Fine art of the USSR in the 30s. Soviet fine art

The plan of “monumental propaganda,” adopted at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin, was the most striking expression of the general principles of the new art. V.I. Lenin saw the main goal of “monumental propaganda” as putting art at the service of the revolution, educating the people in the spirit of a new, communist worldview.

Along with the abolition of some monuments that “glorified tsarism,” it was ordered to mobilize artistic forces and organize a competition to develop designs for monuments in honor of the October Socialist Revolution.

Beginning in the autumn of 1918, the first works of “monumental propaganda” appeared on the streets of Petrograd, Moscow and other cities: monuments to Radishchev, Stepan Razin, Robespierre, Kalyaev, T. Shevchenko and others.

Many sculptors representing various creative movements worked on the implementation of the plan - N. Andreev, S. Konenkov, A. Matveev, V. Mukhina, S. Merkurov, V. Sinaisky, architects L. Rudnev, I. Fomin, D. Osipov, V. Mayat. The ideas of Lenin's plan also influenced the broader area of ​​monumental and decorative art - the festive decoration of cities, mass processions, etc. Prominent artists, including K. Petrov-Vodkin, took part in the decoration of the streets of Moscow and Petrograd on the days of the first anniversary of the October Revolution , B. Kustodiev, S. Gerasimov.

A characteristic feature of the fine art of the era of revolution and civil war was its propaganda orientation, which determined the meaning and place of its individual types. Along with monuments and memorial plaques, the poster became a mouthpiece for revolutionary ideas and slogans, speaking the language of allegory (A. Apsit), political satire (V. Denis) and then reaching its greatest heights in the classical works of D. Moore (“Have you signed up as a volunteer?”, “ Help").

“Windows of GROWTH” by V. Mayakovsky and M. Cheremnykh were also unsurpassed in their kind. The “telegraphic” language of these posters, deliberately simplified, was distinguished by its sharpness and laconicism.

Closely related to the art of posters were political graphics, which were widely popularized by the magazines “Plamya”, “Krasnoarmeyets” and other periodicals. Revolutionary themes also penetrated into easel graphics (drawings by B. Kustodiev), especially into wood and linoleum engravings. “Troops” by V. Falileev, “Armored Car” and “Cruiser Aurora” by N. Kupreyanov are typical graphic works of this time. They are characterized by intense contrasts of black and white style, increasing the role of the silhouette.

The era of revolution was also reflected in book illustration (drawings by Yu. Annenkov for “The Twelve” by A. Blok, covers and book signs by S. Chekhonin), but this type of art was more associated with new editions of classical literature, primarily the “People's Library” "(works by B. Kardovsky, E. Lanceray, etc.).

In portrait graphics, sketches of V. I. Lenin (N. Altman, N. Andreev) made from life were of particular value. A galaxy of major masters (A. Benois, M. Dobuzhinsky, A. Ostroumova-Lebedeva) developed landscape graphics.

Easel painting of the first post-revolutionary years, more than any other form of art, experienced pressure from the “left front”. The canvases “New Planet” by K. Yuon, “Bolshevik” by B. Kustodiev, etc. testified to the desire of their authors to reveal the historical meaning of what was happening. Allegory, characteristic of all Soviet art of the early period, even penetrated into landscape painting, giving rise to such a unique response to modern events as, for example, A. Rylov’s painting “In the Blue Expanse.”

Among other arts, architecture was in a special position, the capabilities of which during this period did not go beyond the design of new tasks.

20s

In the 20s There were many different groups among Soviet artists: the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia, the Society of Easel Painters, the Society of Moscow Artists, the Society of Russian Sculptors, etc.

Despite the fact that Soviet art was then of a transitional nature, it gradually developed a general style. In painting, classical traditions, and mainly the traditions of the Russian realistic school, acquire decisive importance. Artists are increasingly turning to modernity. Young painters also perform alongside older masters. This time was characterized by the works of S. Malyutin, A. Arkhipov, G. Ryazhsky in the portrait genre, B. Ioganson - in the everyday genre, M. Grekov, I. Brodsky, A. Gerasimov - in the historical-revolutionary genre, A. Rylov, N. Krymova, B. Yakovleva - in landscape, etc. The artists who grouped before the revolution around the magazine “World of Art”, former Cézanneists, changed their attitude to the environment, to the tasks of art. P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Kuprin are experiencing the flowering of their talent; Until recently, the stylized creativity of K. Petrov-Vodkin was filled with real, vital content; a new approach to the problems of figurative expressiveness is reflected in the works of M. Saryan, S. Gerasimov and others. The innovative tendencies of Soviet painting were especially clearly manifested in the painting “The Defense of Petrograd” by A. Deineka (1928).

Political cartoons occupied a prominent place in the graphics (B. Efimov, L. Brodaty, etc.). At the same time, the importance of book illustration, especially book woodcuts, is growing (A. Kravchenko, P. Pavlinov, etc.). Its greatest master, V. Favorsky, laid the foundation for a whole creative movement. The development of easel drawings made with charcoal, pencil, lithography or black watercolor was also successful (N. Kupreyanov, N. Ulyanov, G. Vereisky, M. Rodionov).

Sculpture of the 20s. continued to follow the ideas of Lenin’s plan of “monumental propaganda.” The range of her tasks expanded noticeably, and portrait sculpture achieved great success (A. Golubkina, V. Domogatsky, S. Lebedeva).

However, the main efforts of sculptors are still directed towards creating monuments. Unlike the first gypsum monuments, which were temporary, new monuments are constructed from bronze and granite. These include monuments to V.I. Lenin at the Finlyandsky Station in Leningrad (V. Shchuko, V. Gelfreich, S. Yeseev), at the dam of the Zemo-Avchala hydroelectric power station in Transcaucasia (I. Shadr) and in Petrozavodsk (M. Manizer).

