The culture of Europe in the 16th century in brief. Culture of Europe in the 16th-17th centuries
era classicism baroque european
XVI-XVII centuries It is customary to call the time of the birth of bourgeois civilization, thereby explaining the savagery and cruelty of this era by the need to accumulate primary capital. In fact, the formation of this civilization began much earlier and initially brought people not poverty and slavery, but the development of manufactories and crafts, the creation of universities and schools and, most importantly, the growth of freedom, manifested in the formation of various institutions of self-government, as well as representative institutions - parliaments.
The 17th-18th centuries occupy a special place in the history of modern times. It was a transitional period full of contradictions and struggles, which completed the history of European feudalism and marked the beginning of the period of victory and establishment of capitalism in the advanced countries of Europe and America.
Elements of capitalist production originated in the depths of the feudal system. By the middle of the 17th century, the contradictions between capitalism and feudalism acquired a pan-European character. In the Netherlands, already in the 16th century, the first victorious bourgeois revolution took place, as a result of which Holland became “a model capitalist country of the 17th century.” But this victory of the capitalist economy and bourgeois ideology still had limited, local significance. In England, these contradictions resulted in a bourgeois revolution on a “European scale.” Simultaneously with the English bourgeois revolution, revolutionary movements in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, Poland and a number of other countries. However, on the European continent feudalism survived. For another century, the ruling circles of these states pursued a policy of feudal “stabilization.” Almost everywhere in Europe, feudal-absolutist monarchies remain, and the nobility remains the ruling class.
The economic and political development of European countries proceeded unevenly.
In the 17th century, the largest colonial and trading power in Europe was Holland. The victorious bourgeois revolution of the 16th century not only provided successful development capitalist economy, trade, but also turned Holland into the freest country in Europe - the center of advanced bourgeois culture, progressive printing, and bookselling.
However, at the end of the 17th century, Holland was forced to give up its place to England, and then to France - countries where there was a more reliable industrial base for trade. In the 18th century, the Dutch economy experienced stagnation and decline. England comes out on top in the world. France by this time stands on the threshold of a bourgeois revolution.
Absolutist Spain, one of the most powerful states in Europe in the 16th century, found itself in a state of deep economic and political decline in the 17th century. It remains a backward feudal country. Italy is experiencing a severe economic and political crisis in this era, having partially lost its national independence since the mid-16th century.
The transition from feudalism to capitalism was carried out mainly as a result of two bourgeois revolutions: the English (1640-1660) and the French (1789-1794). The significance of the French bourgeois-democratic revolution, which opened a new era in the development of culture, is especially great.
The seventeenth century was of particular importance for the formation of national cultures of modern times. During this era, the process of localization of large national art schools, the originality of which was determined by both the conditions historical development, and the artistic tradition that has developed in every country - Italy, Flanders, Holland, Spain, France. Developing in many ways the traditions of the Renaissance, artists of the 17th century significantly expanded their range of interests and deepened the cognitive range of art.
The desire for a broad display of reality led in the 17th century to a variety of genre forms. IN fine arts Along with traditional mythological and biblical genres, secular ones are gaining an independent place: everyday genre, landscape, portrait, still life. Complex relationships and the struggle of social forces also give rise to a variety of artistic and ideological movements. Unlike previous historical periods, when art developed within the framework of homogeneous large styles (Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance).
The breakthrough of Europe was due to changes in production relations in the Netherlands and England thanks to the bourgeois revolutions, which took place here much earlier than in other countries.
In 1566, a popular uprising broke out and a bourgeois revolution began in the Netherlands. Philip II's attempts to suppress the resistance of the Dutch people through executions and atrocities did not break their will to fight. The main milestones of revolutionary events: the popular iconoclastic uprising of 1566 in the southern provinces; general uprising of 1572 in the northern provinces; revolt in 1576 in the southern provinces; creation of the Union of Utrecht in 1579
The Dutch bourgeois revolution ended with the liberation of the northern provinces from Spanish rule and the formation of the bourgeois republic of the United Provinces
Seven provinces united into one state with general government, treasury and army. The Republic of the United Provinces was headed by Holland as the most economically developed province.
By the middle of the 17th century. England has achieved significant success in the development of industry and trade. The basis of the country's economic progress was the development of new forms of production - capitalist manufacture (mainly in the form of dispersed manufacture).
