Reveal the role of poetic means in the artistic structure of the word. Means of artistic expression in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”

Introduction to the work

The dissertation research is devoted to the consideration of the peculiarities of the poetics of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in the light of folklore tradition.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is an outstanding literary work of a secular nature, based on historical material, written by an unknown author of the 12th century. The study of “The Lay” revealed its important artistic feature: being an original author’s work, focused on the genre and stylistic literary traditions of its time, it at the same time reveals a close connection with folklore. This is manifested at different levels of poetics: in composition, in the construction of the plot, in the depiction of artistic time and space, in the stylistic features of the text. One of the characteristic features of medieval literature, which has common traditions with folklore, was anonymity. The author of the ancient Russian work did not seek to glorify his name.

History of the issue. The study of the relationship between the “Word” and folklore was developed in two main directions: “descriptive”, expressed in the search and analysis of folklore parallels to the “Word”, and “problematic”, the adherents of which aimed to find out the nature of the monument - oral-poetic or book and literary.

For the first time, the most vivid and complete embodiment of the idea of ​​the connection between the “Word” and folk poetry was found in the works of M.A. Maksimovich. However, in the works of Vs. F. Miller examined the parallels between the Lay and the Byzantine novel. Polar points of view - about the folklore or bookishness of the “Word” - were subsequently united in a hypothesis about the dual nature of the monument. Some results of the development of the problem “The Word and Folklore” were summed up in the article by V.P. Adrianova-Peretz “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and Russian folk poetry,” where it was pointed out that supporters of the idea of ​​the “folk poetic” origin of the “Tale” often lose sight of the fact that “in oral folk poetry, lyricism and epic each have their own artistic system.” , whereas in the author’s integral organic poetic system “the best aspects of the lyrical and epic style are inextricably fused.” D.S. Likhachev also justifiably pointed out the closeness of the Lay to folklore, especially to folk laments and glories, in ideological content and form. Thus, the problem of the relationship between folklore and literary elements in the text of the most famous monument of ancient Russian literature was stated, which had not yet been resolved in literary criticism.

A number of works expressed ideas about the relationship of the “Word” with certain genres of folklore. Various aspects of the problem of the relationship between the monument and folklore were covered in the works of I.P. Eremin, L.A. Dmitrieva, L.I. Emelyanova, B.A. Rybakova, S.P. Pinchuk, A.A. Zimina, S.N. Azbeleva, R. Manna. These and many works similar in type are united by a common attitude: according to their authors, “The Lay” is genetically and in form connected with folk poetry, to which it has its roots.

At one time, a very accurate, from our point of view, idea was expressed by Academician M.N. Speransky, who wrote: “In “The Lay” we see constant echoes of those elements and motives with which we deal in oral folk poetry... This shows that “The Lay” is a monument that combines two areas: oral and written." This attitude became the impetus for us to turn to the comparative study of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the folklore tradition and the need to raise the question of the origin and connection of mythological images with the author’s worldview.

Scientific novelty: Despite the scientific searches of the researchers mentioned above, the questions of the formation of the author’s artistic skill in the early Middle Ages and reliance on folklore tradition have not yet received a comprehensive answer in literary criticism. D.S. Likhachev wrote: “A complex and responsible question... about the relationship between the system of literary genres of ancient Rus' and the system of folklore genres. Without a series of extensive preliminary studies, this question not only cannot be resolved, but even ... correctly posed.

This work is an attempt to resolve the question of why “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is so rich in folklore, as well as the key question of the relationship between the system of literary genres of ancient Rus' and the system of folklore genres. The work provides a comprehensive analysis of the folklore tradition in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: it reveals how the worldview influenced the design and implementation of the idea of ​​the work, clarifications are made to the problem of studying the system of folklore genre forms used by the author, the connection between the elements of the folklore chronotope, folklore images and poetic techniques that are found in the text of a literary monument of the 12th century, with images and tropes of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”.