Images of general significance were created by A. Matveev (“October Revolution”), I. Shadr (“Cobblestone - the weapon of the proletariat”), V. Mukhina (“Wind”, “Peasant Woman”), who already at that time defined the face of Soviet sculpture with their creativity.

After the end of the civil war, conditions favorable for the development of architecture arose. Its first-priority, most pressing task was housing construction (residential building complexes on Usachevaya Street in Moscow, on Traktornaya Street in Leningrad, etc.). But very soon the architects put urban planning problems, the construction of public ensembles, and industrial construction at the center of their attention. A. Shchusev and I. Zholtovsky are developing the first plan for the reconstruction of Moscow. Under their leadership, the planning and construction of the All-Russian Agricultural Exhibition of 1923 was carried out. A. Shchusev created the mausoleum of V. I. Lenin. Until the end of the 20s. According to the plans of Soviet architects, a number of buildings for various purposes were built (the Izvestia house by G. Barkhin; the State Bank of the USSR by I. Zholtovsky; the Central Telegraph by I. Rerberg), industrial complexes (Volkhov hydroelectric power station by O. Munts, N. Gundobin and V. Pokrovsky ; Dnieper hydroelectric power station V. Vesnin), etc.

One of the important aspects of the creative activity of Soviet architects was the desire to develop new forms of architecture that corresponded to new tasks, modern materials and construction techniques.

30s

The successes of Soviet painting of these years are especially fully represented by the new stage of creativity of M. Nesterov, in whose works (portraits of academician I. Pavlov, the Korin brothers, V. Mukhina, surgeon S. Yudin) the depth and relief of the image of human characters is combined with a broad general theme of creative work Soviet people. The high level of portraiture is supported by P. Korin (portraits of A. Gorky, M. Nesterov), I. Grabar (portrait of a son, portrait of S. Chaplygin), P. Konchalovsky (portrait of V. Meyerhold, portrait of a black student), N. Ulyanov and others. The theme of the civil war was embodied in the painting by S. Gerasimov “The Oath of the Siberian Partisans.” “The Old Masters” and “The Morning of an Officer in the Tsarist Army” by the Kukryniks (M. Kupriyanov, P. Krylov, N. Sokolov) were also written on historical subjects. A. Deineka (“Mother”, “Future Pilots”, etc.) becomes an outstanding master of paintings on a modern theme. An important step towards the development of the everyday genre is taken by Y. Pimenov (“New Moscow”) and A. Plastov (“Collective Farm Herd”).

The development of graphics during this period is associated primarily with book illustration. Masters of the older generation are working successfully in this area - S. Gerasimov (“The Artamonov Case” by M. Gorky), K. Rudakov (illustrations for the works of G. Maupassant), and young artists - D. Shmarinov (“Crime and Punishment” F . Dostoevsky, “Peter I” by A. Tolstoy), E. Kibrik (“Cola Brugnon” by R. Rolland, “The Legend of Ulenspiegel” by Charles de Coster), Kukryniksy (“The Life of Klim Samgin” by M. Gorky and others), A. Kanevsky (works by Saltykov-Shchedrin). The illustration of Soviet children's books received noticeable development (V. Lebedev, V. Konashevich, A. Pakhomov). A fundamentally important change compared to the previous period was that Soviet illustrators switched (albeit somewhat one-sidedly) from the decorative design of the book to the disclosure of the ideological and artistic content of literary images, to the development of human characters and dramaturgy of action, expressed in a string of successive friend images.

In book illustration, along with realistic drawings, watercolors, and lithographs, engravings, represented by the works of recognized masters such as V. Favorsky (“Vita Nuova” by Dante, “Hamlet” by Shakespeare), M. Pikov, A. Goncharov, also retain their importance.

In the field of easel graphics, the portrait genre came to the fore at this time (G. Vereisky, M. Rodionov, A. Fonvizin).

A serious obstacle to the development of Soviet art in these years was handicraft, tendencies of false monumentality, pomp associated with the cult of Stalin's personality.

In the art of architecture, the most important problems were solved in connection with the problems of urban planning and the construction of residential, administrative, theater and other buildings, as well as large industrial facilities (such as an automobile plant in Moscow, a meat processing plant in Leningrad, a heating plant at an automobile plant in Gorky, etc. .). Among the architectural works, the House of the Council of Ministers in Moscow (A. Lengman), the Moscow Hotel (A. Shchusev, L. Savelyev, O. Stapran), the Soviet Army Theater in Moscow (K. Alabyan, V. Simbirtsev) are especially characteristic of these years ), sanatorium named after Ordzhonikidze in Kislovodsk (M. Ginzburg), river station in Khimki (A. Rukhlyadyev), etc. The main aesthetic trend in the course of these works was the attraction to traditional forms of classical order architecture. The uncritical use of such forms and their mechanical transfer to modern times often led to unnecessary external pomp and unjustified excesses.

The art of sculpture is acquiring new important features. Strengthening the connections between monumental and decorative sculpture and architecture becomes a characteristic feature of this period. The sculptural work - the group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" - by Mukhina arose on the basis of the architectural design of the USSR pavilion at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris. The synthesis of sculpture with architecture was also evident in the design of the Moscow Metro, the Moscow Canal, the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition, and the USSR pavilion at the International Exhibition in New York.

Of the works of monumental sculpture of these years, the most important were the monuments to Taras Shevchenko in Kharkov (M. Manizer) and Kirov in Leningrad (N. Tomsky).

The sculptural portrait is further developed (V. Mukhina, S. Lebedeva, G. Kepinov, Z. Vilensky and others). Many sculptors are successfully working on a typical generalization of the images of their contemporaries (“Metallurgist” by G. Motovilov, “Young Worker” by V. Sinaisky).

