Rembrandt and Vincent Van Gogh are great Dutch artists. Dutch genre painting of the 17th century Which painters represented Holland

Main trends, stages of development of painting and iconic painters of Holland.

Dutch painting

Introduction

Dutch painting of the 17th century is sometimes mistakenly considered art for the middle class, admiring Flemish painting of this period and calling it courtly, aristocratic. No less erroneous is the opinion that Dutch artists deal only with depicting the immediate human environment, using landscapes, cities, seas, and people’s lives for this purpose, while Flemish art is devoted to historical painting, which in art theory is considered a more sublime genre. In contrast, public buildings in Holland, which were expected to have an imposing appearance, as well as wealthy visitors, whatever their religious beliefs or origins, required paintings with allegorical or mythological themes.

Any division of the Dutch school of painting into Flemish and Dutch branches until the beginning of the 17th century. due to the constant creative exchange between the areas, it would be artificial. For example, Pieter Aertsen, born in Amsterdam, worked in Antwerp before returning to his hometown in 1557, and his student and nephew Joachim Bukelaer spent his entire life in Antwerp. In connection with the signing of the Union of Utrecht and the separation of the seven northern provinces, many residents after 1579–1581. emigrated from the northern Netherlands to the Protestant part of the artificially divided country.

"Butcher shop". Artsen.

Development of art

The impetus for the independent development of Dutch painting came from Flemish artists. Bartholomeus Spranger, born in Antwerp and educated in Rome, became the founder of a virtuoso, courtly, artificial style, which, as a result of Spranger's temporary residence in Vienna and Prague, became an international "language". In 1583, the painter and art theorist Karel van Mander brought this style to Haarlem. One of the main masters of this Haarlem or Utrecht mannerism was Abraham Bloemaert.

Then Isaiah van de Velde, born in Holland to a family of emigrants from Flanders, and studying in a circle of painters centered on the Flemish artists David Vinkboons and Gillies Koninksloe, developed a realistic painting style in his early paintings, which referred to Jan Bruegel the Elder, with bright color gradations of artistic plans. Around 1630, a trend towards unifying artistic space and merging colors from different layers established itself in Holland. Since then, the multifaceted nature of the things depicted gave way to a sense of space and an atmosphere of airy haze, which were conveyed with a gradually increasing monochrome use of color. Isaiah van de Velde embodied this stylistic revolution in art together with his student Jan van Goen.

Winter landscape. Velde.

One of the most monumental landscapes of the High Baroque, "The Great Forest", by Jacob van Ruisdael, belongs to the next period of development of Dutch painting. The viewer no longer has to experience the rather amorphous appearance of a sprawling space in gray-brown tones with a few striking motifs; henceforth the impression is made of a fixed, energetically accentuated structure.

Genre painting

Dutch genre painting, which, in fact, can hardly be called just portraits of everyday life, often carrying a moralistic message, is represented in Vienna by the works of all its main masters. Its center was Leiden, where Gerard Doux, Rembrandt's first student, founded a school known as the Leiden School of Fine Painting (fijnschilders).

Figurative painting

Meeting of company officers. Frans Hals.

The three greatest Dutch masters of figurative painting, Frans Hals, Rembrandt and Johannes Vermeer of Delft, followed each other at intervals of almost a generation. Hals was born in Antwerp and worked in Haarlem mainly as a portrait painter. For many, he became the personification of the open, cheerful and spontaneous virtuoso painter, while the art of Rembrandt, a thinker - as the cliché goes - reveals the origins of human destiny. This is both fair and wrong. What immediately catches your eye when looking at a portrait or group portrait by Hals is the ability to convey a person who is overwhelmed with emotion in movement. To depict a fleeting moment, Hals uses open, noticeably irregular strokes, intersecting in zigzags or cross-hatching. This creates the effect of a constantly shimmering surface, like a sketch, which merges into a single image only when viewed from a certain distance. After the return of Rothschild's "gifts", an expressive portrait of a man in black was acquired for the collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein and thus returned to Vienna. The Kunsthistorisches Museum owns only one painting by Franz Hals, a portrait of a young man who was already in the collection of Charles VI as one of the few examples of “Protestant” art in Holland. Portraits painted in the late period of Hals's work are closer to Rembrandt's works in terms of psychological penetration and lack of posing.

Thanks to subtle transitions of shades and areas of chiaroscuro, Rembrandt's chiaroscuro seems to envelop the figures in a resonant space in which mood, atmosphere, something intangible and even invisible reside. Rembrandt's oeuvre at the Vienna Picture Gallery is represented only by portraits, although The Artist's Mother and The Artist's Son can also be considered single-figure history paintings. In the so-called “Large Self-Portrait” of 1652, the artist appears before us in a brown blouse, with his face turned in three quarters. His gaze is self-confident and even defiant.