The study proves that the poetic system that was formed in oral folk art undoubtedly influenced the poetics of the emerging medieval Russian literature, including the artistic structure of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” because during the period of artistic searches, during the period of the formation of written literature culture of oral poetic creativity developed over centuries

influenced the formation of literature in that there were already ready-made genre forms and artistic poetic techniques that were used by ancient Russian writers, including the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

The “Word” is usually published in parallel: in the original language and in translation, or separately in each of these two versions. For our analysis of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” it was necessary to turn to the ancient Russian text, since the original text allows us to better understand the artistic specifics of the work.

Object of study is the text “The Tale of Igor’s Host” in Old Russian, as well as folklore texts of different genres in the records of the 19th-20th centuries, necessary for comparative analysis.

Relevance of the work. An appeal in the dissertation research to the relationship between oral (folklore) and written (Old Russian literary) traditions is very relevant, because reveals the relationship between the poetics of a literary work and the poetics of folklore, as well as the process of influence of one artistic system on another in the early period of the formation of Russian literature.

Subject of study- implementation of folklore poetics in the text of an ancient Russian literary monument.

Purpose dissertation research is a comprehensive study of the features of folklore poetics in the artistic structure of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign.

Based on the general goal, the following specific ones are formulated: tasks:

To identify the basis of the author’s artistic worldview, to determine the role of its various structural elements in the poetics of “The Lay,” to consider the elements of animist and pagan beliefs reflected in the work.

Consider in the “Word” elements of folklore genres, general genre models, elements of composition, features of the chronotope, common with folklore, folklore images.

Determine in the “Word” the specifics of the image of a person, the type of hero, its connection with the folklore system of images.

Identify artistic features, general stylistic patterns in the creation of the text of the monument and folklore works.

Methodological basis The dissertation was based on the fundamental works of Academician D.S. Likhachev “Man in the culture of Ancient Rus'”, “Development of Russian literature of the 11th - 17th centuries: eras and styles”, “Poetics of Old Russian literature”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign. Sat. research and articles (Oral origins of the artistic system “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. As well as the works of V.P. Adrianova-Peretz “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign and Russian folk poetry”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign and monuments of Russian literature of the 11th - 13th centuries” Collection of studies These works made it possible to consider the following aspects of the poetics of the “Word”: the categories of artistic time and space, the system of artistic means in the context of folklore.

Research methodology includes a comprehensive analysis of the text, combining historical, literary, comparative and typological methods.

Theoretical significance of the study consists in a comprehensive study of the features of the poetics of folklore in the artistic system of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which is important for understanding the aesthetic values ​​of ancient Russian literature as a whole. Identification of folklore traditions at different levels of text poetics presupposes further development of the problem in literary criticism.

Practical significance of the study: dissertation research materials can be used when delivering lectures in university courses on the history of Russian literature, in the special course “Literature and Folklore”, for the compilation of educational and teaching aids on Old Russian literature, as well as in school courses in literature, history, courses “World artistic culture” .

Provisions for defense:

1. The poetics of the “Word” reflects the worldview of ancient Russian people, who absorbed the most ancient mythological ideas of the Slavs about the world, but already perceived them at the level of aesthetic categories. Mythological characters associated with ancient ideas about the world around us penetrate into literature, but they are no longer perceived as divine beings, but as some kind of mythological magical characters.

2. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” reveals elements of numerous folklore genres. From ritual folklore, traces of wedding and funeral rites are noted, and elements of conspiracy and spells are present.

In the artistic structure of the monument, the influence of epic genres, in particular fairy tales and epics, is noticeable: in the elements of composition, in plot construction, in the chronotope. The system of images is close to a fairy tale, although types of heroes are found that are similar to the epic ones. Folklore images-symbols of the lyrical song influenced the poetics of the Lay. Small genre forms - proverbs, sayings, parables - are a means of characterizing and enhancing emotionality.

3. The “Word” uses the inseparability of tropes and symbols characteristic of folklore, with the help of which the author gives a vivid and imaginative description of the characters and finds out the reasons for their actions. The syntax of the monument is archaic (influence of oral tradition) and is largely related to the poetic syntax of folk lyrical songs. The rhythmic structure of the “Lay” creates an artistic context that is correlated with the epic tradition of reproducing the text.