Getting acquainted with the works of Soviet fine art, you immediately notice that it is very different from the previous period in the history of art. This difference lies in the fact that all Soviet art is permeated with Soviet ideology and was intended to be a conductor of all ideas and decisions of the Soviet state and the Communist Party, as the guiding force of Soviet society. If in the art of the 19th - early 20th centuries, artists seriously criticized the existing reality, then in the Soviet period such works were unacceptable. The pathos of building a socialist state was a red thread running through all Soviet fine art. Now, 25 years after the collapse of the USSR, there is increased interest in Soviet art from viewers, and it is especially becoming interesting to young people. And the older generation is rethinking a lot about the past history of our country and is also interested in seemingly very familiar works of Soviet painting, sculpture, and architecture.

Art of the period of the October Revolution, the Civil War and the 20s - 30s.

In the first years after the revolution and during the civil war, he played a huge role combat political poster. They are rightfully considered classics of poster art. D.S. Moore and V.N. Denis. Moor's poster "Have you signed up to volunteer?" and now captivates with the expressiveness of the image.

In addition to the printed poster, hand-drawn and stenciled posters arose during the Civil War. This "ROSTA Windows", where the poet V. Mayakovsky took an active part.

During the Civil War he worked monumental propaganda plan, compiled by V.I. Lenin, the meaning of which was to build monuments throughout the country to famous people who in one way or another contributed to the preparation and accomplishment of the socialist revolution. The performers of this program include primarily sculptors N.A. Andreev I.D. Shadr.

In the 20s, an association was formed that played a significant role in the construction of a new Soviet society - Russia" (AHRR) "Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AHRR).

In the 30s, a single Union of Artists of the USSR was created, uniting all artists who in their work had to follow the method of socialist realism. Older artists (B. Kustodiev, K. Yuon, etc..) and younger ones sought to reflect the new in Soviet reality.

In creativity I.I. Brodsky The historical-revolutionary theme was reflected. The same theme in the works M. Grekova and K. Petrova-Vodkina has a sublimely romantic character.

In these same years the epic began "Leniniana" who created countless works during the Soviet period dedicated to V.I. Lenin.

Genre painters (masters of the everyday genre) and portrait painters of the 20s-30s should first of all be called M. Nesterov, P. Konchalovsky, S. Gerasimov, A. Deineka, Y. Pimenov, G. Ryazhsky and other artists.

In area landscape such artists worked like K. Yuon, A. Rylov, V. Baksheev and d R.

After the revolution and civil war, there was a rapid construction of cities in which many monuments to prominent figures of the revolution, parties and states. Famous sculptors were A. Matveev, M. Manizer, N. Tomsky, S. Lebedeva and others.

Soviet fine art 1941 -1945 and the first post-war years

During the Great Patriotic War, Soviet art decisively refuted the saying that “when the guns roar, the muses are silent.” No, during the period of the most cruel and terrible wars in the history of mankind, the muses were not silent. Immediately after the treacherous attack of the German fascists on the Soviet Union, the brush, pencil and chisel of artists became a formidable weapon in the fight against the enemy.

The heroic rise of the people, their moral unity became the basis on which Soviet art rose during the Patriotic War. He was permeated with ideas patriotism. These ideas inspired poster artists, encouraged painters to create paintings telling about the exploits of Soviet people, and determined the content of works in all types of art.

A huge role at this time, as during the Civil War, was played by political posters, where artists such as V.S.Ivanov, V.B.Koretsky and others. Their works are characterized by angry pathos; the images they created reveal the unbending will of the people who stood up in defense of the Fatherland.

The hand-drawn poster experienced a genuine revival during the war. Following the example of "Windows of GROWTH" in 1941 - 1945, numerous sheets were created "Windows TASS". They ridiculed the invaders, exposed the true essence of fascism, and called on the people to defend the Motherland. Among the artists working in TASS Windows, first of all it should be mentioned Kukryniksov (Kupriyanov, Krylov, Sokolov).

Graphic series of this time convincingly tell about the experiences of Soviet people during the war years. Heartache marks a magnificent series of drawings D.A. Shmarinova “We will not forget, we will not forgive!” The severity of life in besieged Leningrad is captured in a series of drawings A.F. Pakhomov "Leningrad in the days of the siege."

It was difficult for painters to work during the war years: after all, creating a finished picture requires time and appropriate conditions and materials. Nevertheless, then many paintings appeared that were included in the golden fund of Soviet art. Painters from the studio of military artists named after A.B. Grekov tell us about the difficult everyday life of war, about heroic warriors. They traveled to the fronts and took part in military operations.

War artists captured on their canvases everything that they themselves saw and experienced. Among them P.A. Krivonogov, author of the painting "Victory", B.M. Nemensky and his the painting “Mother”, a peasant woman who sheltered soldiers in her hut, who suffered a lot during a difficult time for the Motherland.

Canvases of great artistic value were created during these years A.A.Deineka, A.A.Plastov, Kukryniksy. Their paintings, dedicated to the heroic exploits of the Soviet people at the front and in the rear, are imbued with sincere excitement. The artists assert the moral superiority of the Soviet people over the brute force of fascism. This demonstrates the humanism of the people, their faith in the ideals of justice and goodness. Historical paintings created during the war, including such as the cycle paintings by E.E. Lansere "Trophies of Russian weapons"(1942), triptych by P.D. Korin “Alexander Nevsky”, canvas by A.P. Bubnov “Morning on the Kulikovo Field”.

Portraiture also told us a lot about people during the war. Many works have been created in this genre, marked by extraordinary artistic merit.

The portrait gallery of the period of the Patriotic War was replenished with many sculptural works. People of unbending will, courageous characters, marked by bright individual differences, are represented in sculptural portraits of S.D. Lebedeva, N.V. Tomsky, V.I. Mukhina, V.E. Vuchetich.

