the baptism of the people of Kiev, which took place, as most researchers believe, on August 1, 988, shortly after Vladimir’s return from the campaign against Chersonesus. Vladimir's relatives, that is, ex-wives, sons and others, his closest advisers and other people close to Vladimir were baptized in the Church of St. Basil. This originally wooden church was one of the first built by the Equal-to-the-Apostles prince in Kyiv. It was consecrated in the name of Saint Basil the Great, whose name Saint Vladimir took at baptism. They erected this temple on the site of the former temple of Perun, which had recently been decorated by order of the prince with a new idol. Now the idol was overthrown and shamefully, with symbolic beatings, dragged to the bank of the Dnieper and lowered downstream. Moreover, the prince ordered the pagan abomination to be escorted all the way to the rapids, pushing the idol away from the shore with poles. It is clear that in the minds of the newly baptized prince, the idol was directly associated with the receptacle of demons.The remaining tens of thousands of people were baptized in the waters of the Dnieper.

artist Elena Dovedova. Overthrow of Perun

For Vladimir, the baptism of the Russian land was a matter of paramount national importance. Only in Kyiv, Vladimir himself built two churches, giving a tenth of all princely income for the maintenance of one of them. Already at the end of Vladimir’s reign, there were more than 100 churches in the ancient Russian capital.

Because in the Kyiv lands, in the south and southwest of Rus', people were familiar with Christianity even before Vladimir, and they accepted baptism easily. This was not the case in the Russian north. Pagan beliefs were strong there.

Baptism of other Russian lands

One often hears that Prince Vladimir baptized Rus' by force, which means one cannot say that Orthodoxy is the free choice of the Russian people. It should be noted that all accusations of forced baptism come down, in fact, to one episode - the baptism of Novgorod. Information about this is contained only in the Joachim Chronicle. This source is quite late and a number of researchers have doubts about its authenticity. However, it contains unique information and therefore is of interest to historians. According to this chronicle, Prince Vladimir sent his uncle Dobrynya to Novgorod in order to baptize the Novgorod land. He met resistance, but, nevertheless, achieved his goal: as a result of a military operation, the Novgorodians surrendered and asked for Baptism. There is an interesting point here - this chronicle mentions the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord, around which a Christian parish developed. That is, it turns out that even before the mass baptism of Novgorodians, there were already Christians in the city, there were Orthodox churches. So if you trust the Joachim Chronicle at all, then you have to admit that the preaching of Orthodoxy was not something completely new for Novgorod, since there was already ground for the adoption of a new faith.

In general, the Eastern Slavs accepted baptism quite easily, because... the ground for this had been prepared long ago. True, several cases are known that later received the name “revolt of the Magi” (in 1024 in Suzdal, at the turn of the 60-70s of the 11th century in Novgorod and the Yaroslavl region), but all these cases were, as they say, “spot”, and they were not popular unrest at all.

When we read in the chronicle that in Novgorod the envoys of the Kyiv prince used military force during baptism, it is enough to compare this episode of the Christianization of Rus' with what was happening in Western Europe in order to understand: for Rus', violence against the Novgorodians is an exception, a completely atypical case, while for the Western Church such methods have been almost traditional for many centuries. Moreover, the reason for the Novgorodians’ resistance to baptism was political.

The sons of Prince Vladimir, to whom he distributed princely appanages, also zealously cared for the spread and establishment of Christianity in the areas under their control. So in the 10th century, in addition to Kyiv, Novgorod and Rostov, the Christian faith was preached in Polotsk, Lutsk, Smolensk, Pskov and other cities of Ancient Rus'. Thus, thanks to the efforts of the grand princely authorities and the fortitude of the Orthodox shepherds, by the end of the 11th century, Christianity already dominated throughout the Russian land.

To more firmly assimilate the new Christian faith, Vladimir opened schools first in Kyiv and then in other cities. The prince ordered the children of the boyars to be recruited to teach them to read and write. The chronicler says that mothers, sending their children to hitherto unknown schools, cried for them as if they were dead.

Vladimir's son, Yaroslav the Wise, continued his father's work, ordering the opening of schools for the common people at churches. He also founded a large public library in Kyiv, which could be used by anyone.

The main forces of scientists, writers, and artists of that time were concentrated in the rapidly emerging monasteries. Church scribes, architects, and icon painters came from Byzantium and other countries and passed on the secrets of their craft to the Russians. Soon, Russian masters independently erected churches, painted frescoes and icons, which delighted foreigners and entered the golden fund of world culture. Thus, the Russians, like all European peoples, were brought the first writing, culture and enlightenment by the Christian Church.

However, it cannot be said that with the advent of Christianity, paganism disappeared forever. The notorious “folk culture,” which existed for many centuries in parallel with Christianity, absorbed many pagan elements. Even in our time these pagan elements sometimes appear.

The significance of the adoption of Christianity for Rus'

Sergey Belozersky (Radio Radonezh)

“The Baptism of Rus' is a sign that the existence of Russia is the will of God. Within the framework of God’s plan for human history, Russia is not an accident, Russia is loved by God, awarded great gifts, called to a specific service.

The Baptism of Rus' greatly influenced the state and political practice of Kievan Rus. Orthodoxy actually shaped Russian statehood. The adoption of the Byzantine tradition predetermined all subsequent development - politics, economics, and especially culture.

