The concept of political pluralism. Political pluralism: philosophical, historical and theoretical foundations

Pluralism is a principle of organizing society, based on recognition of the diversity of existing interests and their competition. Political pluralism is a condition and sign of a democratic regime.

Political pluralism:

acknowledges
creates the necessary conditions for implementation
encourages diversity among political organizations and competing interests.

Pluralism is the complete opposite of the monopolistic principle of organizing society. Among the political organizations included in the political system, the most important are parties.

A political party is a specialized, organizationally ordered group that unites active adherents of certain goals, ideas, leaders, and serves to fight for political power. The party has a certain structure and political goals.

The characteristics of the party are:

the presence of a program that articulates the goals and strategy of the party;
the presence of a charter containing the most important norms of internal party life;
fixed membership;
an extensive network of primary local organizations.

Multipartyism is understood as the presence of two or more parties - both a social phenomenon and multipartyism as a system of party power. A multi-party system is an important feature of a democratic state. This means that there is more than one party in the country.

The parties of Russia are young, their formation takes place during a difficult period of national history - the transition from totalitarianism to freedom and democracy, market relations, there is a split in society, the absence of a right-wing and political culture of the population.

Functions of political parties:

political;
social representation;
social inclusion;
political reconstruction;
ideological;
electoral;
recruit new members.

Classifications of political parties:

personnel and mass. The first are small, amorphous organizations consisting of authoritative political figures, in which there is no institution of fixed membership, membership fees, or a proven admission mechanism. The organizational structure of such parties is extremely simple, their center is in parliamentary factions. Mass organizations have a complex organizational structure, are numerous, and their main source of funding is membership fees. Such parties are governed by central bodies that do not coincide with parliamentary factions;
ruling and opposition. The latter can be legal (their activities are permitted by the state and are officially registered) and illegal (prohibited by the state and operating underground);
stable and unstable;
open (with free membership of representatives of various social strata) and closed (with a large number of formal requirements for candidates for party membership and a complex admission mechanism);
revolutionary (advocate a radical and violent transformation of the existing social system), reformist (advocate gradual changes in the existing order), conservative (advocate the preservation of the foundations of the previous system or such transformations that adapt it to changing realities without major shocks) and reactionary ( advocate the restoration of old, outdated social structures);
left (communist, socialist, social democratic and other parties that advocate the interests of workers, the socialization of production, the creation of the foundations of a socialist society), right (parties that defend the inviolability of private property, the foundations of the bourgeois order, strong state power) and centrist (trying to reconcile extreme interests in politics).

The Constitution of the Russian Federation (adopted on December 12, 1993) recognizes political diversity and multi-party system (Article 13). All public associations have equal rights.

An important principle of a democratic state is ideological and political pluralism. Consider, first, ideological pluralism.

Ideology is a complex spiritual formation. It includes a certain theoretical basis, which is a system of legal, philosophical, political, religious views on social reality, society and relationships between people.

“Ideological diversity is recognized in the Russian Federation,” says the Constitution of the Russian Federation in Part 1 of Article 13.

Pluralism in the sphere of ideology means the right of every person, group of people, their associations to freely develop their views and scientific theories of an ideological nature; distribute and protect them using all existing technical means; also actively work on the practical implementation of their ideas by developing policy documents, bills, submitting them to public and state bodies for consideration, participating in the support and implementation of proposals already adopted by these bodies, etc.

The first part of this article is related to a number of other constitutional provisions. This is v. 14; Article 28, establishing freedom of conscience, freedom of religion; Article 29, which provides everyone with freedom of thought and speech, search, receipt, production and dissemination of information, guaranteeing freedom of mass information; Article 44, guaranteeing everyone freedom of literary, artistic, scientific and other types of creativity.

Also, the Code of the Russian Federation proclaims that “no ideology can be established as state or mandatory” (Part 2, 34, Article 13).

This rule applies to any ideologies (liberalism, social democracy, religious-democratic and religious-social, national-democratic doctrines, Marxism-Leninism, etc.).

Kudryavtsev V.I. notes that “at the same time, a necessary element of any ideology constitutionally recognized in Russia is a loyal attitude (not necessarily support) to the current Constitution and submission to its requirements. This does not prevent the use of the possibility of legal, non-violent change of the constitutional system of Russia provided for by it (Article 134 -137 K. RF) .