One of the most important features of the English bourgeois revolution is its unique ideology, the drapery of its class and political goals. The assault on absolutism in England began with an assault on its ideology, ethics and morality, which were embodied in the doctrine of the semi-Catholic state Anglican Church. The English Revolution gave a powerful impetus to the process of initial accumulation of capital (“de-peasantization” of the countryside, turning peasants into wage workers, strengthening enclosures, replacing peasant holdings with large farms of the capitalist type); it provided complete freedom of action for the rising bourgeois class and paved the way for the industrial revolution of the 18th century. just as Puritanism loosened the soil for the English Enlightenment. In the political field, the revolutionary struggle of the masses in the middle of the 17th century. ensured the transition from the feudal monarchy of the Middle Ages to the bourgeois monarchy of modern times.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. European science has reached new frontiers. Advanced thinkers, having explored the Universe with the help of scientific instruments, drew a completely new picture the universe and the place of humanity in it. The scientific revolution became possible thanks to the dynamic development of a society that had already achieved significant technological progress. Firearms, gunpowder and ships capable of crossing oceans allowed Europeans to discover, explore and map much of the world, and the invention of printing meant that any documented information quickly became available to scientists across the continent. Beginning in the 16th century, the relationship between society, science and technology became increasingly closer, as progress in one area of knowledge pushed the development of others.
At this time, interest in science was widespread, and scientific knowledge was not yet so specialized that anyone educated person couldn't make the discovery.
Scientific societies were created, such as the Royal Society of London (founded in 1662) and the French Royal Academy of Sciences (1666), and scientific journals were published, accelerating the development of scientific progress. As a result of this "revolution" in XVI-XVII centuries, science has become one of the the brightest examples successful cooperation for the benefit of people.
If until recently art historians considered the Renaissance as a qualitatively unique type of culture, contrasting it, on the one hand, with medieval Gothic, and on the other, with seventeen-century baroque, then A.F. Losev, the author of these lines and a number of other culturologists came to the conclusion that the Renaissance is a transitional type of culture - transitional from feudal its qualities To bourgeois, which explains its main features and puts an end to many unproductive discussions. However, further reflections showed that this transition did not end with the crisis of the Renaissance, but continued in new forms in the 17th and even in the 18th centuries. The real victory of capitalism was marked politically by the Great French Revolution, and spiritually by the self-affirmation of Romanticism and Positivism, the kinship and rivalry of which determined the entire history of European culture in the 19th century and was inherited by the 20th century. Thus, the features of the culture of the seventeenth century can be understood if we consider its three-stage process in which it is its middle management , carrying out « transition in transition » - transition from the Renaissance harmonious balance of the opposing potentials of culture: aristocratic and democratic, mythological and secular, sensual and spiritual, empirical and rational, ethical and aesthetic, traditionalist and innovative, classicistic and realistic, etc., through their confrontation and confrontation in the 17th century to achieve unconditional superiority one of these potentials, the variety of manifestations of which in different areas culture corresponded to the content of the concept of Enlightenment. Therefore, the main aesthetic “paint” of the 17th century was dramaticism, which sharply distinguished it from the lyrical-epic Renaissance and attracted the attention of cultural figures of the 19th - 20th centuries (starting with the romantics) to the late Shakespeare, Cervantes, Rembrandt, Rubens, Bernini, Callot, to the dramatic nature of the baroque in general, and in philosophical heritage of this century - to Hobbes and Pascal.
Lecture No. 18.
Theme: European culture XVI-XVIII centuries.
1. Culture of the Renaissance.
2. Literature of the Enlightenment.
3. Art XVII-XVIII centuries.
1.
New period in cultural development Western and Central Europe received the name of the Renaissance, or Renaissance.
Revival (at French Renaissance) is a humanistic movement in the history of European culture during the period of the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. The Renaissance arose in Italy in the 14th century and spread to Western countries ( Northern Renaissance) and reached greatest prosperity in the middle of the 16th century. End XVI- beginning of the 17th century: decline - mannerism.
The phenomenon of the Renaissance was determined by the fact that the ancient heritage turned into a weapon for the overthrow of church canons and prohibitions. Some culturologists, determining its significance, compare it with a grandiose cultural revolution, which lasted two and a half centuries and ended with the creation of a new type of worldview and a new type of culture. A revolution took place in art comparable to the discovery of Copernicus. At the center of the new worldview was man, and not God as the highest measure of all things. A New Look to the world received the name of humanism.