And our future is possible only in the Orthodox Faith; attempts to cut ties with it are attempts to destroy our country. These attempts may come from a sincere misunderstanding, or from conscious hostility - but they lead precisely to the destruction of the country. When TV presenter Vladimir Pozner talks about the adoption of Orthodoxy as “the greatest tragedy for Russia,” he is not just saying something ignorant, he is saying a very poisonous thing; those who believe him will cut themselves off from their country and from their people.

As noted by a variety of people - believers and non-believers, priests and psychologists - a person needs meaning, an awareness of his life, his goals, his hopes and his obligations. This is our nature - a person who has a “why” to live can endure any “how”; a person who has nothing to do is teetering on the brink of suicide. This is also true of society - a society that does not see the meaning in its existence is doomed to disintegration. A society in which everyone strives only to satisfy their own needs, a society in which people do not have a common history, common values ​​and common shrines is a dying society. A society that believed that its very emergence was a “greatest misfortune” is poisoned to death.

Then our ancestors faced a choice between different faiths - each of which offered its own answers regarding man’s place in the world, his responsibilities towards his neighbors, his hope for eternal salvation. Now we are choosing not between different faiths - but between true faith and emptiness, nothing, complete disintegration."

Material prepared by Sergey SHULYAK

for the Church of the Life-Giving Trinity on Sparrow Hills

In reality, Christianization took place over several centuries and was primarily due to political reasons. Kyiv merchants who traded with Byzantium, and soldiers who visited Christian countries became Christians. The Kyiv princes Askold and Olga adopted Christianity.

In the 10th century was a strong feudal state with a high level of crafts and trade, spiritual and material culture. Further development required the consolidation of forces within the country, and this was difficult to do in conditions where different cities worshiped different gods. A unifying idea of ​​one God was needed. International relations also required the adoption of Christianity, since Rus' maintained constant contacts with the Christian countries of Western Europe and Byzantium. To strengthen these contacts, a common ideological platform was needed.

Receiving baptism from Byzantium was also not accidental. Kievan Rus had closer trade and cultural ties with Byzantium than with other countries. The subordination of the church to the state, characteristic of Byzantium, also appealed to the princely authorities. The adoption of Christianity from Byzantium made it possible to perform divine services in their native language. It was also beneficial for Byzantium to baptize Rus', since it gained an ally in the struggle to expand its influence.

Year of the Baptism of Rus'

The act of baptism in Kyiv and Novgorod, completed in 988, has not yet exhausted the acceptance of Christianity by an entire people. This the process lasted for centuries.

The prince and his retinue were baptized in Korsun (Chersonese). The baptism was confirmed by the marriage of the prince with the sister of the Byzantine king Vasily III. Upon the return of Prince Vladimir with his retinue and the newly-minted princess to Kyiv, he gave the order to overthrow the old gods and the need for the entire population of Kyiv to gather on a certain day and hour to the banks of the Dnieper, where the baptism was performed. The baptism of Novgorod was a more difficult task, since Novgorod constantly showed separatist tendencies and perceived the baptism as an attempt to subordinate it to the will of Kyiv. Therefore, in the chronicles you can read that “Putyatya baptized the Novgorodians with fire, and Dobrynya with the sword,” i.e. Novgorodians offered fierce resistance to baptism.

Consequences of the baptism of Rus'

During the 11th century. pockets of resistance to Christianization arose in different parts of Kievan Rus. They had not so much a religious as a social and political meaning; were directed against oppression and the spread of power of the Kyiv prince. At the head of popular indignation, as a rule, stood Magi.

After the adoption of Christianity, already under Yaroslav the Wise, a metropolitanate was created in Kyiv, headed by a sent Greek metropolitan. The metropolis was divided into dioceses headed by bishops - mostly Greeks. Before the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the Russian Orthodox Church consisted of 16 dioceses. From 988 to 1447, the church was under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, its primates were appointed in Constantinople. There are only two known cases of Russians being appointed primates - Hilarion(XI century) and Kliment Smaljatych(XII century). Already under Vladimir, the church began to receive tithes and soon turned into a major feudal lord. Monasteries appeared that performed defensive, educational, and charitable functions. Monasteries were founded during the reign of Yaroslav St. George(Christian name of Yaroslav) and St. Irina(the heavenly patroness of Yaroslav’s wife). In the 50s XI century the most significant of the ancient Russian monasteries appears - Kiev-Pechersk, founded by Anthony and Theodosius of Pechersk, the founders of Russian monasticism. At the beginning of the 12th century. this monastery received the status laurel. By the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion there were monasteries in almost every city.

Thanks to the material support of the princes, churches are built. The cathedral was founded in 1037 St. Sofia- the main cathedral church in Kyiv, built on the model of the one in Constantinople. In 1050, a cathedral of the same name was built in Novgorod.

In conditions of feudal fragmentation, the church found itself in a difficult situation. She had to play the role of a mediator in resolving disputes and contradictions, the role of a conciliator of warring princes. Princes often interfered in the affairs of the church, deciding them from the point of view of their own benefit.

Since the late 30s. XIII century Russian lands were enslaved. The Church characterized this disaster as a punishment for sins, for a lack of religious zeal, and called for renewal. By the time of the invasion of Rus', the Tatar-Mongols professed primitive polydemonism. They treated the ministers of the Orthodox Church as people associated with demons who could bring damage to them. This danger, in their opinion, could have been prevented or neutralized by good treatment of the servants of Orthodoxy. Even when the Tatar-Mongols accepted it in 1313, this attitude did not change.