During the Patriotic War, Soviet art fulfilled its patriotic duty with honor. The artists came to victory after going through deep experiences, which made it possible in the first post-war years to create works with complex and multifaceted content.

In the second half of the 40s - 50s, art was enriched with new themes and images. Its main tasks during this period were to reflect the successes of post-war construction, educate morality and communist ideals.

The flourishing of art in the post-war years was greatly facilitated by the activities of the USSR Academy of Arts, which included the most significant masters.

The art of the post-war years is characterized by other features, which primarily relate to its content. During these years, artists' interest in the inner world of man intensified. Hence the attention that painters, sculptors, and graphic artists pay to portraits and genre compositions, which allow them to imagine people in a wide variety of life situations and show the originality of their characters and experiences. Hence the special humanity and warmth of many works dedicated to the life and everyday life of Soviet people.

Naturally, at this time, artists continue to be concerned about the events of the recent war. Again and again they turn to the exploits of the people, to the difficult experiences of the Soviet people in harsh times. Such paintings of those years are known as "Mashenka" by B. Nemensky, "Letter from the Front" by A. Laktionov, "Rest after the Battle" by Yu. Nemensky, “Return” by V. Kostetsky and many others.

The canvases of these artists are interesting because the theme of war is dealt with in the everyday genre: they paint scenes from the life of Soviet people at war and on the home front, talking about their suffering, courage, and heroism.

It is noteworthy that paintings of historical content were also often made during this period in the everyday genre. Gradually, the peaceful life of the Soviet people, which replaced the difficult trials of the war years, is increasingly embodied in the works of many artists. A large number appears genre paintings (i.e. paintings of the everyday genre), striking in the variety of themes and plots. This is the life of a Soviet family, with its simple joys and sorrows ( "A deuce again!" F. Reshetnikova), this is hard work in factories and factories, on collective farms and state farms ( "Bread" by T. Yablonskaya, "On Peaceful Fields" A. Mylnikova). This is the life of Soviet youth, the development of virgin lands, etc. Artists made particularly important contributions to genre painting during this period A. Plastov, S. Chuikov, T. Salakhov and others.

Portraiture continued to develop successfully during these years - this P. Korin, V. Efanov and other artists. In the field of landscape painting during this period, in addition to the oldest artists, including M. Saryan, worked by R. Nissky, N. Romadin and others.

In subsequent years, the visual arts of the Soviet period continued to develop in the same direction.

The years of Soviet power significantly changed the face of Russia. The changes that have occurred cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, one cannot help but admit that during the years of the revolution and after it, great damage was done to culture: many prominent writers, artists, and scientists were forced to leave the country or died. It became increasingly difficult for those cultural figures who did not leave, but could not find a common language with the established authorities, to reach the viewer, reader, and listener. Architectural monuments were destroyed: only in the 30s. In Moscow, the Sukharev Tower, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin, the Red Gate and hundreds of unknown urban and rural churches, many of which were of historical and artistic value, were destroyed.

At the same time, significant progress has been made in many areas of cultural development. These primarily include the sphere of education. The systematic efforts of the Soviet state led to the fact that the proportion of the literate population in Russia grew steadily. By 1939, the number of literate people in the RSFSR was already 89 percent. Since the 1930/31 school year, compulsory primary education was introduced. In addition, by the thirties, the Soviet school gradually moved away from many revolutionary innovations that had not justified themselves: the class-lesson system was restored, subjects that had previously been excluded from the program as “bourgeois” (primarily history, general and domestic) were returned to the schedule. Since the beginning of the 30s. The number of educational institutions involved in the training of engineering, technical, agricultural and pedagogical personnel grew rapidly. In 1936, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was created.

The situation in the literature has changed significantly. In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. By the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932 “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” RAPP was liquidated. And in 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Writers' Union” was organized, which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A.A. became chairman. Fadeev (former RAPP member), who remained in this post throughout the Stalin era (until his suicide in 1956). In addition to the "Union of Writers", other "creative" unions were organized: "Union of Artists", "Union of Architects", "Union of Composers". A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art.

Having carried out organizational unification, the Stalinist regime set about stylistic and ideological unification. In 1936, a “discussion about formalism” began. During the “discussion”, through harsh criticism, the persecution of those representatives of the creative intelligentsia began, whose aesthetic principles differed from the “socialist realism” that was becoming generally binding. Symbolists, futurists, impressionists, imagists, etc. came under a barrage of offensive attacks. They were accused of “formalistic quirks”, that their art was not needed by the Soviet people, that it was rooted in soil hostile to socialism. Among the “outsiders” were composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Y. Olesha and others. Articles appeared in the press: “Confusion instead of music,” “Ballet falsehood,” “About dirty artists.” Essentially, the “fight against formalism” had the goal of destroying all those whose talent was not put to the service of power. Many artists were repressed.

As already mentioned, the so-called “socialist realism” became the defining style in literature, painting and other forms of art. This style had little in common with true realism. Despite the external “liveness”, he did not reflect reality in its present form, but sought to pass off as reality what should only have been from the point of view of official ideology. The function of educating society within the strictly defined framework of communist morality was imposed on art. Labor enthusiasm, universal devotion to the ideas of Lenin-Stalin, Bolshevik adherence to principles - this is how the heroes of the works of official art of that time lived. The reality was much more complex and generally far from the proclaimed ideal.

The limited ideological framework of social realism became a significant obstacle to the development of Soviet literature. However, in the 30s. Several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Perhaps the most important figure in the official literature of those years was Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (1905-1984). An outstanding work is his novel "Quiet Don", which tells about the Don Cossacks during the First World War and the Civil War. The novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” is dedicated to collectivization on the Don. Remaining, at least outwardly, within the boundaries of socialist realism, Sholokhov managed to create a three-dimensional picture of the events that took place, to show the tragedy of fratricidal hostility among the Cossacks that unfolded on the Don in the post-revolutionary years. Sholokhov was favored by Soviet criticism. His literary work was awarded the State and Lenin Prizes, he was twice awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, and he was elected academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing achievements (1965).