Anthropocentrism - main idea worldview of the Renaissance. The birth of a new worldview is associated with the writer Francesco Petrarch. He contrasts scholasticism, based on the formal terminological method, with scientific knowledge; happiness in the “City of God” - earthly human happiness; spiritual love for God - sublime love for an earthly woman.
The ideas of humanism were expressed in the fact that what is important in a person is his personal qualities - intelligence, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will and education, and not social status and origin.
During the Renaissance, the ideal of harmonious, liberated, creative personality, beauty and harmony, appeal to man as the highest principle of being, a sense of integrity and harmonious patterns of the universe.
The Renaissance gave birth to geniuses and titans:
Italy - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, the politician Machiavelli, the philosophers Alberti, Bruni, Vala, Ficino, Nicholas of Cusa, the architects Brunelleschi and Bramante;
France - Rabelais and Montaigne;
England - More, Bacon, Sidney, Shakespeare;
Spain - Cervantes;
Poland - Copernicus;
Germany - Boehme, Münzer, Kepler.
Masterpieces of the Renaissance:
Leonardo da Vinci "La Gioconda", "The Last Supper";
Raphael " Sistine Madonna" and "Sleeping Venus", "Madonna Conestabile" and "Judith";
Titian "Danae" (Hermitage Museum).
The main feature of the art and culture of the Renaissance is the affirmation of human beauty and talent, the triumph of thought and high feelings, creative activity. Baroque and classicism styles are developing in fine arts, academicism and caravaggism in painting. New genres appear - landscape, still life, pictures of everyday life, hunting and holidays.
Leonardo da Vinci Mona Lisa
Raphael Sistine Madonna
Renaissance architecture is based on the revival of classical, mainly Roman architecture. The main requirements are balance and clarity of proportions, use of an order system, sensitivity to building material, its texture, beauty.
The revival arose and was most clearly manifested in Italy.
The period from the last decade of the 15th century to the middle XVI century(High Renaissance) becomes the "golden age" of Italian art. From him the solemn and majestic architecture of Bramante and Palladio remains as a souvenir for descendants, he gives the world the immortal masterpieces of Raphael and Michelangelo. The entire 16th century continues and only in early XVII century, the flowering of the culture of renaissance, born under the skies of Italy, is fading away.
The late Renaissance is characterized by the rapid development of such a synthetic art form as theater, the most prominent representatives of which were Lope de Vega, Calderon, Tirso de Molina (Spain), William Shakespeare (England).
Thus, the culture of the Renaissance reflects a synthesis of the features of antiquity and medieval Christianity; the ideological basis for the secularization of culture is humanism.
The Renaissance replaced religious ritual with secular ritual and elevated man to a heroic pedestal.
2.
People of the 17th-18th centuries called their time centuries of reason and enlightenment. Medieval performances sanctified by the authorities of the church and the omnipotent tradition, were criticized. In the 18th century, the desire for knowledge based on reason, and not on faith, took possession of an entire generation. The consciousness that everything is subject to discussion, that everything must be clarified by means of reason, constituted distinctive feature people of the 17th-18th centuries.
During the Age of Enlightenment, the transition to modern culture. Was taking shape new image life and thinking, which means that the artistic self-awareness of a new type of culture also changed. The Enlightenment saw in ignorance, prejudice and superstition the main cause of human disasters and social evils, and in education, philosophical and scientific activity, in freedom of thought - the path of cultural and social progress.
The ideas of social equality and personal freedom took hold, first of all, of the third estate, from whose midst most of the humanists emerged. The middle class consisted of the wealthy bourgeoisie and people of liberal professions; it had capital, professional and scientific knowledge, general ideas, spiritual aspirations. The worldview of the third estate was most clearly expressed in the educational movement - anti-feudal in content and revolutionary in spirit.
Radical changes also occurred at the level of aesthetic consciousness. The main creative principles of the 17th century - classicism and baroque - acquired new qualities during the Enlightenment, because the art of the 18th century turned to images real world. Artists, sculptors, writers recreated it in paintings and sculptures, stories and novels, plays and performances. The realistic orientation of art encouraged the creation of a new creative method.