The beliefs and views of citizens are free, and no one should be subjected to any persecution or restrictions on rights for their beliefs, whatever they may be. Only actions expressly prohibited by law can be punished.

The expediency and justice of preventing the dominance of one ideology in the state is confirmed by the experience of all countries where such dominance took place. It was associated with the suppression of the interests of large social groups, individual rights and freedoms, it was theoretically helpless and sharply reduced the effectiveness of the entire public and state. the system within which this happened.

Part 2 of Article 14 states that “religious associations are separated from the state and are equal before the law.”

The separation of religious associations from the state has great legal significance. First of all, this is mutual non-interference in each other’s affairs on the part of religious associations, on the one hand, and the state, its bodies and officials, on the other. The state is neutral in the area of freedom of religious beliefs and beliefs. It does not interfere in the exercise by citizens of their freedom of conscience and religion, in the legitimate activities of the church and other religious associations, and does not impose on them the performance of any of its functions. Religious associations do not interfere in government affairs. affairs, do not participate in the activities of political parties, in elections of state bodies, etc. So, in the Federal Law dated September 26. 1997 “On freedom of conscience and religious associations” establishes that the creation of religious associations in state bodies is prohibited. authorities, other government authorities, state institutions and local governments, military units, state. and municipal organizations (clause 3 of article 6).

But certain forms of interaction between them exist. The state protects the individual and collective rights and freedoms of believers and the legal activities of their associations. The latter have the right to participate in the cultural and social life of society. Article 11 of this Federal Law regulates the state procedure. registration of religious organizations.

Thus, the establishment of the principle of ideological pluralism in the Republic of Kazakhstan is one of the important democratic achievements of the people of Russia.

Secondly, in a democratic state there is political pluralism.

“Pluralism... is one of the qualitative characteristics of democracy,” says Yu.L. Parnikel. “It is a predicate that reveals the state of objective social relations”1.

1 Parnikel Yu.L. Political pluralism: conditions of formation in Russian society. Pskov, 1999, p.27.

A precondition for the recognition of this principle in our society was the elimination of the CPSU monopoly on political power. The elimination of this monopoly opened the way not only to the recognition of the principle of political pluralism, but also to its implementation through the gradual creation of a multi-party system in the Russian Federation.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation proclaims that political diversity and multi-party system are recognized in the Russian Federation (Part 3 of Article 13). Public associations are equal before the law (Part 4, Article 13). It is prohibited to create and operate public associations whose goals or actions are aimed at violently changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed groups, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred (Part 5 of Article 13).

Political pluralism in any of its variants is possible provided that people behave based on a single legal framework. According to Yu.L. Parnikel, “this base should similarly determine the behavior of both individual citizens and various political parties and public associations”

So, public relations arising in connection with the exercise by citizens of the right to associate in a political party and the peculiarities of the creation, activities and reorganization and liquidation of political parties, as well as relations associated with the activities of public associations, are regulated by the Federal Law of July 11. 2001 “On political parties” and Federal Law of May 19. 1995 "On public associations."

According to the Federal Law "On Public Associations", a public association is a voluntary, self-governing, non-profit formation created on the initiative of citizens united on the basis of common interests to realize common goals specified in the charter of the public association (Article 5).

This Federal Law establishes the principles of the creation and activities of public associations (Article 15), the procedure for liquidation and reorganization (Chapter 2), the procedure for state. registration (Article 21), rights and obligations of public associations (Chapter 3), public property is determined. associations (chapter 4).

In accordance with this Federal Law, one of the organizational and legal forms of a public association is a political party.

According to the Federal Law "On Political Parties", a political party is a public association created for the purpose of participation of citizens of the Russian Federation in the political life of society through the formation and expression of their political will, participation in public and political actions, in elections and referendums, as well as for the purpose of representing interests of citizens in government bodies. authorities and local governments (clause 1, article 3).

The activities of political parties are based on the principles of equality, voluntariness, transparency, legality and self-government (clause 1 of Article 8). The Federal Law also provides for restrictions on the creation and activities of political parties (Article 9).

A political party is subject to state registration in accordance with the Federal Law "On State Registration of Legal Entities" (Clause 1, Article 15).