In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, The Life of Klim Samgin. Metaphorical nature and philosophical depth are characteristic of L.M.’s prose. Leonov ("The Thief" 1927, "Sot" 1930), who played a special role in the development of the Soviet novel. The work of N.A. was extremely popular. Ostrovsky, author of the novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1934), dedicated to the era of the formation of Soviet power. The main character of the novel, Pavka Korchagin, was an example of a fiery Komsomol member. In the works of N. Ostrovsky, like no one else, the educational function of Soviet literature was manifested. The ideal character Pavka in reality became an example for the broad masses of Soviet youth. A.N. became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. Tolstoy ("Peter I" 1929-1945). The twenties and thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up reading the books of K.I. Chukovsky, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, S.V. Mikhalkova, A.L. Barto, V.A. Kaverina, L.A. Kassilya, V.P. Kataeva.

Despite ideological dictatorship and total control, free literature continued to develop. Under the threat of repression, under the fire of loyal criticism, without hope of publication, writers who did not want to cripple their work for the sake of Stalinist propaganda continued to work. Many of them never saw their works published; this happened after their death.

In 1928, persecuted by Soviet criticism, M.A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, begins to write his best novel, The Master and Margarita. Work on the novel continued until the death of the writer in 1940. This work was published only in 1966. Even later, in the late 80s, the works of A.P. Platonova (Klimentova) "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea". Poets A.A. worked “at the table”. Akhmatova, B.L. Parsnip. The fate of Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great visual precision, he was among those writers who, having accepted the October Revolution in their time, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to isolate itself from the rest of the world, contacts with foreign countries are being minimized, and the penetration of any information “from there” is being placed under the strictest control. Many Russian writers remained behind the Iron Curtain, who, despite the lack of a readership, the unsettled life, and spiritual breakdown, continue to work. Their works convey a longing for a bygone Russia. A writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin did not accept the revolution from the very beginning and emigrated to France, where he spent the second half of his life. Bunin's prose is distinguished by the beauty of its language and special lyricism. In emigration, his best works were created, which captured pre-revolutionary, noble, estate Russia, and the atmosphere of Russian life of those years was surprisingly poetically conveyed. The pinnacle of his work is considered to be the story "Mitya's Love", the autobiographical novel "The Life of Arsenyev", and the collection of short stories "Dark Alleys". In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

The classics of socialist realism in fine art were the works of B.V. Ioganson. In 1933, the painting “Interrogation of Communists” was painted. In contrast to the abundance of “paintings” that appeared at that time, depicting and glorifying the Leader or deliberately optimistic paintings like “Collective Farm Holiday” by S.V. Gerasimov, Ioganson’s work is distinguished by great artistic power - the unbending will of people doomed to death, which the artist masterfully managed to convey, touches the viewer regardless of political beliefs. Ioganson also painted large paintings “At the Old Ural Factory” and “Speech by V.I. Lenin at the 3rd Komsomol Congress”. In the 30s, K.S. continued to work. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of his contemporaries were created by M.V. Nesterov, the landscapes of Armenia found poetic embodiment in the paintings of M. S. Saryan. The work of the student M.V. is interesting. Nesterova P.D. Corina. In 1925, Korin conceived a large painting that was supposed to depict a religious procession during a funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives of Orthodox Rus', from beggars to church hierarchs. The title of the painting was suggested by M. Gorky - “Departing Rus'”. However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. The most famous work of P.D. Corina became the triptych "Alexander Nevsky" (1942).

The pinnacle of the development of socialist realism sculpture was the composition “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889-1953). The sculptural group was made by V. I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be the leading one, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the design of A.V. Shchuseva. The mausoleum is remarkable in its own way. The architect managed to avoid unnecessary pomp. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism begins to give way to neoclassicism. Lush stucco molding, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a tendency towards deliberate richness of decoration, often bordering on bad taste, appear. This style is sometimes called the “Stalinist Empire style,” although with the real Empire style, which is characterized, first of all, by the deepest internal harmony and restraint of forms, in reality it is only related by a genetic connection with the ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.

Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of films being shot is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, the film by S.M. was released. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in the title role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in cinema. Films on revolutionary themes are being made: “Lenin in October” (dir. M.I. Romm), “Man with a Gun” (dir. S.I. Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: the trilogy about Maxim “Maxim’s Youth”, “The Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg Side” (dir. G.M. Kozintsev); comedies: “Jolly Guys”, “Volga-Volga” (dir. S.A. Gerasimov), “Pig Farmer and the Shepherd” (dir. I.A. Pyryev). The film of the brothers (in reality, only namesakes, “brothers” is a kind of pseudonym) G.N. was extremely popular. and S.D. Vasiliev - "Chapaev" (1934).

The 1930s turned out to be difficult for Russian science. On the one hand, large-scale research programs are being launched in the USSR, new research institutes are being created: in 1934 S.I. Vavilov founded the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences named after. P.N. Lebedev (FIAN), at the same time the Institute of Organic Chemistry was created in Moscow P.L. Kapitsa created the Institute of Physical Problems, and in 1937 the Institute of Geophysics was created. Physiologist I.P. continues to work. Pavlov, breeder I.V. Michurin. The work of Soviet scientists resulted in numerous discoveries, both in fundamental and applied fields. Historical science is being revived. As was said, history teaching is being resumed in secondary and high schools. The Research Institute of History is being created at the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 1930s, outstanding Soviet historians worked: academician B.D. Grekov is the author of works on the history of medieval Russia ("Kievan Rus", "Peasants in Rus' from ancient times to the 18th century," etc.); Academician E.V. Tarle is an expert on the modern history of European countries and, above all, Napoleonic France ("The Working Class in France in the Age of Revolution", "Napoleon", etc.).