4. Folklore was the “nutrient medium” that influenced the formation of the artistic system of Old Russian literature in the early period of its formation, which is clear from the analysis of the outstanding work of the 12th century, permeated with folklore traditions. During the period of creation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the process of formation of literary poetics, occurring under the influence of folklore, deepened.

Dissertation structure, determined by the goals and objectives of the study, includes an introduction, three chapters (the first and second chapters consist of four paragraphs, the third contains three paragraphs), a conclusion and a bibliographic list of references, including 237 titles. The total volume of the dissertation is 189 pages.

Lesson topic:

The role of figurative and expressive means of language in works of fiction

Lesson objectives:

educational : repeat terms; develop the ability to distinguish between tropes, stylistic figures and other means of expression; determine their role in the text;

developing : develop the mental and speech activity of students, the ability to analyze, compare, classify, generalize, and logically correctly express their thoughts; continue to work on discovering creative abilities; on the development of critical, imaginative thinking; create conditions for the development of communication skills;

educational: development of a system of value relations towards the native language; fostering a caring attitude towards the author’s word, a responsible attitude towards one’s own word, and towards the culture of speech.

DURING THE CLASSES.

1. Organizing time.

2. Opening remarks. Let's start our lesson by reading and analyzing a poem by O. Mandelstam. Reading and analysis of O. Mandelstam's poem. (1 slide).

What is this poem about? What is the theme and main idea of ​​this poem? What helps the author create such a picture of St. Petersburg and convey his feelings? (comparisons – “like a jellyfish”; epithets – “transparent spring”, personifications – “spring is dressing”, metaphors – “sea wave heavy emerald”, etc.).

What can expressive means be used for?

Conclusion : figurative and expressive means make speech bright, figurative, expressive.

Based on all that has been said, how can we formulate the topic and objectives of the lesson?

3. Record the topic of the lesson. ( 2 slide). What are the objectives of the lesson? (3 slide).

Let's turn to the epigraph of our lesson. We read lines from the works of N.V. Gogol, V. Bryusov, A. Akhmatova.

What do these quotes have in common? How do they reflect the topic of our lesson?

4. Conversation on issues. Repetition.

1 .What three groups are the visual and expressive means of language divided into?

2. List the figurative and expressive means of language, write down the terms in a notebook, give oral definitions.

METAPHOR – the use of a word or expression in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena.

COMPARISON - comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other.

EPITHET – figurative definition.

METONYMY - a trope consisting in the fact that instead of the name of one object, the name of another is given.

HYPERBOLA - a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the strength, size, or significance of any phenomenon.

LITOTES - a trope containing an excessive understatement of the subject, force, or significance of any phenomenon.

IRONY - a trope consisting of using a word in a sense opposite to the literal one.

ALLEGORY – expression of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image.

PERSONALIZATION - a trope consisting in the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts.

PERIPHRASE - a trope consisting of replacing the usual one-word name of an object with a descriptive expression.

ANAPHORA – repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence.

EPIPHORA – repetition of words or expressions at the end of neighboring, adjacent sentences.

ANTITHESIS - a turn in which opposing concepts are sharply contrasted.

GRADATION - an arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains an intensifying meaning.

INVERSION - a special arrangement of words that violates the usual order.

SYNECDOCHE - , variety , based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.

OXYMORON - “smart stupidity” stylistic or error, a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination ).

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM – samesyntacticstructureneighboringproposals.

PARCELLATION – sentence division.

Consolidation and generalization of material

5. Distribute the terms into two groups. ( Slide 5)

6. Find the mistake in the definition of the trope. (Slide 6)

7. Match the definition and the stylistic figure. (Slide 7)

8. Match the definition and lexical means . (Slide 8).

9. Physical education minute (Slides 10 - 16)

Metonymy, phraseological units, periphrasis, parallelism, epithet, synonyms, comparison, rhetorical question, colloquial words, litotes.

10. Working with texts of works of art (based on printouts) Examples from works of fiction of tropes and stylistic figures.

What language means are found in these texts?

