Russian culture in the XIII – XVII centuries. Russian culture XIII-XVII centuries

The culture of our country is so interesting and diverse that I want to study it more and more deeply. Let's plunge into the history of our country in the 13th century.
Russian man is great person, he must know the history of his homeland.
Without knowing the history of their country, not a single civilized society will develop, but, on the contrary, will begin to lag behind in its development, and perhaps stop altogether.
The period of culture of the 13th century is usually called the pre-Mongol period, that is, before the arrival of the Mongols in our state. During this period of time, the development of culture big influence provided by Byzantium. Thanks to Byzantium, Orthodoxy appeared in Rus'.

Ancient culture Rus' XIII centuries - a great creation of the past. Each period of time in history is so unrepeatable that each period separately is worthy of in-depth study. Looking at historical monuments, we can say that culture has entered modern spiritual life. Despite the fact that many works of art have not survived to our times, the beauty of that time continues to delight and surprise us with its scale.

Features of the culture of the 13th century:
- the religious worldview prevailed;
- during this period, many signs were invented, there were no explanations for them by science, and to this day they cannot be explained;
- great attention paid attention to traditions, revered grandfathers;
-slow pace of development;
The tasks facing the masters of that time:
- unity - the unity of the entire Russian people, at that time in the fight against enemies;
- glorification of great princes and boyars;
- assessed all previous historical events. The culture of the 13th century is closely connected with the past.

During this time, literature continued to develop. The work “Prayer” was written by Daniil Zatochnik. The book was dedicated to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. The book used colloquial speech combined with satire. In it, the author condemns the dominance of the boyars, the tyranny that they committed. He created a prince who protected orphans and widows, thereby trying to show that good and good-natured people were not extinct in Rus'.
The centers for storing books were still monasteries and churches. Books were copied and chronicles were kept on their territory.
The genre - Life, the main idea - has become widespread. These works were a description of the lives of saints. Particular attention was paid to the lives of monks and ordinary people.

They began to write parables.

Architecture.

Painting.

Folklore.

Life and customs of the people.

Russian culture 13th – 17th centuries.
1. The reason for the decline is the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.
2. Consequence:
- loss of life;
- the decline of crafts, the disappearance of manufacturing skills;
- stone construction stopped for half a century;
- city cathedrals were destroyed;
- literary monuments burned down
3. Oral folk art:
- new legends: “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh” (a call to fight against the invaders);
- a genre of poetic historical songs is emerging, “Song about Shchelkan Dudentievich” (tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327).