At the same time, Stalin's totalitarianism created serious obstacles to the normal development of scientific knowledge. The autonomy of the Academy of Sciences was eliminated. In 1934, it was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow and subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars. The establishment of administrative methods of managing science led to the fact that many promising areas of research (for example, genetics, cybernetics) were frozen for many years at the arbitrariness of incompetent party functionaries. In an atmosphere of general denunciation and growing repression, academic discussions often ended in violence, when one of the opponents, having been accused (albeit unfoundedly) of political unreliability, was not only deprived of the opportunity to work, but was subjected to physical destruction. A similar fate was destined for many representatives of the intelligentsia. The victims of repression were such prominent scientists as biologist, founder of Soviet genetics, academician and president of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences N.I. Vavilov, scientist and rocketry designer, future academician and twice Hero of Socialist Labor S.P. Korolev and many others.

During this period, significant changes occurred in the visual arts. Despite the fact that in the 20s the Association of Traveling Exhibitions and the Union of Russian Artists continued to exist, new associations appeared in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists.

The classics of socialist realism in fine art were the works of B.V. Ioganson. In 1933, the painting “Interrogation of Communists” was painted. In contrast to the abundance of “paintings” that appeared at that time, depicting and glorifying the Leader or deliberately optimistic paintings like “Collective Farm Holiday” by S.V. Gerasimov, Ioganson’s work is distinguished by great artistic power - the unbending will of people doomed to death, which the artist masterfully managed to convey, touches the viewer regardless of political beliefs. Ioganson also painted large paintings “At the Old Ural Factory” and “Speech by V.I. Lenin at the 3rd Komsomol Congress." In the 30s, K.S. continued to work. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of his contemporaries were created by M.V. Nesterov, the landscapes of Armenia found poetic embodiment in the paintings of M.S. Saryan. The work of the student M.V. is interesting. Nesterova P.D. Corina. In 1925, Korin conceived a large painting that was supposed to depict a religious procession during a funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives of Orthodox Rus', from beggars to church hierarchs. The title of the painting was suggested by M. Gorky - “Leaving Rus'”. However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. The most famous work of P.D. Korina became the triptych “Alexander Nevsky” (1942).

The pinnacle of the development of socialist realism sculpture was the composition “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889-1953). The sculptural group was made by V.I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be the leading one, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the design of A.V. Shchuseva. The mausoleum is remarkable in its own way. The architect managed to avoid unnecessary pomp. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism begins to give way to neoclassicism. Lush stucco molding, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a tendency towards deliberate richness of decoration, often bordering on bad taste, appear. This style is sometimes called the “Stalinist Empire style,” although in reality it is only related to the real Empire style, which is characterized primarily by the deepest internal harmony and restraint of forms, only by a genetic connection with the ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.

A distinctive feature in the field of theater was the formation of innovative activities of the Meyerhold Theater, Moscow Art Theater and others. Theater named after Vs. Meyerhold worked in 1920-38 under the direction of director V.E. Meyerhold. There was a special school attached to the theater, which changed several names (since 1923 State Experimental Theater Workshops - GEKTEMAS). Almost all performances were staged by Meyerhold himself (in rare cases, in collaboration with directors close to him). Characteristic of his art in the early 1920s. the desire to combine innovative experiments (“constructivist” productions of “The Magnanimous Cuckold” by F. Crommelynck and “The Death of Tarelkin” by A.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, both 1922) with the democratic traditions of the common public square theater was especially noticeable in the extremely free, frankly modernized director’s composition “Forests” by A.N. Ostrovsky (1924); the game was played in a buffoonish, farcical manner. In the second half of the 1920s. The desire for asceticism was replaced by a desire for spectacular spectacle, which manifested itself in the performances of “Teacher Bubus” by A.M. Fayko (1925) and especially in “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol (1926). Among other performances: “Mandate” by N.R. Erdman (1925), “Woe to Wit” (“Woe from Wit”) by A.S. Griboyedov (1928), “The Bedbug” (1929) and “Bathhouse” (1930) by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Krechinsky’s Wedding” by Sukhovo-Kobylin (1933). The play “Lady with Camellias” by A. Dumas the Son (1934) brought great success to the theater. In 1937-38, the theater was sharply criticized as “hostile to Soviet reality” and in 1938, by decision of the Arts Committee, it was closed.

Directors S.M. began their careers in the theater. Eisenstein, S.I. Yutkevich, I.A. Pyryev, B.I. Ravenskikh, N.P. Okhlopkov, V.N. Pluchek and others. The acting talents of M.I. were revealed in the theater troupe. Babanova, N.I. Bogolyubova, E.P. Garina, M.I. Zharova, I.V. Ilyinsky, S.A. Martinson, Z.N. Reich, E.V. Samoilova, L.N. Sverdlina, M.I. Tsareva, M.M. Straukha, V.N. Yakhontova and others.

Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of films being shot is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, the film by S.M. was released. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in the title role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in cinema. Films on revolutionary themes are being made: “Lenin in October” (dir. M.I. Romm), “Man with a Gun” (dir. S.I. Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: the trilogy about Maxim “Maxim’s Youth”, “The Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg Side” (dir. G.M. Kozintsev); musical comedies by Grigory Alexandrov with cheerful, fiery music by Isaac Dunaevsky (“Jolly Fellows”, 1934, “Circus” 1936, “Volga-Volga” 1938), idealized scenes from the life of Ivan Pyryev (“Tractor Drivers”, 1939, “The Pig Farmer and the Shepherd” 1941 ) create an atmosphere of expectation of a “happy life”. The film of the brothers (in reality, only namesakes, “brothers” is a kind of pseudonym) G.N. was extremely popular. and S.D. Vasiliev - “Chapaev” (1934).