Until Apollo demands the poet to the sacred sacrifice, He is cowardly immersed in the worries of the vain world;Silent his holy lyre: Souleats a cold dream, And among the insignificant children of the world, Perhaps he is the most insignificant of all. (A.S. Pushkin, “The Poet”) (Metaphors)

Red brush Rowanlit up . Leaves were falling. I was born

(M. Tsvetaeva, From poems about Moscow) (Metaphor)

And you fall like that,

Like a fallen leaf from a tree, it will fall!

And you will die like this,

How your last slave will die .

(G.R. Derzhavin, “To Rulers and Judges”) (Comparisons)

But only a divine verb

It will touch your hearing clearly

The poet's soul will stir,

Like an awakened eagle.

(A.S. Pushkin “The Poet”) (Comparison)

There is dark oak and ash hereemerald,

And there's azuremelting tenderness…

As if from realitywonderful

You're carried away intomagical vastness.

(A.A. Fet, “Mountain Gorge”) (Epithets)

Feigned don't demand tenderness from me,

I will not hide the coldness of my heartsad .

You're right, it's not there anymorebeautiful fire

My original love.

(E.A. Baratynsky, “Confession”) (Epithets)

We need a language like the Greeks had,

What the Romans had and, following them in that,

As Italy and Rome now say.

(A. Sumarokov) (Metonymy)

8. He is a man! They are ruled by the moment

He is a slave to rumors, doubts and passions;

Forgive him for his wrongful persecution:

He took Paris, he founded the Lyceum.

(A.S. Pushkin) (Metonymy)

And it was heard until dawn,

How rejoicedFrenchman …

(M.Yu. Lermontov, “Borodino”) (Synecdoche)

10.Everything is sleeping - man, beast, and bird

(Gogol) (Synecdoche)

11.“It rained in one place, sothe river, which the hare had swam a day earlier, swollen and overflowed for ten miles.”

(M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Selfless Hare”). (Hyperbola)

12. Jumping dragonfly

Summer is redsang,

I didn’t have time to look back,

How winter rolls into your eyes.

(I.A. Krylov, “Dragonfly and Ant”) (Personification)

13.Where are you, where are you,thunderstorm of kings,

Freedom's proud singer?

Come, tear off the wreath from me,

Break the pampered lyre...

I want to sing freedom to the world,

On the trails, defeat vice.

(A.S. Pushkin, Ode “Liberty”) (Periphrase)

14. You're miserable too

You are also abundant

You are mighty

You are also powerless...

(N.A. Nekrasov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'”) (Anaphora)

15. Let thunder shake the sky,

Villains oppress the weak

Madmen praise their intelligence!

My friend! It's not our fault.

(N.M. Karamzin) (Gradation)

16. Nor peace full of proud trust,

Nor the dark old cherished legends

No joyful dreams stir within me.

(M.Yu. Lermontov “Motherland”)(Inversion)

17. And walking importantly, in orderly calm,
A man leads a horse by the bridle
In big boots, in a short sheepskin coat,
In big mittens...and from the nails myself!

(N.A. Nekrasov) (Litota)

18. The forest is not the same!
- The bush is not the same!
- Drozd is not the same!

(M. Tsvetaeva) (Epiphora)

And the day has come. Gets up from his bed
Mazepa, this frail sufferer,
Thiscorpse alive , just yesterday
Moaning weakly over the grave.

( . «

11. Reading and listening to A. Blok’s poem “Stranger” " (Slides 17 – 21)

Analysis of the visual and expressive means of the poem, their role in the text.

12. Conclusion: What is the role of visual and expressive means in works of fiction?

What is the practical orientation of knowledge of visual and expressive means and their role in the text? (Completing task 24 of the Unified State Examination in the Russian language).

13. Work with text and review from KIM Unified State Examination in the Russian language. ( Slides 22 – 26)

Complete task 24 using the algorithm.

14. Reflection. (Slide 27). Let's summarize what we learned in class.

What role do figurative and expressive means of language play in works of fiction and in human life?

Creation of new, bright, fresh images.