A political party must have a political party charter (Article 21) and a political party program (Article 22).

The highest governing body of a political party is the congress of the political party (clause 1 of article 24).

This Federal Law establishes the rights and obligations of political parties

(Chapter 5), as well as the procedure for suspending the activities and liquidation of political parties (Chapter 9).

Scientist Parnikel Yu.L. in his monograph he established that “the main goal of the party is the struggle for power.” In order to gain supporters, citizens are “involved in active political activity. The party provides its supporters with the opportunity to meet, hold discussions, participate in political actions and campaigns, and generally learn politics... Parties carry out a unifying, national mission by appealing to people of different races, ages, nations, faiths, social groups and classes, to a certain extent smoothing out social conflicts and tensions."

The constitutional provisions on political parties in the Constitutional Republic of the Russian Federation are more concise than in the new constitutions of a number of other democratic countries. They, for example, in Article 21 of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, contain more detailed instructions: "Parties contribute to the formation of the political will of the people. They can form freely. Their internal organization must comply with democratic principles. They must present a public report on the sources and expenditure of their funds, as well as about their property.2. Parties which, by their goals or the actions of their supporters, seek to damage or eliminate the foundations of a free democratic order or to jeopardize the existence of the Federal Republic of Germany are unconstitutional. The issue of unconstitutionality is decided by the Federal Constitutional Court.3 .

Federal laws govern the details."

Political pluralism is incompatible with ideological uniformity. It can only be realized in conditions of ideological diversity. Therefore, with political pluralism, the existence of a national and universally binding ideology is practically impossible.

Pluralism is intended to fill individual, public and state freedom. life in general with a wealth of content and choice, stimulate political and social creativity, entrepreneurship and competitiveness of citizens and their associations and thereby contribute to the development of society and the state.

Parnikel Yu.L. argues that pluralism in politics is very necessary. At the same time, he believes that “any successful political activity of a subject governing society that is not supported in the economic sphere is not able to ensure long-term social stability. More than a ten-year path of development of Russia at the end of the 19th century proved this quite definitely.”

V. Dzodziev also believes that “the true democratization of Russia requires a deep qualitative renewal of the political elite.” Then, perhaps, a favorable environment will be created for the normal functioning of the political system as a whole.

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3. Forms of manifestation, criteria and boundaries of political pluralism

Bibliography

1. The principle of multi-party system as the basis for the implementation of democracy

The principle of political diversity (pluralism) means creating opportunities for all socio-political or other organizations whose activities have a political aspect and are within the framework of the Constitution to influence the political process.

Political pluralism helps to increase the effectiveness of democracy, the involvement of broad sections of the population in political activities, legalizes constitutional political opposition, and creates conditions for overcoming the apathy of the people and their alienation from power generated by years of totalitarianism.

A precondition for recognizing the principle of political pluralism in our society was the elimination of the CPSU monopoly on political power. The elimination of this monopoly opened the way not only to the recognition of the principle of political pluralism, but also to its implementation, primarily through the gradual creation of a multi-party system in the Russian Federation.

The emergence of the principle of political pluralism, which contributes to the democratization of society, has nothing to do with attempts to introduce “multi-power”, disrupt stability in society or impose on it the selfish goals of individual social groups, causing the collapse of social governance and anarchy.

The benefits of the principle of political pluralism can only be fully realized within the framework of constitutionality. That is, in order to implement the principle of political pluralism, it is necessary that all socio-political structures capable of fully guaranteeing the right of citizens to unite in public organizations and protect the constitutional foundations of our society by excluding political organizations that threaten these foundations from public life in court on a clear legal, primarily constitutional, basis.

In the Russian Federation, as stated in the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 13), political diversity and a multi-party system are recognized. Public associations are equal before the law. The creation and activity of public associations whose goals or actions are aimed at violently changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed groups, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred is prohibited.

Political pluralism is the freedom of political opinions and political actions, which is manifested in the activities of independent associations of citizens. That is why reliable constitutional and legal protection of political pluralism is a prerequisite not only for the implementation of the principle of democracy, but also for the functioning of the rule of law.