The literature was based on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons. The courtyard ceased to be the only center to which everyone strove. The philosophical salons of Paris, where Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Helvetius, Hume, and Smith attended, became fashionable. From 1717 to 1724, more than one and a half million volumes of Voltaire and about a million volumes of Rousseau were printed. Voltaire was truly a great writer - he knew how to comprehend and explain simply and publicly in a beautiful, elegant language the most serious topic that attracted the attention of his contemporaries. He had a tremendous influence on the minds of all enlightened Europe. His evil laughter, capable of destroying centuries-old traditions, was feared more than anyone else's accusations. He strongly emphasized the value of culture. He portrayed the history of society as the history of the development of culture and human education. Voltaire preached these same ideas in his dramatic works And philosophical stories(“Candide, or Optimism”, “The Simple-minded”, “Brutus”, “Tancred”, etc.).
The direction of educational realism was successfully developed in England. The entire group of ideas and dreams about a better natural order received artistic expression in the famous novel by Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) “Robinson Crusoe”. He wrote more than 200 works of various genres: poetry, novels, political essays, historical and ethnographic works. The book about Robinson is nothing more than the story of an isolated individual, left to the educational and corrective work of nature, a return to the natural state. Less known is the second part of the novel, which tells about spiritual rebirth on an island, far from civilization.
German writers, remaining in the position of enlightenment, looked for non-revolutionary methods of combating evil. The main force They considered aesthetic education to be progress, and art as the main means. From the ideals of public freedom German writers and the poets moved on to the ideals of moral and aesthetic freedom. This transition is characteristic of the work of the German poet, playwright and theorist of Enlightenment art Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805). In their early plays, which had enormous success, the author protested against despotism and class prejudices. “Against Tyrants” - the epigraph to his famous drama “Robbers” - directly speaks of its social orientation.
In addition to the generally accepted baroque and classicist styles in Europe, new ones appeared in the 17th-18th centuries: rococo, sentimentalism, and pre-romanticism. Unlike previous centuries, there is no single style of the era, unity artistic language. The art of the 18th century became a kind of encyclopedia of various stylistic forms that were widely used by artists, architects, and musicians of this era. In France art culture was closely connected with the court environment. The Rococo style originated among the French aristocracy. The words of Louis XV (1715-1754) “After us, even a flood” can be considered a characteristic of the mood that reigned in court circles. Strict etiquette was replaced by a frivolous atmosphere, a thirst for pleasure and fun. The aristocracy was in a hurry to have fun before the flood in an atmosphere of gallant festivities, the soul of which was Madame Pompadour. The court environment partly itself shaped the Rococo style with its capricious, whimsical forms. The founder of Rococo in painting can be considered Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), a court painter. Watteau's heroes are actresses in wide silk dresses, dandies with languid movements, cupids frolicking in the air. Even the titles of his works speak for themselves: “The Capricious One”, “Feast of Love”, “Society in the Park”, “Predicament”. 
Watteau "Predicament".
As a painter, Watteau was much deeper and more complex than his many followers. He diligently studied nature and wrote a lot from nature. After Watteau's death, Francois Boucher (1704-1770) took his place at court. A very skilled craftsman, he has worked a lot in the field decorative painting, made sketches for tapestries, for painting on porcelain. Typical subjects are “The Triumph of Venus”, “The Toilet of Venus”, “The Bathing of Diana”. In the works of Boucher, the mannerism and eroticism of the Rococo era were expressed with particular force, for which he was constantly accused by enlightenment moralists.
During the era of the French Revolution, new classicism triumphed in art. Classicism of the 18th century is not a development of classicism of the previous century - it is a fundamentally new historical and artistic phenomenon. Common features: appeal to antiquity as a norm and artistic model, assertion of the superiority of duty over feeling, increased abstraction of style, pathos of reason, order and harmony. The exponent of classicism in painting was Jacques Louis David (life: 1748-1825). His painting "The Oath of the Horatii" became the battle banner of the new aesthetic views. A plot from the history of Rome (the Horace brothers take an oath of fidelity to duty and readiness to fight their enemies to their father) became an expression of republican views in revolutionary France.
J.S.Bach
The 18th century brought a lot of new things to musical creativity. In the 18th century, music rose to the level of other arts that had flourished since the Renaissance. Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Christoph Gluck, Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart stand on top musical art in the 18th century. The flourishing of music as an independent art form at this time is explained by the need for poetic, emotional expression spiritual world person. There is still continuity in the work of Bach and Handel musical traditions, but they were beginning a new stage in the history of music. Johann Sebastian Bach (lived 1685-1750) is considered an unsurpassed master of polyphony. Working in all genres, he wrote about 200 cantatas, instrumental concerts, works for organ, clavier, etc. Bach was especially close to the democratic line of the German artistic tradition, associated with poetry and music of the Protestant chorale, with folk melody. Through the spiritual experience of his people, he felt the tragic beginning in human life and at the same time faith in final harmony. Bach is a musical thinker who professes the same humanistic principles as the enlighteners. 