The thought is expressed fully, accurately, deeply, in accordance with the plan

Impact on the thoughts and feelings of the reader, purification on the spiritual and, as a result, on the physical level.

15. Homework. (Slide28)

1. Analyzefrom the point of view of the use of visual and expressive means, a poem by a Silver Age poet.

2. Complete task 24 of the Unified State Exam in the Russian language.

1. The originality of the “Words...” genre.
2. Features of the composition.
3. Language features of the work.

Is it not appropriate for us, brothers, to begin with the old words of the military tales about Igor’s campaign, Igor Svyatoslavich? This song should begin according to the stories of our time, and not according to Boyanov’s custom.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” Literary scholars have long recognized the undoubted artistic value of this work of ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Most researchers of this literary monument agree that the “Word...” was created in the 12th century, that is, shortly after the events discussed in it. The work tells about a real historical event - the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor of Novgorod-Seversky against the steppe Polovtsians, which ended in the complete defeat of the princely squad and the capture of Igor himself. Mentions of this campaign were also found in a number of other written sources. As for the “Word...”, researchers primarily consider it as a work of art, and not as historical evidence.

What are the features of this work? Even with a superficial acquaintance with the text of the work, it is easy to notice its emotional richness, which, as a rule, the dry lines of annals and chronicles lack. The author praises the valor of the princes, laments the deaths of the soldiers, points out the reasons for the defeats that the Russians suffered from the Polovtsians... Such an active author’s position, atypical for a simple statement of facts, which chronicles are, is quite natural for an artistic literary work.

Speaking about the emotional mood of “The Lay...”, it is necessary to say about the genre of this work, an indication of which is already contained in its very title. “The Word...” is also an appeal to the princes with a call for unification, that is, speech, narration and song. Researchers believe that its genre is best defined as a heroic poem. Indeed, this work possesses the main features that characterize a heroic poem. The “Word...” tells about events, the consequences of which were significant for the whole country, and also praises military valor.

So, one of the means of artistic expression of “The Word...” is its emotionality. Also, the expressiveness of the artistic sound of this work is achieved thanks to compositional features. What is the composition of the monument to Ancient Rus'? In the storyline of this work, one can notice three main parts: this is the actual story about Igor’s campaign, the ominous dream of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav and the “golden word” addressed to the princes; Yaroslavna's cry and Igor's escape from Polovtsian captivity. In addition, “The Word...” consists of thematically integral picture-songs, which often end with phrases that play the role of a chorus: “seeking honor for yourself, and glory for the prince,” “O Russian land! You’re already over the hill!”, “for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, dear Svyatoslavich.”

Nature paintings play a major role in enhancing the artistic expressiveness of “The Word...”. Nature in the work is by no means a passive background of historical events; She acts as a living being, endowed with reason and feelings. A solar eclipse before a hike portends trouble:

“The sun blocked his path with darkness, the night awakened the birds with the groans of menacing animals, an animal whistle rose, Div perked up, called out on the top of a tree, commanding him to listen to a foreign land: the Volga, and Pomorie, and Posulia, and Surozh, and Korsun, and you, Tmutorokan idol.” .

The image of the sun, the shadow of which covered Igor’s entire army, is very symbolic. In literary works, princes and rulers were sometimes compared to the sun (remember the epics about Ilya Muromets, where the Kyiv prince Vladimir is called the Red Sun). And in the “Word...” itself, Igor and his princely relatives are compared to four suns. But not light, but darkness falls on the warriors. The shadow, the darkness that enveloped Igor’s squad is a harbinger of imminent death.

Igor's reckless determination, which is not stopped by an omen, makes him similar to the mythical heroes-demigods, fearlessly ready to meet their fate. The prince’s desire for glory, his reluctance to turn back, fascinates with its epic scope, probably also because we know that this campaign is already doomed: “Brothers and squad! It is better to be killed than to be captured; So, brothers, let’s sit on our greyhound horses and look at the blue Don.” It should be noted that in this case, the author of “The Lay...”, wanting to enhance the artistic expressiveness of the work, even “moved” the eclipse several days earlier. It is known from the chronicles that it happened when the Russians had already reached the borders of the Polovtsian steppe and turning back was tantamount to a shameful flight.