Vermeer

Vermeer's undramatic art, focused entirely on contemplation, was considered a reflection of the Dutch middle class, now independent and content with what it had. However, the simplicity of Vermeer's artistic concepts is deceptive. Their clarity and calm are the result of precise analysis, including the use of the latest technical inventions such as the camera obscura. "Allegory of Painting", created around 1665-1666, Vermeer's pinnacle work in terms of work with color, can be called his most ambitious painting. The process initiated by Jan van Eyck, a native of the northern Netherlands, passive, detached contemplation of the motionless world, has always remained the main theme of Dutch painting and in the works of Vermeer reached an allegorical and at the same time real apotheosis.

Updated: September 16, 2017 by: Gleb

The Netherlands is a unique country that has given the world dozens of outstanding artists. Famous designers, artists and simply talented performers - this is a small list that this small state can flaunt.

The rise of Dutch art

The era of prosperity of the art of realism did not last long in Holland. This period covers the entire 17th century, but the scale of its significance greatly exceeds this chronological framework. Dutch artists of that time became role models for the subsequent generation of painters. So that these words do not sound unfounded, it is worth mentioning the names of Rembrandt and Hals, Potter and Ruisdael, who forever strengthened their status as unsurpassed masters of realistic depiction.

A very significant representative of the Dutch Jan Vermeer. He is considered to be the most mysterious character in the heyday of Dutch painting, since, although famous during his lifetime, he lost interest in his person less than half a century later. Little is known about Vermeer’s biographical information; mostly art historians have explored the history of him by studying his works, but there were difficulties here too - the artist practically did not date his paintings. The most valuable from an aesthetic point of view are considered to be Jan's works "Maid with a Jug of Milk" and "Girl with a Letter".

No less famous and respectable artists were Hans Memling, Hieronymus Bosch, and the brilliant Jan van Eyck. All creators are distinguished by their appeal to everyday life, which is reflected in still lifes, landscapes and portraits.

It left its mark on the subsequent development of French art in the second half of the 17th century and became a model for realistic landscapes created during the Renaissance. Russian realist artists also paid attention to the Dutch. We can safely say that the art of the Netherlands has become progressive and exemplary and has managed to be reflected in the canvases of every outstanding artist who painted natural sketches.

Rembrandt and his legacy

The artist's full name is Rembrandt van Rijn. He was born in the memorable year 1606 into a family that was quite prosperous for those times. Being the fourth child, he still received a good education. The father wanted his son to graduate from the university and become an outstanding figure, but his expectations were not met due to the boy’s low academic performance, and so that all efforts would not be in vain, he was forced to give in to the guy and agree with his desire to become an artist.

Rembrandt's teachers were the Dutch artists Jacob van Swanenburch and Pieter Lastman. The first had rather mediocre skills in painting, but managed to gain respect for his personality, since he spent a long time in Italy, communicating and working with local artists. Rembrandt did not stay with Jacob for long and went in search of another teacher to Amsterdam. There he studied with Peter Lastman, who became a real mentor for him. It was he who taught the young man the art of engraving to the extent that his contemporaries can observe it.

As evidenced by the master’s works, executed in huge quantities, Rembrandt became a fully formed artist by 1628. His sketches were based on any objects, and human faces were no exception. When discussing portraits of Dutch artists, one cannot fail to mention the name of Rembrandt, who from his young age became famous for his remarkable talent in this field. He painted a lot of his father and mother, which are now kept in galleries.

Rembrandt quickly gained popularity in Amsterdam, but did not stop improving. In the 30s of the 17th century, his famous masterpieces “Anatomy Lesson” and “Portrait of Coppenole” were created.

An interesting fact is that at that time Rembrandt married the beautiful Saxia, and a fertile time of abundance and glory began in his life. Young Saxia became the artist’s muse and was embodied in more than one painting, however, as art historians testify, her features are repeatedly found in other portraits of the master.

The artist died in poverty, without losing the fame he had acquired during his lifetime. His masterpieces are concentrated in all major galleries in the world. He can rightfully be called a master whose works represent a synthesis of all medieval realistic painting. Technically, his work cannot be called ideal, since he did not strive for accuracy in the construction of the drawing. The most important artistic aspect that distinguished him from representatives of the schools of painting was his unsurpassed play of chiaroscuro.