To implement the principle of political pluralism, it is important to determine the legal status of political parties, other public associations and mass movements participating in the political process and constituting the institutional basis of political pluralism. They must have in this process all the necessary rights corresponding to the legally established responsibilities of the state and its bodies.

One of the most important places in the institutional basis of political pluralism is occupied by political parties, which express the political will of their members and contribute to the expression of the political will of civil society. Parties are the most important element of the political system of any democratic state. Without them, today the very exercise of state power is practically impossible. In the Russian Federation, public relations arising in connection with the exercise by citizens of the right to associate in political parties and the peculiarities of the creation, activities, reorganization and liquidation of political parties are regulated by the Federal Law of July 11, 2001 “On Political Parties”

According to this Law (Article 3), a political party is a public association created for the purpose of participation of citizens of the Russian Federation in the political life of society through the formation and expression of their political will, participation in public and political actions, in elections and referendums, as well as for the purpose of representing the interests of citizens in government bodies and local governments.

The party systems of modern democratic countries are very diverse, which is explained by social, national, historical, religious and other features inherent in each state.

The need for a multi-party system in democratic countries and its specific features are determined primarily by the fact that the social basis of a multi-party system is society itself, consisting of various social strata and groups with conflicting interests. And the more complex the social structure of a society, the more reasons there are for the formation of different political parties. In addition, a multi-party system in a democratic society is due to the presence in it of competing groups that fight among themselves for influence in parliamentary and other elected bodies, in order to get their supporters into elected positions.

Political parties have policy documents published for public information. Political parties have the right to nominate candidates for deputies, conduct election campaigns, and use state media.

The creation of organizational structures (factions) of political parties is permitted in representative bodies of state power and local self-government. In other state bodies and local self-government bodies, as well as in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, the creation of organizational structures of political parties is not allowed.

Political pluralism is not only the opportunity to be a member of any party operating within the framework of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, but also not to be a member of any party, to be non-party. This opportunity guarantees equal rights for citizens to participate in the political process, regardless of their party affiliation.

Political pluralism is based on the diversity of forms of economic activity in the Russian Federation. This diversity is ensured by the fact that the basis of the economy of the Russian Federation is a social market economy, which ensures freedom of economic activity, entrepreneurship and labor, diversity and equality of forms of ownership, their equal legal protection, fair competition and public benefit.

2. Social foundations of political pluralism

The social foundations of political pluralism are interest groups, which can be public organizations, political parties, etc. The meaning of the existence of interest groups lies primarily in the articulation of the interests of individual citizens so that they can influence the expression of political will. The process of articulation of interests in groups can be divided into several stages: 1) determination of interests - translation into specific formulas and requirements of the union of a wide variety of personal and emotionally charged opinions. At this stage, a sense of community and the concept of “we” arises, different from the concept of “they”, i.e. other. “We” are defenders of monuments, “we” are philatelists, “we” are athletes, etc.; 2) generalization and formulation of basic interests - summing up various interests within a group to obtain real chances to influence policy; 3) selection of interests - selection of interests, i.e. their filtering by degree of importance and priority7.

Political pluralism serves to prevent the usurpation and monopolization of power by any one person, group or party, or its use in the interests of a narrow group of people. By legitimizing conflicts and contradictions that can be resolved in a civilized manner, it protects political life from stagnation and generates its renewal and development. The most important requirement of pluralism is the creation in politics and society of various kinds of checks and balances that equalize the influence of the most powerful political forces and make it possible to control power. In the field of political institutions, the idea of checks and balances is manifested primarily in the division of legislative, executive, judicial and information powers in the state, in open rivalry between the ruling party and the opposition, etc. Political pluralism is based on the presence of an overwhelming majority of citizens representing their parties and other organizations of consensus, agreement in the field of fundamental political values - a common interest in preserving and strengthening the state, recognition of the democratic rules of the game, including fair competition in the struggle for power, tolerance of opposition, respect for the law, decisions of the majority, human rights, as well as autonomy and rights minorities to have their own opinion and freely defend it within the framework of the law, refusal of the unconstitutional use of force to resolve controversial issues, etc.