4. Chronicles.
- paper is used, as well as parchment and birch bark;
- instead of “charter” (square letter, very precise), “half-charter” appears (more free and fluent writing), from the 15th century. cursive writing appears;
- centers of chronicle writing: Moscow since 1325
- in 1408, an all-Russian chronicle was compiled (the Trinity Chronicle, which perished in the Moscow fire in 1812); a vault is a complex text in which chronicle records made in different countries were combined into a single whole. political centers Rus'. The appearance of the vaults allows us to assert that the Russian lands began to live to a certain extent common life even before their unification into a single state.
- in 1479 the Moscow Chronicle Code was created (the idea of ​​these two codes: all-Russian unity, historical role Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands);
- the appearance of chronographs (works on World History): in 1442, the first chronograph was compiled by Pachomius Logothetes.
4.Historical stories, heroic epic.
- on Tue. floor. 13th century in Rostov, the oldest edition of the life of Mikhail of Chernigov (Chernigov prince, killed in the Horde for refusing to bow to the statues) was created pagan gods) ;
- historical stories: “About the Battle of Kalka”,
“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” - about Evpatiy Kolovrat,
“The Life of Alexander Nevsky” (created in the Vladimir Nativity Monastery);
The story of Dmitry Donskoy is dedicated to the feat: “The Legend of Mamaev's massacre", Sophony Ryazanets created the poem "Zadonshchina" about the victory of the Russian squad in the Battle of Kulikovo.
- biographies of Russian church leaders were compiled;
- “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin - the first in European literature description of India (Nikitin’s journey took place 30 years before the discovery of the route to India by Vasco da Gama).
5.Urban culture: strong influence of Christianity with pagan remnants. Heretics appeared. This indicates a fairly wide range of reading by heretics, which included not only the texts of Scripture, but also the decrees of church councils. Strigolniki: in 1375, the founder of the heresy, Deacon Karp, was executed with two comrades by the verdict of the Novgorod veche.
6.Architecture:
- resumption of stone construction in Novgorod and Pskov (Church of Fyodor Stratilates on Ruchee 14th century, Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street 14th century in Novgorod; Church of Vasily on Gorka in Pskov 15th century.
Features: abundance of decorations on the walls, general elegance, festivity.
- construction of the Moscow Kremlin and its cathedrals: white stone under Dmitry Donskoy, red under Ivan III.
- the first white stone buildings in Moscow date back to the 14th-15th centuries. : The Assumption Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery in Zvenigorod, the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture.
7.Painting:
- in the 14th century worked in Novgorod and Moscow wonderful artist Theophanes the Greek (Byzantium): his frescoes in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin, executed in 1378 in Novgorod, have survived to this day; While working, unlike others, the artist did not look at the samples and, without stopping his work, talked with those who came.
- Andrey Rublev – 14-15 centuries. , “Trinity” is kept in the Tretyakov Gallery, frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (he worked together with Daniil Cherny)
Russian culture of the 16th century.
1.General characteristics:
- religion was of decisive importance, 1551 Stoglavy Cathedral, which proclaimed examples of creativity. Iconography of Rublev

Question 2 Foreign policy of the USSR in 20-30. developed in the direction of establishing official diplomatic relations with other states and illegal attempts to transport revolutionary ideas. With the advent of understanding the impossibility of immediately implementing a world revolution, more attention began to be paid to strengthening the external stability of the regime.

In the early 20s. The USSR achieved the lifting of the economic blockade. The decree of the Council of People's Commissars on concessions dated November 23, 1920 played a positive role. The signing of trade agreements with England, Germany, Norway, Italy, Denmark and Czechoslovakia meant the actual recognition of the Soviet state. 1924 - 1933 - years of gradual recognition of the USSR. In 1924 alone, diplomatic relations were established with thirteen capitalist countries.

The first Soviet People's Commissars for Foreign Affairs were G.V. Chicherin and M.M. Litvinov. They achieved great success in the international development of the Soviet state thanks to the brilliant education and manners received in tsarist Russia. It was through their efforts that relations with England were resumed, peace and trade agreements were signed with France, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, thereby lifting the cordon between the Soviet Union and Europe.

At the end of the 20s it happened sharp deterioration international position of the USSR. The reason for this was the Soviet government's support for the national liberation movement in China. There was a rupture in diplomatic relations with England due to attempts to provide material support to striking English workers. Religious leaders of the Vatican and England called for a crusade against Soviet Russia.

The policy of the Soviet state changed in accordance with the changing political situation in the world. In 1933, after the National Socialist dictatorship came to power in Germany Soviet Union began to show interest in creating a system of collective security in Europe.

In 1934, the USSR was admitted to the League of Nations.

In 1935, the USSR concluded an agreement with France on mutual assistance in the event of aggression in Europe. Hitler saw this as an anti-German move and used it to seize the Rhineland.

In 1936, German intervention in Italy and Spain began. The USSR provided support to the Spanish Republicans, sending equipment and specialists. Fascism began to spread across Europe.

In March 1938, Germany captured Austria. In September 1938, a conference was held in Munich with the participation of Germany, England, France and Italy, the general decision of which gave the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia to Germany.

The USSR condemned this decision.

Germany invades Czechoslovakia and Poland.

The tense situation remained in the Far East. In 1938-1939 Armed clashes occurred with units of the Japanese Kwantung Army on Lake Khasan, the Khalkhin Gol River and on the territory of Mongolia. The USSR achieved territorial concessions.