Vincent Van Gogh - a genius nugget

Hearing the phrase “great Dutch artists,” many people immediately picture in their heads the image of Vincent Van Gogh, his undeniably beautiful and lush paintings, which were only appreciated after the artist’s death.

This person can be called a unique and brilliant person. Being the son of a pastor, Van Gogh, like his brother, followed in their father's footsteps. Vincent studied theology and even was a preacher in the Belgian town of Borinage. He also works as a commission agent and various moves. However, service in the parish and close contact with the harsh everyday life of miners revived the inner feeling of injustice in the young genius. Contemplating the fields and the life of working people every day, Vincent was so inspired that he began to draw.

Dutch artists are primarily known for their portraits and landscapes. Vincent Van Gogh was no exception. By his thirtieth birthday, he gives up everything and begins to actively engage in painting. This period marks the creation of his famous works “The Potato Eaters” and “The Peasant Woman”. All his works are imbued with frenzied sympathy for ordinary people who feed the whole country, but at the same time can barely feed their own families.

Later, Vincent heads to Paris, and the focus of his work changes somewhat. Intense images and new themes for empathy appear. The half-prison lifestyle and marriage to a prostitute were reflected in his art, which is clearly visible in the paintings “Night Cafe” and “Prisoners’ Walk.”

Friendship with Gauguin

Beginning in 1886, van Gogh became interested in studying plein-air painting by the Impressionists and developed an interest in Japanese prints. It was from that moment that the characteristic features of Gauguin and Toulouse-Lautrec were visible in the artist’s works. First of all, this can be seen in the change in the transmission of color mood. The works begin to be dominated by brushstrokes of rich yellow color, as well as a blue “sparkle.” The first sketches in a characteristic color scheme were: “Bridge over the Seine” and “Portrait of Father Tanguy”. The latter dazzles with its brightness and bold strokes.

The friendship between Gauguin and Van Gogh was of a correlational nature: they mutually influenced creativity, although they used different expressive tools, actively exchanged gifts in the form of their own paintings and argued tirelessly. The difference between the characters, the insecure position of Vincent, who believed that his pictorial manners were “rural bestial,” gave rise to controversy. In some ways, Gauguin was a more down-to-earth personality than V an Gogh. The passions in their relationship became so intense that one day they quarreled in their favorite cafe and Vincent threw a glass of absinthe at Gauguin. The quarrel did not end there, and the next day there followed a long series of accusations towards Gauguin, who, according to Van Gogh, was guilty of everything. It was at the end of this story that the Dutchman was so furious and depressed that he cut off part of his ear, which he kindly gave it as a gift to a prostitute.

Dutch artists, regardless of the era of their lives, have repeatedly proven to society their unsurpassed manner of transferring moments of life onto canvas. However, perhaps no one in the world has ever been able to earn the title of genius without having the slightest understanding of drawing techniques, composition and methods of artistic expression. Vincent Van Gogh is a unique genius who managed to achieve worldwide recognition thanks to his perseverance, purity of spirit and exorbitant thirst for life.

Dutch painting - 17th century paintings

A significant feature of Dutch art was the significant predominance in all its types of painting. Representatives of the highest echelons of power, poor burghers, artisans and peasants, decorated their homes with paintings. They were sold at auctions and fairs; artists sometimes even used them as a means to pay bills.

Road in the Forest, Meindert Hobbema, 1670

There was an abundance of painters, and there was quite fierce competition, since the artist’s profession was widespread. Not many could earn their living by painting. Most of the artists had to do a variety of jobs: Jacob van Ruisdael was a doctor, Meindert Hobbema worked as an excise official, and Jan Steen was an innkeeper.

In the 17th century, Dutch painting developed rapidly not only due to the growing demand for those wishing to decorate their homes with paintings, but also due to the fact that they began to be viewed as a commodity, a means of speculation and a source of profit. The artist was completely dependent on market trends, freeing himself from such direct customers as influential patrons (feudal lords) and the Catholic Church. The paths of development of Dutch society were determined, and artists who opposed them and defended their independence in terms of creativity became isolated and died prematurely in loneliness and poverty. In most cases, these were just the most talented artists, such as Rembrandt and Frans Hals.

Dutch painters mainly depicted the surrounding reality, which artists of other schools of painting did not depict so fully. The main place in strengthening realistic trends was occupied by portraits, everyday life, still lifes and landscapes, as artists turned to various aspects of life. They depicted the real world unfolding before them so deeply and truthfully, their works were so impressive.