Mozart
Everything new that was characteristic of progressive trends in music was embodied in the work of the Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (life: 1756-1791). Together with Franz Joseph Haydn he represented the Vienna Classical School. Haydn's main genre was the symphony, Mozart's - opera. He changed traditional opera forms and introduced psychological individuality into genre types of symphonies. He owns about 20 operas: (“The Marriage of Figaro”, “Don Giovanni”, “The Magic Flute”); 50 symphony concerts, numerous sonatas, variations, masses, the famous “Requiem”, choral works. 
She tried to drag Elizabeth into Catholicism. All this strained the life of the young princess in the most decisive way. The Protestant public of the country pinned its hopes on Elizabeth, who was actually the heir to the throne. Passions sometimes flared up on a Shakespearean scale. One day, Maria imprisoned her sister in the Tower on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy. However, she did not stay in prison for long, and moreover, it was there that she met another “conspirator”, the outwardly perfect macho, but absolutely mediocre Earl of Leicester, with whom she connected her personal life for many years.
However, the personal life of Elizabeth Tudor remains a sealed secret to this day. Historians are convinced that some kind of physical or psychological barrier has always existed between her and men. Having favorites and being the bride of all of Europe (her suitors included Philip the Second, Henry the Third, and almost Ivan the Terrible himself), Elizabeth never allowed “last intimacy.” So the legend of the “Virgin Queen” (with so many fans!) is not a myth at all! She once said that she would not reveal the secret to even the closest soul. And even the nosy enemies of the Spaniards did not know exactly her secret
Like her father, red-haired Bess was a pragmatist to the core. However, to say that she had a super-genius mind statesman a certain exaggeration. She knew how to select servants and advisers, yes! Its chancellor, Lord Burghley, and its head of foreign intelligence, Walsingham, were geniuses in their field. But they didn’t receive a penny from red-haired Bess beyond their allotted salary! All gifts fell immoderately on Leicester and other favorites. Even the fact that Elizabeth chose Protestantism had not only (and perhaps not so much) a political reason as a purely personal one: the pope, following her real father, declared her illegitimate. Elizabeth had no choice but to break with the meticulous Catholics after such spitting.
However, the Anglican Church is the least Protestant of all Protestant churches. The magnificent Catholic rituals were almost completely preserved (Elizabeth loved pomp), only the church came out of the control of the Roman high priest.
Naturally, this half-reform did not suit the bourgeoisie; the Puritans grumbled. Elizabeth brought down persecution on them, which the Catholics did not receive from her.
Elizabeth skillfully balanced between various forces. But “fate also preserved Evgeniy.” When in 1588 a storm scattered a huge Spanish fleet with an expeditionary force heading to the shores of Britain (the “Invincible Armada”), the fate of the queen and her kingdom literally hung in the balance: there were only a few thousand soldiers in the English army.
For Western Europe XVII V. - this is the time of the formation of capitalism, the prerequisite for which were the great geographical discoveries of the 15th - 16th centuries, the development of almost all parts of the world by the European metropolis. The victory of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, the first revolution on a “European scale,” led to the establishment of the capitalist mode of production as politically dominant in England and Holland, giving the process of the genesis of capitalism an irreversible character. As a result, it is this process that becomes the determining factor in the history of Europe. In the field of economics, this was manifested in the intensive decomposition of feudal relations in the countryside, in the flourishing of manufacturing production, which created new ways of organizing the labor process, the emergence of wage labor, and in the formation of the European and world capitalist market. Large capitals were often accumulated through the colonial enslavement of new territories of the world. New processes put European countries in an unequal position: some had colonies, others did not, in some a bourgeois system was established (England, Holland), in others feudal relations were further strengthened (Spain, Germany).
In the political sphere, the new era meant the crisis of early absolutism, the onset of a new stage of its evolution, when the policy of the absolute monarchy became more and more rigidly aligned with the narrow-class interests of the nobility, which in a historical perspective meant its entry into a phase of decomposition and decline. In the field of spiritual life of the 17th century. brought with it a scientific and ideological revolution - the establishment of a rationalistic worldview as an expression of the theoretical consciousness of the rising class - the bourgeoisie, which replaced the traditional, theological worldview.