Political pluralism is the recognition of the plurality of social interests and ways of expressing them in politics. It is conditioned by other manifestations of diversity in social relations, and has roots primarily in economics - the plurality of types of property capable of interacting and competing with each other; in the social structure of society - the presence of equality of different social groups; understanding the importance of diversity, its support and preservation in social relations; in culture - in the development of many directions and forms of manifestation of people's identity; in the worldview, pluralism is expressed in respect for the spiritual choice and preferences of people, the refusal of the state to carry out the ideological function in society, and the deideologization of its structure8.

Political pluralism is an indicator and result of the maturity of the process of formation of a democratic political system, which arises in the course of learning the lessons of difficult historical experience, which says that the basis of a stable and capable of change political system is not unification, which suppresses the specific interests, needs, orientations of different social and political groups, but recognition of the naturalness of their differences and the importance of supporting conditions for its preservation and reproduction. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind that pluralism is not only plurality, but also compatibility of interests, without which any mechanism for exercising power in society by political means is blocked. This is the unity of diversity, and therefore, in addition to differences within the framework of social and political pluralism, there must be certain common points of view, common principles that would be shared and accepted by all participants in the political process, it is from here that the possibility of implementing the well-known principle of pluralistic politics, the meaning of which lies in the desire not to to eliminating differences, but to managing them. Political pluralism is aimed at finding a measure of the optimal combination in politics and society of diversity and unity, decentralization and centralism, autonomy and association, freedom and responsibility, competition and solidarity. The most important condition for its constructive use is the preservation of political stability, controllability of diversity, and the process of conflict resolution. Without this and without a stable consensus in society, political pluralism can lead to destabilization and criminalization, chaos, anarchy and even civil war. The main purpose of civil society is to achieve consensus among various social forces and interests. It is intended to define norms and boundaries that can block the destructive potential of the struggle of various forces and direct it into a creative direction.

In civil society, regardless of the state, there are institutions that can force everyone to comply with generally accepted norms (family, church, voluntary organizations, etc.). Pluralism cannot be represented as a kind of chaotic variety of isolated principles, devoid of internal unity. Vice versa. As emphasized by S.L. Frank, “civil society is, as it were, a molecular social bond, linking individual elements from within into a free and plastically common whole.” 3. Forms of manifestation, criteria and boundaries of political pluralism.