Jan Steen, Meeting with Revelers, 1679

Each genre had its own movements. Among those depicting landscapes were marine painters and painters who preferred plains or forests; there were also masters of winter landscapes and views depicting moonlight. Among the genre artists, those who depicted bourgeois and peasants, scenes of domestic life and parties, bazaars and hunting stood out. There were also artists who specialized in church interiors and various types of still lifes, such as “bench”, “dessert”, “breakfast”, etc. The number of tasks performed was influenced by such a feature of Dutch painting as limitedness. However, the painter's virtuosity was facilitated by the fact that each artist focused on a specific genre. Only the most important Dutch artists painted in various genres.

The development of realistic Dutch painting took place in the fight against mannerism and a movement that imitated Italian classical art. Formally borrowed from Italian artists, representatives of these movements, the techniques were extremely unnatural for the traditions of national Dutch painting. Realistic trends manifested themselves more clearly in the everyday genre and portraits during the development of Dutch painting, which spanned 1609-1640.

Jacob van Ruisdael(1628-1682) was an outstanding master in the landscape genre (they painted the classic Dutch landscape - desert dunes, famous windmills, canal boats, skaters, and not nature in general), an artist of boundless imagination (“Waterfall”, “Forest Swamp” ", "Jewish Cemetery"). By diligently sketching nature, Ruisdael at the same time achieves monumentality.

Windmill in Wijk bei Dyrsted. 1670. Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam, Jacob van Ruisdael

One of the most talented portrait painters of this era can be called Frans Hals(ca. 1585-1666). He created many group portraits, such as images of rifle guilds (an association of officers for the protection of cities and defense). The burghers wanted to capture themselves, and the artist had to remember to respect each model. What is attractive in these paintings is the display of the ideals of the young republic, camaraderie, equality and a sense of freedom. People who are confident in themselves and tomorrow, full of energy, look at the viewer from the canvases (“Streltsy Guild of St. George”, “Streltsy Guild of St. Adrian”). Naturally, they are depicted at a friendly feast. Thanks to the individual style of the artist - broad, confident, with rich, bright colors (red, yellow, blue, etc.) - an artistic document of the era is formed from these individuals.

Portrait of Stefan Gerads, 1652, Royal Museum, Antwerp

There is a lot of reckless zeal, pressure, irrepressible energy in individual portraits with the outlines of a genre painting. This disappears in later portraits. For example, in the Hermitage portrait of a man, one can see the sadness and fatigue of the hero Hals, despite all his impressiveness and even swagger. These features are further enhanced in another portrait (an image of a man in a wide-brimmed hat). In this late period, Hals reaches the highest level of skill, the tones in his works become monochromatic (usually dark, black clothes, with a white collar and cuffs, and a dark olive background color). Despite the laconicism of the pictorial palette, it is based on extremely subtle gradations.

Creation Rembrandt van Rijn(1606-1669) became the final achievement of Dutch art of the 17th century and the pinnacle of its realism.

Holland. 17th century The country is experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The so-called "Golden Age". At the end of the 16th century, several provinces of the country achieved independence from Spain.

Now the Protestant Netherlands have gone their own way. And Catholic Flanders (present-day Belgium) under the wing of Spain is its own.

In independent Holland, almost no one needed religious painting. The Protestant Church did not approve of luxury decoration. But this circumstance “played into the hands” of secular painting.

Literally every resident of the new country awoke to love this type of art. The Dutch wanted to see their own lives in the paintings. And the artists willingly met them halfway.

Never before has the surrounding reality been depicted so much. Ordinary people, ordinary rooms and the most ordinary breakfast of a city dweller.

Realism flourished. Until the 20th century, it will be a worthy competitor to academicism with its nymphs and Greek goddesses.

These artists are called "small" Dutch. Why? The paintings were small in size, because they were created for small houses. Thus, almost all paintings by Jan Vermeer are no more than half a meter in height.

But I like the other version better. In the Netherlands in the 17th century, a great master, the “big” Dutchman, lived and worked. And everyone else was “small” in comparison with him.

We are talking, of course, about Rembrandt. Let's start with him.

1. Rembrandt (1606-1669)

Rembrandt. Self-portrait at the age of 63. 1669 National Gallery London

Rembrandt experienced a wide range of emotions during his life. That's why there's so much fun and bravado in his early work. And there are so many complex feelings - in the later ones.

Here he is young and carefree in the painting “The Prodigal Son in the Tavern.” On his knees is his beloved wife Saskia. He is a popular artist. Orders are pouring in.

Rembrandt. The Prodigal Son in a Tavern. 1635 Old Masters Gallery, Dresden

But all this will disappear in about 10 years. Saskia will die of consumption. Popularity will disappear like smoke. A large house with a unique collection will be taken away for debts.