A feature of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. is a deep study of the ideological and methodological foundations of science, the classical picture of the world. It is very noteworthy that it began in mathematics and mechanics, combining two trunks of exact knowledge: axiomatic-deductive and experimental (experimental). Experiment, as a tool and method of knowledge, fundamentally distinguishes modern science from ancient and medieval forms of theoretical knowledge. From the solitary recluse that was the nature explorer of the 15th century, the natural scientist of the 17th century. becomes a “legal” figure in society, from a contemplator and observer of ongoing phenomena - a tester of nature, forcing it to obey his will.
Compared to the previous century, the range of scientific interests is expanding. In the 16th century especially great success were achieved in the fields of philology, astronomy, geography, botany, and medicine. In the 17th century, mathematics became the predominant and leading direction in science, experimental physics developed rapidly, experimental chemistry emerged, a new stage began in the development of medicine and physiology, and the foundations of experimental biology were laid. Some humanitarian branches of knowledge are achieving great success, including jurisprudence, in particular international law.
Through the works of scientific researchers of the 17th century. the basis for technological progress was created.
Galileo Galilei(1564 - 1642) - Italian scientist, one of the founders of exact natural science, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He laid the foundations of modern mechanics: he put forward the idea of the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and the movement of bodies on an inclined plane, and the addition of movements. He studied structural mechanics, built a telescope with 32x magnification, and defended the heliocentric picture of the world.
Johann Kepler(1571 – 1630) – German astronomer, one of the founders of modern astronomy. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, compiled planetary tables, laid the foundations for the theory of eclipses, and invented a new telescope with binocular lenses.
Isaac Newton(1643 - 1727) - English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics. He discovered the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, and developed a theory of light that combined corpuscular and wave concepts. He discovered the law of universal gravitation and created the foundations of celestial mechanics.
Gottfried Leibniz(1646 – 1716) – German mathematician, physicist, philosopher, linguist. One of the creators of integral and differential calculus, he anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic.
Christiaan Huygens(1629 - 1695) - Dutch scientist, invented a pendulum clock with an escapement mechanism, established the laws of oscillation of a physical pendulum. Created the wave theory of light. Together with R. Hooke, he established constant thermometer points.
William Harvey(1576 – 1637) – English physician, founder of modern physiology and embryology. Described the systemic and pulmonary circulation.
Marcello Malpighi(1628 - 1694) - Italian biologist and physician, one of the founders of microanatomy, discovered capillary circulation.
Anthony Leeuwenhoek(1632 – 1723) – Dutch naturalist, one of the founders of scientific microscopy. He made lenses with 150-300x magnification, which made it possible to study microbes, blood cells, etc.
The development of exact and natural sciences directly served as the impetus for a powerful leap in philosophical thought. Philosophy developed in close connection with the sciences. This led to the creation of comprehensive philosophical systems by Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Bacon, and the development of the theory of knowledge, where two directions were formed: sensationalism and rationalism. The knowledge accumulated by this time required an answer to the main questions: what is knowledge, how knowledge is formed from ignorance, what path it must take to turn into a theory, and in this direction of search two systems of answers were formed. Sensualists assigned the main role to sensations and sensory knowledge, although they could not sufficiently illuminate the question of how a scientific theory is formed from sensations and sensory information about the world. Rationalists believed that knowledge arises on the basis of the correct method of reasoning, while one side of knowledge was absolutized and the other was not explained.
An essential feature that still expresses the underdevelopment and one-sidedness of the rationalistic mentality and worldview of the era of young capitalism was the predominantly rational-pragmatic nature of rationality itself. The “common sense” of mass consciousness, with its orientation towards entrepreneurial success and business initiative, performed not only creative, but also destructive work in the sphere of the spirit, nihilistically discarding moral and aesthetic values if they were not “required” to achieve immediate goals and satisfy immediate ones. interests.
On the empirical economic and political reality of class, national and state relations of the 16th – 17th centuries. one of the most significant constructions of social thought of modern times was created: natural law theory. Its essence, at first glance, is simple: law is determined by force, which determines the sovereignty of both the individual and the state. The position of the state in the world community is similar to the position of the citizen in the state itself: both there and here it is not high morality, not the will of God, but a sober and cold selfish calculation; both individuals and nations in their relationships with each other must rely only on a healthy, natural sense of self-preservation.