This lesson is dedicated to the culture and art of the USSR in the 1930s. Despite the totalitarian control of the state over all spheres of cultural development of society, the art of the USSR in the 1930s. kept up with global trends of the time. The introduction of technological progress, as well as new trends from the West, contributed to the flourishing of literature, music, theater and cinema. During today's lesson you will learn what factors influenced the culture of the USSR in the 1930s, what new happened in the field of education, science, painting, architecture, literature, music, theater and cinema

Rice. 2. Tsvetaeva M.I. ()

Economic development also affects the development of culture and art. In the country in the 1930s, just like in the 20s, educated people are needed. The country needs competent, highly qualified specialists in all industries, in all areas. Education is developing, as are culture, science, and art.

Interesting changes are taking place in the social sphere. Culture is becoming more widespread, that is, more people are receiving education and getting the opportunity to become familiar with cultural and spiritual values. On the other hand, in order to please these masses of the population, cultural and artistic figures are forced to lower the bar, make art accessible and understandable to the people. Art as a method of influencing a person, as a method of understanding the world, can be a very important and powerful ally of power. Of course, the art of the 1930s. It did not so much resist the authorities as help; it was one of the means of establishing the Stalinist regime, a method of establishing communist ideology, a method of establishing the cult of personality.

In the 30s Contacts with other countries have not yet ceased. The mutual exchange of cultural ideas, trips, and exhibitions do not occur as intensively as in the 1920s, but they occur nonetheless. The USSR was a multinational country, and in the 1930s. National culture reaches a high level, and a separate written language of the small peoples of the Soviet Union appears.

Culture and art continued to comprehend the events that took place in the 1930s. There were no significant events, but the impetus given by the revolution continued to operate. In the 1930s The Bolsheviks continued to talk about the cultural revolution, and the first task was to increase the level of education and eliminate illiteracy. In the early 30s. universal 4-year free education is introduced in the late 30s. The 7-year course becomes compulsory and also free. In total, the secondary school then included a program of 9 classes (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Soviet poster ()

Moreover, a huge number of new schools were built, many of these schools, built in the 30s, with large spacious classrooms and corridors, still stand in our cities.

In addition to the secondary education system, higher education is also developing. By the end of the 30s. There were several thousand higher educational institutions in the USSR. A huge number of new educational institutions and branches of higher educational institutions were opened. Almost a million people by 1940 had a higher education. Changes also occurred in the structure of higher education. From ser. 30s a greater role began to be given to the social sciences, primarily history. In the 20-30s. continuity was maintained in the teaching of mathematics, physics, and other exact and natural sciences, but with humanitarian subjects everything was not the same. We can say that in the 1920s - early 1930s. history simply did not exist; the history departments at the Moscow and Leningrad institutes were liquidated. Since 1934, the tasks have changed.

In 1933, Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany. The German national idea, the patriotic one, was perverted by the Nazis. In this regard, the education system is changing, more attention is paid to those sciences that are involved in the education and development of patriotic feelings in a person.

Great successes in the 30s. are being sought, in particular, by such famous Soviet physicists and chemists as P.L. Kapitsa, A.F. Ioffe, I.V. Kurchatov, G.N. Flerov, who worked in different fields. S.V. Lebedev, the famous Soviet chemist, through his experiments, achieved the production of synthetic rubber (see Fig. 4, 5, 6).

Rice. 4. P.L. Kapitsa ()

Rice. 5. A.F. Ioffe()

Rice. 6. S.V. Lebedev ()

Things weren't so good in the humanities. In the 1930s There were several discussions, particularly on history. As a result of these discussions, the opinion was established that the entire history of mankind, according to the theory of Karl Marx, consists of five formations successively replacing each other: primitiveness, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, smoothly turning into communism. Socio-economic formation is the central concept of Marxist theory of society or historical materialism. Through the EEF, ideas about society as a specific system were recorded and at the same time the main periods of its historical development were identified. It was believed that any social phenomenon can be correctly understood only in connection with a certain OEF, an element or product of which it is. The history of all countries and peoples began to fit this scheme, this template. There were discussions, discussions could be held, but when the discussion ended, often on orders from above, it was forbidden to argue further and only one point of view was recognized as correct. Vibrant scientific life came to a standstill, because science is impossible without discussions. Science was also seriously damaged by repression. Repressed scientists: N.I. Vavilov, P.A. Florensky, E.V. Tarle, S.F. Platonov, D.S. Likhachev. (see Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. D.S. Likhachev ()

Art and literature also developed in the 1930s. It must be said that more significant changes are taking place in the sphere of literature and art than in the development of science and education. Since 1934, there has been a creative organization in the country that unites all writers - the Writers' Union of the Soviet Union. Until 1934, there were several organizations: LEF (left front), the Union of Russian Writers, the Organization of Peasant Writers, etc. In 1934, they all united, and under the leadership of Maxim Gorky a new organization was created - the Union of Writers. At the beginning of 1929, the LEF association disintegrated; it did not become part of the Writers' Union. After some time, the Union of Composers and the Union of Architects appeared. The Soviet government organized such unions in order to take literary and artistic figures under control. Thus, control by the authorities under a totalitarian regime is carried out using different methods. Firstly, this is purely administrative control, and secondly, through unions of writers, journalists, artists, and composers. A sufficiently large number of excellent writers were unable to fit into this new organized literary life. M.A. was practically not published. Bulgakov, they stopped publishing A.P. Platonov, persecuted M.I. Tsvetaeva, died in the camps of O.E. Mandelstam, N.A. Klyuev. The repression affected many writers. At the same time, A.N. continued to create during these years. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.A. Fadeev, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, K.M. Simonov, M.A. Sholokhov, K.I. Chukovsky, A.L. Barto, M.M. Prishvin. Based on poems by Soviet poets M.V. Isakovsky, V.I. Lebedev-Kumach composed amazing songs (see Fig. 8, 9, 10).