Having made several unsuccessful attempts to create a system of collective security in Europe, the Soviet government set a course for rapprochement with Germany.

The main purpose of this policy was to avoid premature military conflict.

In August 1939, a non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR (Molotov-Ribbentrop) and a secret protocol on the delimitation of spheres of influence were signed. Poland went to Germany, the USSR - the Baltic states, Eastern Poland, Finland, Western Ukraine, Northern Bukovina. Diplomatic relations with England and France were severed.

On November 30, 1939, the Soviet-Finnish War began, which caused enormous financial, military and political damage to the country.

The process of formation of a single centralized state was also reflected in the development of Russian culture. His influence was ambiguous. Thus, many features of the development of local cultural traditions, which “did not fit” into its general course, were lost. The local chronicle is replaced by a single grand-ducal chronicle, entire icon-painting schools disappear, as happened with Tver icon-painting.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to Russian culture. In the fire of the invasion, temples, books, icons were destroyed, many cultural values, artisans, craftsmen, and a huge number of rural and urban workers were killed or taken captive. Stone construction stopped for a while, and the experience of craftsmen accumulated over the years was forgotten. The dynamic rise of culture is associated with the victory on the Kulikovo Field (1380), from which time we can talk about the formation of an all-Russian culture. One of the main themes in the literature of this time was the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.

Orally folk art- This is “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh”, “Song of Shchelkan Dudentievich”. In the historical story, these are: “About the Battle of Kalka”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (the story about the exploits of the Ryazan hero Evpatiy Kolovrat), “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”. Particularly famous is the pathetic poem “Zadonshchina,” written by Sophony Ryazan, who united Orthodox heroism with deep sorrow for the dead.

Lives of the Saints Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm are known, written by Epiphanius the Wise (beginning in the 15th century). The most complete chronicles have been preserved in those places where the Mongols did not reach: in Novgorod, Pskov, etc. In 1442, the Russian Chronograph appeared - description world history, compiled by Pachomius Logothetes.

Stone construction is being resumed, first of all, in Novgorod and Pskov, then in other cities. Russian painting XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented prosperity. Man and his spiritual world became the main motives in painting. The most famous painters of this time: Feofan the Greek (Novgorod school - his style of painting is distinguished by the choice of bright rich colors, emotionality, expression) and Andrei Rublev (Moscow school - pure light colors, high spiritual pathos and soulful humanity). The brushes of A. Rublev (c. 1360-1370 - c. 1439) include frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and several wonderful icons (“Trinity”, symbolizing the idea of ​​the unity of the world and humanity).

Another famous painter was Dionysius (c. 1440-1441 - after 1502-1503) Paintings: Joseph-Volokalamsky, Ferapontov monasteries; Iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Literature XV – XVI centuries.

At the end of the 15th century. The Moscow Chronicle appears, covering historical events from the perspective of victorious Moscow. Under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius, “ Book of sedate royal genealogy”, describing events from the reign of Olga to Ivan IV. She substantiated the idea of ​​unifying Russian lands under the rule of Moscow princes and emphasized the role of the church. From among the Makaryev circle, in particular, came such a monumental collection ancient Russian literature, How "Great Fours - Menaion". This is a 12-volume (according to the number of months) collection of the lives of saints, teachings, works of canon law and other texts, arranged according to the days of Christian holidays and days of remembrance of saints.

Originates in the 16th century. And political journalism: critical issues life of society, in particular, about the nature of power and the state, become the subject of wide discussion by both church and secular authors. I. Peresvetov in his works (Petitions, written in the 40-50s), substantiated the need for a strong state power, but built on the principles of justice and law.

Bright talented publicists were A. Kurbsky and Ivan the Terrible- in the controversy that A. Kurbsky opened with his message to Ivan after fleeing to Lithuania in 1564.

The genre of “walking” is becoming popular - descriptions of travel to distant lands. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in “Walking across the Three Seas” he described his journey to India, Persia and other countries of the East (1466-1472).