Despite its apparent simplicity, the theory of natural law required, however, a radical revision of the existing, traditional philosophical and religious ideas about the essence and nature of man. She forced us to abandon the Christian dualism of body and soul and demanded that man be recognized as “a part of nature” (B. Spinoza). Not only pragmatism is obvious, but also the cynicism of an ideology that does not recognize any arguments in politics and law except the argument of force. Philosophical and political thought reflected and conceptualized the real nakedness of social relations. The downside of their progressive rationalization was a noticeable “flattening” of culture, a loss of volume, multidimensionality, and multicolored phenomena of cultural life, which was so characteristic of the Renaissance.
Polarization of classes led to polarization in culture. Noble ethics, moving away from moral origins folk life, degenerated into etiquette - a complex, detailed system of conditional, formal rules and manners of behavior, intended, however, only for communication with persons of one’s aristocratic circle.
The drama of reality and the collapse of the Renaissance ideal led to new forms of perception of the world. The optimistic realism of the Renaissance is replaced by a sense of the unstable position of man, which is characterized by one conflict or another: a clash of individual rights and public duty, an awareness of the contradictory nature of existence. It is increasingly difficult for the individual to find his place in the new relations of society, which needs less and less the all-round man of the Renaissance and more and more the human function. This tragic collision finds expression in two schools of thought, in two artistic styles - Baroque and classicism.
Baroque(from Italian "strange, bizarre" and Portuguese "irregularly shaped pearl"). It represents not only an artistic style, but also a special way of relating to the world and with the world. It was formed in the wake of a galaxy of destructive wars, embodied the feeling of the fall of the ideals of humanism, as well as a heightened awareness of the social, religious and economic crises experienced by Europe in this era. Baroque was marked by the stamp of tragedy and meaninglessness of life. The optimistic ideal of the Renaissance is replaced by a pessimistic assessment of reality, and enthusiastic admiration for man and his capabilities is replaced by emphasizing his duality, inconsistency, and “depravity”; “the discrepancy between the appearance of things and their essence is constantly being comprehended, the fragmentation of existence is felt, the clash between the bodily and spiritual principles, between attachment to the sensual beauty of the world and the awareness of the frailty of earthly existence.”
Baroque works were distinguished by a high level of expressiveness and a theatrical combination of the real and the fantastic. Hyperbolism, antitheses, metaphorism, everything unusual and unconventional were widely used: the aesthetic equality of the sublime and the base, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic was observed; an arbitrary fusion of ancient mythology and Christian symbolism. The Baroque style strived for monumentality, mystical allegories and naturalness of the image. It paid special attention to emotional impact. Common Baroque themes were the physical and moral suffering of man, and favorite characters were exalted martyrs, dying or disappointed heroes. Among the trends and schools of the Baroque, one can highlight Mannerism (Italy), Gongorism (Spain), Precision Literature (France), Metaphysical School (England), Silesian School (Germany). Prominent exponents of the Baroque in literature were P. Calderon, G. Grimmelshausen, in sculpture and painting - P. Rubens, D. Velazquez, L. Bernini, in architecture - F. Borromini.
Classicism. The birthplace of classicism (from the Latin “exemplary”) was France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism was closely associated with the courtly aristocratic culture of the period of the establishment of French absolutism. Absolutism in French politics limited the individual to state interests and forced the individual to sacrifice the public. The ideological basis of classicism in France was the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes, the dramaturgy of P. Corneille, J. B. Moliere, and the poetics of N. Boileau. The ideologists of classicism saw their origins in the images and forms of ancient culture. The plots, characters, and ideas of antiquity again found life in the works of classicism, but with new historical content. The most popular were the traditions of late Roman antiquity and the philosophy of the Roman Stoics, supporters of maintaining fortitude in any situation and subordination to extrapersonal goals. The ideological basis of classicism included the ideas of patriotism, public service, exalting a person who prefers public interests to his own. Classicism was characterized by rationalism, normative creativity (the rule of three unities, the hierarchy of genres and styles, etc.), and the desire to create complete harmonic forms. For works of classicism, oriented towards a realistic recreation of reality, selectivity in subjects, forms and means of depiction, subordinate to a strict plan and the main task of the artist - to convince with the power and logic of thought - was typical.