But the same Rembrandt will appear who will remain for centuries. The bare feelings of the heroes. Their deepest thoughts.

2. Frans Hals (1583-1666)

Frans Hals. Self-portrait. 1650 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Frans Hals is one of the greatest portrait painters of all time. Therefore, I would also classify him as a “big” Dutchman.

In Holland at that time it was customary to order group portraits. This is how many similar works appeared depicting people working together: marksmen of one guild, doctors of one town, managers of a nursing home.

In this genre, Hals stands out the most. After all, most of these portraits looked like a deck of cards. People sit at the table with the same facial expression and just watch. With Hals it was different.

Look at his group portrait “Arrows of the Guild of St. George."

Frans Hals. Arrows of the Guild of St. George. 1627 Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem, Netherlands

Here you will not find a single repetition in pose or facial expression. At the same time, there is no chaos here. There are a lot of characters, but no one seems superfluous. Thanks to the amazingly correct arrangement of figures.

And even in a single portrait, Hals was superior to many artists. His patterns are natural. People from high society in his paintings are devoid of contrived grandeur, and models from the lower classes do not look humiliated.

And his characters are also very emotional: they smile, laugh, and gesticulate. Like, for example, this “Gypsy” with a sly look.

Frans Hals. Gypsy. 1625-1630

Hals, like Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. For the same reason. His realism ran counter to the tastes of his customers. Who wanted their appearance to be embellished. Hals did not accept outright flattery, and thereby signed his own sentence - “Oblivion.”

3. Gerard Terborch (1617-1681)

Gerard Terborch. Self-portrait. 1668 Royal Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague, Netherlands

Terborch was a master of the everyday genre. Rich and not-so-rich burghers talk leisurely, ladies read letters, and a procuress watches the courtship. Two or three closely spaced figures.

It was this master who developed the canons of the everyday genre. Which would later be borrowed by Jan Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch and many other “small” Dutchmen.

Gerard Terborch. A glass of lemonade. 1660s. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

"A Glass of Lemonade" is one of Terborch's famous works. It shows another advantage of the artist. Incredibly realistic image of the dress fabric.

Terborch also has unusual works. Which speaks volumes about his desire to go beyond customer requirements.

His "The Grinder" shows the life of the poorest people in Holland. We are used to seeing cozy courtyards and clean rooms in the paintings of the “small” Dutch. But Terborch dared to show unsightly Holland.

Gerard Terborch. Grinder. 1653-1655 State Museums of Berlin

As you understand, such work was not in demand. And they are a rare occurrence even among Terborch.

4. Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)

Jan Vermeer. Artist's workshop. 1666-1667 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

It is not known for certain what Jan Vermeer looked like. It is only obvious that in the painting “The Artist’s Workshop” he depicted himself. The truth from the back.

It is therefore surprising that a new fact from the master’s life has recently become known. It is connected with his masterpiece “Delft Street”.

Jan Vermeer. Delft street. 1657 Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

It turned out that Vermeer spent his childhood on this street. The house pictured belonged to his aunt. She raised her five children there. Perhaps she is sitting on the doorstep sewing while her two children play on the sidewalk. Vermeer himself lived in the house opposite.

But more often he depicted the interior of these houses and their inhabitants. It would seem that the plots of the paintings are very simple. Here is a pretty lady, a wealthy city dweller, checking the operation of her scales.

Jan Vermeer. Woman with scales. 1662-1663 National Gallery of Art, Washington

Why did Vermeer stand out among thousands of other “small” Dutchmen?

He was an unsurpassed master of light. In the painting “Woman with Scales” the light softly envelops the heroine’s face, fabrics and walls. Giving the image an unknown spirituality.

And the compositions of Vermeer’s paintings are carefully verified. You won't find a single unnecessary detail. It is enough to remove one of them, the picture will “fall apart”, and the magic will go away.

All this was not easy for Vermeer. Such amazing quality required painstaking work. Only 2-3 paintings per year. As a result, the inability to feed the family. Vermeer also worked as an art dealer, selling works by other artists.

5. Pieter de Hooch (1629-1884)

Pieter de Hooch. Self-portrait. 1648-1649 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Hoch is often compared to Vermeer. They worked at the same time, there was even a period in the same city. And in one genre - everyday. In Hoch we also see one or two figures in cozy Dutch courtyards or rooms.

Open doors and windows make the space of his paintings layered and entertaining. And the figures fit into this space very harmoniously. As, for example, in his painting “Maid with a Girl in the Courtyard.”