In the 2nd half. XVI century The first Printing Yard opened in Moscow. In 1564 Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets publish the first printed book "Apostle", on next year "Book of Hours". In total, the first book printers published 20 books, which were still more expensive than handwritten ones.

Architecture

The strengthening of the Moscow prince and the final unification of Russian lands around Moscow directly affected the architecture of the capital. In the second half. XV century The Kremlin underwent a grandiose restructuring. New walls and majestic cathedrals were erected:

Uspensky (1476-1479)– Italian architect Aristotle Fiorovanti; Blagoveshchensky(1484-1489) – Pskov masters; Arkhangelsk(1505-1509) - Aleviz New and the Chamber of Facets (1487-1491) - created for ceremonial receptions by the Italians Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari.

In the 16th century, intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses took place in Russia, although in general Rus' remained wooden. The most widespread tent style in architecture. One of the best examples of this style is Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, founded in honor of Ivan the Terrible (1532). Built by the architects Barma and Postnik, Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) in Moscow was originally white (1555-1560), and received its variegated color already in the 17th century. The cathedral was founded in honor of the capture of Kazan.

Active construction of fortifications is underway. Kremlins are being erected in Tula, Kolomna, Serpukhov, Smolensk (Fedor Kon) Nizhny Novgorod(Petr Fryazin).

17th century culture

For Russian culture of the 17th century. characterized by secularization (liberation from church influence) and the growth of Western European influence. It was expressed in the dissemination of secular knowledge, a departure from religious canons in literature, architecture, painting, and increased attention to human personality.

Enlightenment and science. In 1634, the first primer by Vasily Burtsev was printed, and by the second half. In the 17th century, 300 thousand of them were already published. In the 40s F.M. Rtishchev set up a school for young nobles. There were also several private schools. When receiving a pharmacy order, the first one appears science Library. In 1687 it was opened in Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy led by the Greek brothers Likhud. It was an educational institution for people of “all ranks and ages,” where clergy and officials were trained.

In the 17th century people knew how to extract cubic and square roots, solve equations, measure areas. The need for the manufacture of medicines and the development of artillery led to the fact that the properties of many substances were known. A work on the structure was translated into Russian human body Andrei Vesalius. In 1676-1678. Nikolai Spafariy made a trip to China, the description of which provided a lot of new information. Along with astrological information, the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus was known in Russia. In the 70s, the first printed history book was published in Kyiv and then in Moscow - "Synopsis" Kyiv monk Innocent Gisel, who presented events from antiquity to contemporary author era.

Literature

The appearance of a number of narratives by spiritual and secular authors about the events of the Time of Troubles: “The Legend” by Abraham Palitsyn, “Vremennik” by clerk Ivan Timofeev, “Words” by Prince I.A. Khvorostinin. The official version of the events of the Time of Troubles is contained in the “New Chronicler” of 1630, written by order of Patriarch Philaret. The main goal of this work is to strengthen the position of the new Romanov dynasty. The largest publicist was Simeon of Polotsk(monk S.E. Petrovsky-Sitnianovich, a native of Polotsk). An example of literary innovation was “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” He is distinguished by the brightness of his images and the richness of his language.

The historical narrative of a journalistic nature actively replaced the traditional chronicle. The development of autocracy put on the agenda the question of creating a work on history Russian state. For this it was necessary to systematically collect historical materials. This from 1657 to 1659. was engaged in the Record Order. Trying to collect wide circle historical sources was undertaken by clerk F. Griboyedov, typographical “reference agent” (editor) Polikarpov and author of “Scythian History” Andrei Lyzlov.

Changes in public life predetermined the beginning of a new stage in the development of literature. It was characterized, first of all, by the emergence of satirical stories (“About Shemyakina’s trial”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “Service to the Tavern”, “The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, etc.) . These works were created among the townspeople. They contained a protest against the prevailing order. Both secular gentlemen and clergy were ridiculed. The literature of the 17th century, especially democratic literature, was characterized by attention to the human personality. This is associated with the emergence of a new hero - a fictional character. If earlier in literature there were heroes historical figures, belonging to the upper crust of society, now depicted both merchants and ordinary townspeople.