Thus, the 17th century is a time that, on the one hand, gradually rationalizes, that is, makes the ideas of the Renaissance era completely mundane and social, and on the other, prepares the ground for the social and spiritual revolutions of the Enlightenment.
QUESTIONS
1. Name the prerequisites for the emergence of the Renaissance culture. What ideas underlay the work of the great writers and artists of the Renaissance?
The prerequisites for the emergence of a culture of revival were:
The rise of the Italian city-republics,
The emergence of new classes that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and craftsmen, merchants, bankers. Was alien to all of them hierarchical system values created by medieval, largely ecclesiastical culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit,
The emergence of a culture of humanism, glorifying the human creator, who considered man, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value,
The development of printing
The activities of universities and the development of secular education.
The work of writers and artists of the Renaissance was based on the idea of man - as the highest creation of nature, as the center of the universe. The philosophy of humanism affirmed the idea that the measure of all things is man with his earthly joys and sorrows
2. Like art Italian Renaissance influenced the culture of other European countries?
The art of the Italian Renaissance greatly influenced the culture of other European countries. The ideas of humanism and the artistic principles of Renaissance culture crossed the borders of Italy and spread to many countries of Western Europe. Thanks to the embodiment in the works of the great masters of the Renaissance, the humanistic vision of the world penetrated into the palaces of rulers, into the walls of universities, and among educated citizens.
3. Name the characteristic features of Baroque, Rococo and Classicism. Give examples works of art these styles.
The Baroque style (the name comes from the Italian word meaning “bizarre”, “strange”) was characterized by grandeur, pomp and pretentiousness of forms, the creation of spatial illusion and optical effects. Examples of Baroque style:
in painting: the Sistine Madonna of the artist Raphael, the works of the Flemish artist P.P. Rubens, the works of the Dutch artist Rembrandt (“Return prodigal son", "Holy Family", " The night Watch" and etc.);
in architecture and sculpture - a colonnade on the square in front of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome by architect J.L. Bernini, sculpture "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa";
literature and theater - the works of W. Shakespeare.
The new direction, which took hold in Catholic countries, was a kind of aesthetic response to the Reformation. Baroque architecture and painting were supposed to glorify the greatness of God and assert the power of the Roman church. However, Baroque art was not limited solely to religious motifs.
The Rococo style (from French means “decoration in the shape of a shell”) is characterized by pretentiousness, decorativeness, splendor and luxury. But unlike Baroque, Rococo is more lightweight, chamber, and aristocratic. Particularly characteristic in this regard is the decoration of palace interiors. French nobility. Elegant, light furniture with curved legs, sofas, armchairs, tables, wardrobes, canopy beds were decorated with molded asymmetrical details and inlay. Sofas and armchairs were upholstered with elegant tapestries. Rococo art reflected the tastes of the Versailles aristocracy.
The "Gallant Age" is reflected in French painting XVIII century It is characterized by escapism, appeal to human feelings, eroticism. These themes are present in the works of artists Antoine Watteau and Francois Boucher.
For the classicism style, the main thing was the image of majestic and noble deeds, glorifying the sense of duty to society and the state. In imitation of the ancient Greeks and Romans, cultural figures had to depict the beautiful and sublime.
art – works by Nicolas Poussin. He for a long time lived in
literature - Pierre Corneille, great poet and creator of the French theater.
architecture – country royal palace and park in Versailles
4. What evidenced that in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Has France become the center of European artistic life?
In the XVII–XVIII centuries. France has become the center of the artistic life of Europe, which is indicated by the fact that it is here that two styles arise - classicism and rococo. France had a significant influence on painting, architecture, and fashion throughout Europe. An example of a classic palace ensemble was Versailles. French industry specialized in the production of luxury goods: tapestries, furniture, lace, gloves, and costume jewelry were exported from France to all European countries. Every month two dolls, dressed in the latest Parisian fashion, were sent to England, Italy, Holland, and Russia. It was in France that the first fashion magazine appeared.
TASKS
1. How do you see the difference between the art of the Italian Renaissance and the art of France in the 18th century?
And the Italian Renaissance and the art of France in the 18th century. was turned to the ancient heritage. However, the main idea of the Italian Renaissance was humanism and the depiction of Christian and mythological subjects. The art of France in the 18th century was more secular in nature. The main thing for the artist was the depiction of majestic and noble deeds, the glorification of a sense of duty to society and the state.