Before the decisive battle with the Polovtsians, “the earth is humming, the rivers are flowing muddily, the dust is covering the fields,” that is, nature itself seems to be resisting what is about to happen. At the same time, you should pay attention: the earth, rivers, plants sympathize with the Russians, and animals and birds, on the contrary, eagerly await the battle, because they know there will be something to profit from: “Igor is leading an army to the Don. Birds are already awaiting his death in the oak groves, wolves are calling thunderstorms by yarugs, eagles are calling animals on bones with the squeal, foxes are charging at scarlet shields.” When Igor’s army fell in battle, “the grass withered with pity, and the tree bowed to the ground with sadness.” The Donets River appears as a living being in “The Lay...”. She speaks to the prince and helps him during his flight.

Speaking about the means of artistic expression in “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign,” of course, one cannot remain silent about the linguistic features of this work. To attract the attention of his audience and create the appropriate mood, the author used questions to which he himself answers (exclamations emphasizing the emotional tone of the narrative, appeals to the heroes of the work): “What is making noise, what is ringing at this hour early before the dawn?”, “Oh Russian land! You’re already over the hill!”, “And Igor’s brave regiment cannot be resurrected!”, “Yar-Tur Vsevolod! You stand in front of everyone, showering the warriors with arrows, rattling their helmets with damask swords.”

The author of “The Lay...” widely uses epithets characteristic of oral folk poetry: “greyhound horse”, “gray eagle”, “open field”. In addition, metaphorical epithets are also common: “iron shelves”, “golden word”.

In the “Word...” we also find the personification of abstract concepts. For example, the author depicts Resentment as a maiden with swan wings. And what does this phrase mean: “... Karna screamed, and Zhlya rushed across the Russian land, sowing grief to people from a fiery horn”? Who are they, Karna and Zhlya? It turns out that Karna is derived from the Slavic word “kariti” - to mourn the dead, and “Zhlya” - from “to regret”.

In “The Word...” we also encounter symbolic paintings. For example, the battle is described sometimes as a sowing, sometimes as a threshing, sometimes as a wedding feast. The skill of the legendary storyteller Boyan is compared with falconry, and the clash between the Polovtsians and the Russians is described as an attempt by “black clouds” to cover the “four suns.” The author also uses symbolic symbols traditional for folk poetry: he calls Russian princes falcons, a raven is a symbol of the Polovtsian, and the yearning Yaroslavna is compared to a cuckoo.

The high poetic merits of this work inspired talented people to create new works of art. The plot of “The Lay...” formed the basis of A. P. Borodin’s opera “Prince Igor,” and the artist V. M. Vasnetsov created a number of paintings based on “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of ​​laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially

V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.

LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is found in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger,” “a hut on chicken legs,” “a little man as big as a fingernail.”
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.

N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to

comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

By you into the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

A. Blok

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:

Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;

The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a bountiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...

A. Pushkin

When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...

A. Pushkin

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).

My bells

Steppe flowers!

Why are you looking at me?

Dark blue?

And what are you calling about?

On a merry day in May,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!

3) The singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

A. Blok

5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:

We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON – a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds;

The way the beast will howl,

Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.

A. Pushkin

She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Moroz - commander of the patrol

Walks around his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,

Spewing wild curses on the way.

And I see: half the people are sitting.

Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with your free speech

All those who have their mouths covered.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

An endless and endless dream!

A. Blok

ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

You're miserable too

You are also abundant

You're downtrodden

You are omnipotent

Mother Rus'!…

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.

...When suddenly he came out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth at them...

A.N. Krylov

Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,

Human rumor and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least another quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.

A. Blok

MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure isnon-union

Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...

M. Lermontov

And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION(Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.

Legends of deep antiquity

A.S. Pushkin

He passes the doorman with an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

The waves splash in the blue sea.

The stars shine in the blue sky.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly clouds are eternal wanderers.”

Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.

PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”

N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

They shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the tension of the action:

We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.