Rice. 8. Korney Chukovsky ()

Rice. 9. Aibolit. Korney Chukovsky ()

Rice. 10. Agnia Barto ()

Interesting processes took place in other areas of art. Music is a difficult area to understand. 30s - these are years of different music: on the one hand, S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich wrote serious symphonic music. But the masses of Soviet citizens happily sang the songs of A.V. Alexandrov, for example his famous song “Katyusha”, which became popular. Among the famous performers of that time were L.P. Orlova, L.O. Utesov. In 1932, the Union of Soviet Composers was founded.

Art is always a struggle, it is the artist’s struggle with himself, it is a struggle of styles, a struggle of directions. In the 1930s Socialist realism continues to establish itself - the theoretical principle and main artistic direction that dominated the USSR in the mid-1930s. - early 1980s In Soviet art and art criticism already in the late 1920s. an idea has developed about the historical purpose of art - to affirm socialist ideals, images of new people and new social relations in a publicly accessible realistic form. The Russian avant-garde (P. Filonov, Robert Falk, Kazimir Malevich) is gradually receding into the background. At the same time, P. Korin, P. Vasiliev, M. Nesterov continued to create and began to paint portraits of famous people, scientists, doctors, and artists.

Interesting processes continue in architecture. A movement such as constructivism, the avant-garde in architecture, emerges. One of the avant-garde movements said that architecture should be functional. Homes, in addition to being beautiful, should also be simple and comfortable. In the 30s Soviet urban planning was born. Large, spacious, bright, as comfortable as possible cities, new cities of the future - their creation was in the first place for Soviet architects. A. Shchusev, K. Melnikov, the Vesnin brothers are architects who created a new look for our country. In addition to houses, in addition to residential areas, the idea was to show the beauty of the industrial world, to build beautiful factories, so that a person, looking at this industrial landscape, would understand that the country is moving towards a bright future.

At the end of the 30s. In all branches of art: in painting, in sculpture, and in architecture, a great style begins to appear - the Soviet Empire style. This is an imperial style, characterized by large, beautiful, powerful houses and paintings depicting heroes. Stalin's Empire style is the leading trend in Soviet architecture (1933-1935), which replaced rationalism and constructivism and became widespread during the reign of I.V. Stalin (see Fig. 11, 12).

Rice. 11. Stalin's Empire style. Hotel "Ukraine" ()

Rice. 12. Stalin's Empire style. Ministry of Foreign Affairs ()

The symbol of the Empire style was the sculpture of V.I. Mukhina “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”, prepared for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937 (see Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”. IN AND. Mukhina ()

Movie

Cinema carried an important ideological load. It told about the revolutionary struggle (“The Youth of Maxim”, “The Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg Side” - directors G. Kozintsev and L. Trauberg); about the fight against internal enemies (“The Great Citizen” - director F. Ermler); about the happy life of Soviet people (film comedies directed by G. Alexandrov with the participation of L. Orlova “Jolly Fellows”, “Circus”, “Volga-Volga”); about overcoming difficulties (“Seven Braves” - director S. Gerasimov). In the film “Lenin in 1918” directed by M. Romm, Stalin appeared in cinema for the first time. At the direction of Stalin, S. Eisenstein in 1938 directed the film “Alexander Nevsky” with N. Cherkasov in the title role. Composers I. Dunaevsky, N. Bogoslovsky, V. Solovyov-Sedoy wrote songs for cinema.

Theater

In the sphere of theatrical life, the Bolshoi Theater was considered the main musical theater, and the Moscow Academic Art Theater (MKhAT) was recognized as the main drama theater. Chekhov. Galina Ulanova shone in the ballet. Composers were encouraged to create opera and ballet performances with heroic themes. In particular, R. Gliere's ballet “The Flames of Paris” (about the French Revolution) and A. Cheshko's opera “Battleship Potemkin” were staged.

Let's summarize. The creation of a large number of educated people, institutions, the development and expansion of branches of the Academy of Sciences led to an increase in the level of education and the creation of a new layer of the Soviet intelligentsia. In education and science, there were generally positive processes, with the exception of the tragic moments of repression. In the 1930s Art, painting, music, literature, sculpture, and architecture developed.

Homework

1. Describe the processes of development of education, science and artistic culture of the USSR in the 1930s.
2. Why do you think in the 1930s? Was special attention paid to teaching history?
3. Reveal the essence of the method of socialist realism in art. What works of socialist realism do you know?
4. Which of those repressed in the 1930s? Can you name scientific and cultural figures? Prepare a report or message about their activities and creativity.

Bibliography

1. Shestakov V.A., Gorinov M.M., Vyazemsky E.E. Russian history,
2. XX - beginning of the XXI century, 9th grade: textbook. for general education institutions; under. ed.
3. A.N. Sakharov; Ross. acad. Sciences, Ross. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". -
4. 7th ed. - M.: Education, 2011. - 351 p.
5. Kiselev A.F., Popov V.P. Russian history. XX - early XXI centuries. 9th grade: textbook. for general education institutions. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2013. - 304 p.
6. Lezhen E.E. Poster as a means of political propaganda in the 1917-1930s. Bulletin of the Saratov State Socio-Economic
7. university. - Issue No. 3. - 2013. - UDC: 93/94.
8. Braginsky D.Yu. Sports motifs in Russian art of the 1920s-1930s. News of the Russian State Pedagogical University A.I. Herzen. - Issue No. 69. - 2008. - UDC: 7.

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