Pieter de Hooch. A maid with a girl in the courtyard. 1658 London National Gallery

Until the 20th century, Hoch was highly valued. But few people noticed the small works of his competitor Vermeer.

But in the 20th century everything changed. Hoch's glory faded. However, it is difficult not to recognize his achievements in painting. Few people could so competently combine the environment and people.

Pieter de Hooch. Card players in a sunny room. 1658 Royal Art Collection, London

Please note that in a modest house on the canvas “Card Players” there is a painting hanging in an expensive frame.

This once again shows how popular painting was among ordinary Dutch people. Paintings decorated every home: the house of a rich burgher, a modest city dweller, and even a peasant.

6. Jan Steen (1626-1679)

Jan Steen. Self-portrait with a lute. 1670s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid

Jan Steen is perhaps the most cheerful “little” Dutchman. But loving moral teaching. He often depicted taverns or poor houses in which vice existed.

Its main characters are revelers and ladies of easy virtue. He wanted to entertain the viewer, but latently warn him against a vicious life.

Jan Steen. It's a mess. 1663 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Sten also has quieter works. Like, for example, “Morning Toilet.” But here too the artist surprises the viewer with too revealing details. There are traces of stocking elastic, and not an empty chamber pot. And somehow it’s not at all appropriate for the dog to be lying right on the pillow.

Jan Steen. Morning toilet. 1661-1665 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

But despite all the frivolity, Sten’s color schemes are very professional. In this he was superior to many “little Dutchmen”. Look how perfectly the red stocking goes with the blue jacket and bright beige rug.

7. Jacobs Van Ruisdael (1629-1882)

Portrait of Ruisdael. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

The victory of the bourgeois revolution in the Northern Netherlands led to the formation of the independent state of the Republic of the seven united provinces of Holland (by the name of the most significant of these provinces); For the first time, a bourgeois-republican system was established in one of the European countries. The driving forces of the revolution were peasants and the poorest strata of the urban population, but the bourgeoisie, which came to power, took advantage of its gains. However, in the first decades after the establishment of the republic, the democratic traditions of the revolutionary era were alive. The breadth of the national liberation movement, the rise of the people's self-awareness, and the joy of liberation from foreign yoke united the most diverse segments of the population. The country has created conditions for the development of science and art. Progressive thinkers of the time, in particular the French philosopher Descartes, found refuge here, and Spinoza’s fundamentally materialistic philosophical system was formed. Artists from Holland have achieved the highest achievements. They were the first in Europe; freed from the oppressive influence of court circles and the Catholic Church and created democratic and realistic art directly, reflecting social reality.

A distinctive feature of the development of Dutch art was its significant predominance among all its types of painting. Paintings decorated the houses of not only representatives of the ruling elite of society, but also poor burghers, artisans, and peasants; they were sold at auctions and fairs; sometimes artists used them as a means of paying bills. The profession of an artist was not rare; there were a lot of painters, and they competed fiercely with each other. The rapid development of painting was explained not only by the demand for paintings by those who wanted to decorate their homes with them, but also by the view of them as a commodity, as a means of profit, a source of speculation. Having gotten rid of the direct customer of the Catholic Church or an influential feudal philanthropist, the artist found himself entirely dependent on the demands of the market. The tastes of bourgeois society predetermined the development of Dutch art, and artists who opposed them, defending their independence in matters of creativity, found themselves isolated and died untimely in poverty and loneliness. Moreover, these were, as a rule, the most talented masters. It is enough to mention the names of Hals and Rembrandt.

The main object of depiction for Dutch artists was the surrounding reality, which had never before been so fully reflected in the works of painters of other national schools. Appeal to the most diverse aspects of life led to the strengthening of realistic tendencies in painting, the leading place in which was occupied by the everyday genre and portrait, landscape and still life. The more truthfully and deeply the artists reflected the real world opening before them, the more significant their works were. Frans Hals Maslenitsa festivities

Each genre had its own branches. So, for example, among the landscape painters there were marine painters (depicting the sea), painters who preferred views of flat places or forest thickets, there were masters who specialized in winter landscapes and landscapes with moonlight: among the genre painters, artists who depicted peasants, burghers, scenes of feasts and domestic life, hunting scenes and markets; there were masters of church interiors and various types of still lifes of “breakfasts”, “desserts”, “benches”, etc. The limited features of Dutch painting had an impact, narrowing the number of tasks to be solved for its creators. But at the same time, the concentration of each artist on a specific genre contributed to the refinement of the painter’s skill. Only the most important Dutch artists worked in various genres. Frans Hals Group of children

The founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Frans Hals (ok:), whose artistic legacy with fresh sharpness and power, embracing the inner world of a person goes far beyond the framework of national Dutch culture. An artist with a broad worldview, a brave innovator, he destroyed the canons of class (noble) portraiture that had emerged before him in the 16th century. He was not interested in a person depicted according to his social status in a majestically solemn pose and ceremonial costume, but in a person in all his natural essence, character, with his feelings, intellect, emotions.