Victory in politics cannot be associated with the complete destruction of one or another political force or formation; if the bearers of those social interests that led to the formation of a given political force remain, it reappears in a transformed form. Pluralism in society can be both constructive, when differences in social interests, approaches to problems, ways of expressing political positions strengthen, stabilize society, enhance the effectiveness of its political institutions, and destructive, when differences become the basis of social disintegration, the growing growth of social conflicts and crisis situations. Constructive pluralism presupposes the need to compare positions and interests, and the possibility of incompleteness of one’s own truth. It is based on general principles and values shared by all participants in political action, and is based on the possibility of achieving consensus on certain problems. Destructive pluralism is characterized by treating the opponent as an enemy with whom any type of cooperation is impossible. He proceeds from a unique understanding of truth - not as a process of joint search, but as a kind of gift that someone completely possesses, and someone is also completely deprived of it. Naturally, there can be no cooperation with bearers of false truths. The implementation of the idea of political pluralism in our society presupposes: - bridging the gap between its theoretical insecurity and mass interpretation at the empirical level; - identifying stable rather than opportunistic group interests, their comprehensive analysis and consideration in the theoretical and practical activities of political and state structures at different levels; - creation of the necessary legal guarantees for the expression of these interests not only in the political, but also in the economic, social and spiritual-ideological fields; - comparison of various, including alternative, political programs and attitudes, their detailed scientific examination and wide public discussion; - determining the general course of political and state development of the country for the short and long term, meeting the interests of the vast majority of society; - finding reasonable ways to achieve consensus between various socio-political groups, movements and parties; - developing an effective political and legal mechanism for the civilized resolution of conflicts arising between them10. Thus, the interaction of subjects in a political system can develop along the lines of conflict, when each does something that in some way reduces the likelihood of achieving the goals of another subject, or along the line of cooperation, when the behavior of one political subject increases the likelihood of other subjects achieving what they want. what they want. According to this, political systems can be divided into two main types: conflict and consensus. The first type is based on the possibility of overcoming or even eliminating a certain group of interests, because the main source of conflict is difference. In conflict interaction, any contradictions are elevated to the level of social antagonism, interests other than one’s own are discarded, when, for example, the protection of the rights of one nation leads to the mandatory infringement of the rights or expulsion of another nation, the approval of one type of property presupposes the elimination of all others, and the recognition of one political force is associated with the denial of the right to exist to everyone else. Political relations based on conflict interaction are characterized by a high degree of instability; they do not use political means of resolving political and social contradictions, instead of which administrative, military, legal or even criminal methods of “removing” "social and political tensions. In fact, the only real force for political integration in such a system is various forms of violence, which is seen as a simple method of solving complex problems. But violence creates more problems than it solves. While destroying social interests and their bearers, it is not able to destroy those real conditions and needs that sooner or later lead to the re-creation of suppressed interests and liquidated social groups. The destruction during the revolution and the reproduction in modern conditions of the classes of entrepreneurs and peasants is a clear example of the ineffectiveness of such a practice. The type of regulation of political relations based on consensus is based on the recognition of the presence of different social interests as a natural state, the need for their coordination, and not suppression. It is based on general principles and values shared by all participants in political action, and presupposes the possibility of reaching agreement on certain problems. The desire to compare positions and interests of one of its prerequisites has an understanding of the possibility of incompleteness of one’s own truth, and it itself is presented rather as a process of search, movement and gradual selection of the most appropriate forms of social organization. Consensus is the result of the application of procedures for regulating political processes developed during the accumulation of historical and political experience. It is achieved through the expression of the interests of interacting social groups in the most generalized form11, when it is possible to formulate what is common that is contained in a variety of private interests, positions, and goals. An effective way to achieve agreement is dialogue - a procedure for coordinating the interests of participants in the political process, in which each of them considers the other as a subject, i.e. recognizes him as the bearer of specific interests that must be taken into account, respected and taken into account. The basis for dialogue is both common interests and the recognition of the right to their differences, recognition of the right of all participants in dialogic interaction to have their own interests, values, ideas about the ways and forms of their implementation. Without this, dialogue simply does not arise, but is replaced by an anti-dialogue attitude, “when one or both interaction partners view each other only as an object, a thing, and fundamentally deny the existence of any commonality between the interaction partners and thereby the possibility of dialogue occurring.”12. A typical form of conscious refusal from dialogue - political demagoguery, which is resorted to every time by political and social forces seeking to assert in any way their selfish interests, opposed to other political interests and orientations. Political demagogy involves attributing all the advantages to oneself and all the shortcomings to one’s political opponent, the desire to dramatize the political situation and present one’s proposals as the only possible way out of it. The use of dialogue in politics requires the gradual accumulation and improvement of skills in conducting it, expanding the forms and methods of dialogic interaction, the main thing in which is the recognition of reality, the validity of the interests of one’s partner, broad awareness of the resources, grounds, intentions and direction of actions of participants in the political process. any silence or closeness turns into distrust, the desire to judge a partner only on the basis of one’s own assessments and ideas. In real politics, such a form of developing agreement as compromise is often used - the process of achieving agreement through mutual concessions when the interests and aspirations of the interacting parties collide. Since different interests and their bearers always interact in politics, compromises are inevitable. Another path - confrontation - turns out to be destructive for the political system, breaks the political community, recreates the conditions for its crisis, during which social and political contradictions build up, rather than resolve. A compromise can also be achieved as a result of increasing the level of generality, the abstractness of a goal, or a problem that serves as the basis for a political conflict or interaction. Indeed, in any political problem or goal there are both essential and private aspects, and it is necessary to clearly understand why there is a divergence among participants in the political process. If these grounds are known and they do not affect the main interests of the partners, it is necessary to identify particular points that stimulate disagreements and discard or distract from them. Of course, like any compromise, there is a noticeable limit to generalization, to the dilution of the content of the goal - a justified goal should not contradict the original interest.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Constitution of the Russian Federation - ed. "Ast", Moscow, 2006

2. Constitutional law of Russia: Textbook - edited by E.I. Kozlov and O.E. Kutafin, ed. "Jurist", Moscow, 2004

3. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary/Ch. editor A. M. Prokhorov. - 4th ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986. - 1600 pp., ill.

The concept of political pluralism. Political pluralism: philosophical, historical and theoretical foundations

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