Meeting of the officers of the St. Hadrian's company in Haarlem Strong, energetic people who took an active part in the liberation struggle against the Spanish conquerors are presented during the feast. A cheerful mood with a touch of humor unites officers of different characters and manners. There is no main character here. All those present are equal participants in the celebration.

Hals portrayed his heroes without embellishment, with their unceremonious morals and powerful love of life. He expanded the scope of the portrait by introducing plot elements, capturing those portrayed in action, in a specific life situation, emphasizing facial expressions, gestures, poses, instantly and accurately captured. The artist sought emotional strength and vitality of the characteristics of those portrayed, conveying their irrepressible energy. He not only reformed individual commissioned and group portraits, but was the creator of a portrait bordering on the everyday genre. Potter-musician

Hals's portraits are varied in themes and images. But those portrayed are united by common features: integrity of nature, love of life. Hals is a painter of laughter, a cheerful, infectious smile. With sparkling joy, the artist brings to life the faces of representatives of the common people, visitors to taverns, and street urchins. His characters do not withdraw into themselves; they turn their gazes and gestures towards the viewer. Boon companion

The image of “The Gypsy” (c., Paris, Louvre) is filled with a freedom-loving breath. Hals admires the proud position of her head in a halo of fluffy hair, her seductive smile, the perky sparkle of her eyes, her expression of independence. The vibrating outline of the silhouette, sliding rays of light, running clouds, against which the gypsy is depicted, fill the image with the thrill of life.

The portrait of Malle Babbe (early 1990s, Berlin Dahlem, Art Gallery), the owner of the tavern, not accidentally nicknamed the “Harlem Witch,” develops into a small genre scene. An ugly old woman with a burning, cunning gaze, turning sharply and grinning widely, as if answering one of the regulars of her tavern. An ominous owl looms in a gloomy silhouette on her shoulder. The sharpness of the artist’s vision, the gloomy strength and vitality of the image he created is striking. The asymmetry of the composition, the dynamics, and the richness of the angular strokes enhance the anxiety of the scene.

Hals' late portraits stand next to the most remarkable creations of world portraiture: in their psychologism they are close to the portraits of the greatest of the Dutch painters, Rembrandt, who, like Hals, experienced his lifetime fame by coming into conflict with the degenerating bourgeois elite of Dutch society. Regents of the Home for the Aged

The most popular genre in Dutch painting was the everyday genre, which largely determined the unique ways of its development in comparison with the art of other countries. Appeal to the most diverse aspects of everyday life, its poeticization led to the formation of various types of genre paintings. The high pictorial skill of their creators, optimistic character, and soft lyricism give them that charm that justifies the depiction of the most insignificant motives. Pieter de Hooch At the linen closet

The Dutch Baroque master Pieter de Hooch (Hooch) was one of the leading representatives of the Delft school of the 17th century. The painter's works are dedicated to ordinary, little-outstanding events in the quiet, calm life of a burgher family. The interior consists of neat courtyards or cleanly tidied rooms. Hoch's paintings are characterized by exquisite, precise drawings with calm colors and unobtrusive color accents. The master had an amazing ability to capture a “moment of being” - a conversation that stopped for a moment, some kind of action. This ability makes Hoch's paintings attractive, creating a sense of mystery, although there seems to be nothing unusual in the image. This perception of Hoch’s painting is also facilitated by his masterly skill as a realist, capable of turning everyday life into an interesting spectacle.

A deep poetic feeling, impeccable taste, and subtle colorism determine the work of the most outstanding of the masters of genre painting, the third after Hals and Rembrandt, the great Dutch painter John Vermeer of Delft (). Possessing an amazingly keen eye and filigree technique, he achieved poetry, integrity and beauty of the figurative solution, paying great attention to the transfer of the light-air environment. Vermeer's artistic heritage is relatively small, since he worked on each painting slowly and with extraordinary care. To earn money, Vermeer was forced to engage in the painting trade.

For Vermeer, man is inseparable from the poetic world, which the artist admires and which finds such a unique refraction in his works, which in their own way embody the idea of ​​beauty, the measured, calm flow of life, and human happiness. Particularly harmonious and clear in its compositional structure is “Girl with a Letter” (late 1650s, Dresden, Picture Gallery), a painting saturated with air and light, designed in bronze-green, reddish, golden tones, among which yellow and blue sparkle colors that predominate in the foreground still life.

The woman from the people is leisurely confident in her movements, charming and natural in the painting “The Maid with a Jug of Milk”, permeated with bright optimism and recreating the special, poeticized atmosphere of everyday life. The appearance of the young woman breathes with healthy strength and moral purity; the objects surrounding her are painted with amazing life-like authenticity; the softness of fresh bread, the smooth surface of a jug, the thickness of pouring milk seems palpable. Here, as in a number of other works by Vermeer, his amazing gift for subtly feeling and conveying the life of things, the richness and variety of forms of real objects, the vibration of light and air around them is manifested.

Vermeer's amazing skill is also revealed in two landscapes he painted, which are among the remarkable examples of this genre of painting not only in Dutch, but also in world art. The motif of “The Street,” or rather its small part, with the facade of a brick house, depicted on a gray, cloudy day, is extremely simple. The material tangibility of each object and the spirituality of every detail amazes.

“View of the City of Delft” has a completely different character. The artist looks at his hometown on a summer day after the rain. The sun's rays begin to break through the moist silvery clouds, and the whole picture sparkles and sparkles with many colorful shades and highlights and at the same time captivates with its integrity and poetic beauty.

The principles of Dutch realistic landscape developed during the first third of the 17th century. Instead of conventional canons and idealized, invented nature in the paintings of the masters of the Italianizing movement, the creators of the realistic landscape turned to depicting the real nature of Holland with its dunes and canals, houses and villages. They not only captured the character of the area with all its features, creating typical motifs of the national landscape, but also sought to convey the atmosphere of the season, moist air and space. This contributed to the development of tonal painting, the subordination of all components of the picture to a single tone.

The outstanding landscape painter of Holland was Jacob van Ruisdael (1628/291682), who inspired his landscapes with great personal feelings and experiences. Just like other major Dutch artists, he did not make concessions to the tastes of bourgeois clients, always remaining himself. Ruisdael did not limit himself to certain image themes. The range of his landscape motifs is very wide: views of villages, plains and dunes, forest swamps and the sea, depicted in very different weather and different seasons. Winter scenes

The artist's creative maturity dates back to the mid-17th century. At this time, he created works full of deep drama, conveying the inner life of nature: “View of the village of Egmond”, “Forest swamp”, “Jewish cemetery” which, with their restrained, gloomy coloring, monumentalization of forms and structures, responded to the artist’s experiences. He achieves the greatest emotional power and depth of philosophical meaning in the depiction of a Jewish cemetery with its whitening tombstones and ruins, with a foaming stream, dried gnarled branches of a tree, illuminated by a flash of lightning that illuminates the fresh greenery of a young sprout. Thus, in this gloomy reflection, the idea of ​​an ever-renewing life, which breaks through all storms and destructive forces, wins.

Along with landscape painting, still life, which was distinguished by its intimate character, became widespread in Holland. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of objects for their still lifes, knew how to arrange them perfectly, and reveal the characteristics of each object and its inner life, inextricably linked with human life. Peter Claes (ok) and Willem Heda (/82) painted numerous versions of “breakfasts”, depicting hams, golden buns, blackberry pies, fragile glass glasses half filled with wine on the table, conveying the color, volume, texture of each item with amazing skill. Pieter Klass.Still life with a golden glass.

In Holland in the 17th century. The genre of still life became widespread. The aesthetic principles of the still life were quite conservative: the horizontal format of the canvas, the lower edge of the table with the depicted nature is strictly parallel to the frame. The folds on the tablecloth, as a rule, ran in parallel lines, contrary to the laws of perspective, into the depths of the canvas; objects were viewed from a high point of view (to make it easier to take in them all with a glance), arranged in a line or in a circle and practically did not touch Heda Willem Claes Breakfast with crab

Heda Willem Claes Still Life with a Golden Cup Heda, as well as Peter Claes, who influenced him, are the most significant representatives of this kind of still life in Holland. These two Haarlem masters are often compared. Both of them created modest “breakfasts” with a simple set of uncomplicated items. Heda and Klas have similar greenish-gray or brownish tones, but Heda’s works are, as a rule, more carefully finished, and his taste is more aristocratic, which was manifested in the choice of objects depicted: silver rather than tin utensils, oysters rather than herring, etc. P.