Architecture. The tastes of the townspeople were clearly manifested in architecture and painting. Worldliness in architecture manifested itself, first of all, in the desire for external picturesqueness, elegance, and decor. Merchants and townsfolk communities are increasingly becoming customers of churches. It was in the townspeople's churches that the secular principle, tastes and moods of the democratic strata of the population manifested themselves. Such churches include the Moscow Trinity Church in Nikitniki, the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, and the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet.

The clergy stubbornly resisted the secularization of religious architecture and the penetration of secular principles into it. Patriarch Nikon in the 50s. prohibited the construction of tented churches, putting forward the traditional five-domed structure instead. On his initiative, ensembles of the New Jerusalem (near Moscow), Iversky (on Valdai) and Cross (on the White Sea) monasteries were built.

Further development architecture led to the emergence at the end of the 17th century. "Naryshkin style" or "Moscow Baroque" The influence of Western European architecture. The characteristic features of this style were: clarity, symmetry of the composition, upward direction, multi-tiered, decorative decoration of buildings. A remarkable monument of this style is the Moscow Church of the Intercession in Fili, built by Peter I’s uncle L.K. Naryshkin, buildings of the Novodevichy Convent.

Main building material there was still a tree. The top wooden architecture XVII century is the luxurious later dismantled royal palace in Kolomenskoye. The volume of brick construction is gradually increasing, multi-colored tiles and white stone details are widely used, which gave the buildings a festive look.

The process of secularization also affected painting. The main thing in it was the development of realistic tendencies, the desire to convey the beauty of earthly existence. Within the framework of church painting it developed everyday genre, parsuna (person). At the head of the new direction was Simon Ushakov. In the icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” he depicted the living, spiritualized face of a man.

The new direction also affected the painting of churches. Examples of this are the murals of the Trinity Church in Nikitniki and Yaroslavl churches. At the end of the 17th century. painters from parsuna moved on to painting portraits with paints on canvas (portraits of Prince B.I. Repnin, G.P. Godunov, L.K. Naryshkin).

Tasks for independent completion

1. Prepare messages or presentations on the following topics:

- “Heretical movements “Strigolniki” and “Judaizers”;

- “The Church during the unification of Rus'. Transfer of the metropolis to Moscow. Union of Florence";

- “Metropolitan Alexy and Sergius of Radonezh.”

2. Design of the outline map “Annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates”, “The entry of Western Siberia into Russia”.

3. Completing tasks in the workbook for this section.

form of control independent work:

Protection of messages and reports;

Oral survey;

Protection of presentations;

Checking the workbook.

Questions for self-control

Answer the test questions:

1. The final overthrow of the yoke of the Golden Horde in Rus' occurred in:

2. Among the main prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow in the 15th century. there were no following:

A) transfer of the Metropolitan’s residence to Moscow;

B) favorable geographical location;

C) speeches of Moscow as the organizer of the struggle against the German knights;

D) rapid economic development of the Moscow Principality.

3. State structure of Russia in the 16th century.

A) Autocratic monarchy;

B) estate-representative monarchy;

B) constitutional monarchy;

D) feudal monarchy.

4. First Moscow prince:

A) Yuri Dolgoruky;

B) Daniil Alexandrovich;

B) Ivan Kalita;

D) Alexander Nevsky.

5. Historical event to which it is dedicated literary work"Zadonshchina":

A) battle on the Kalka River;

B) standing on the Ugra;

B) Battle of Kulikovo;

D) capture of Kozelsk by the Mongols.

6. The work of the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev falls on:

A) con. XIV – beginning XV centuries;

B) con. ХIII – beginning XIV centuries;

B) middle - second half of the 15th century;

D) end XV - beginning of XVI centuries

7. The nationwide crisis in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, manifested in politics, economics and social relations, is known in history under the name....

A) rebellious age;

B) oprichnina terror;

B) dynastic crisis;

D) time of troubles.

8. The code of laws that established St. George’s Day went down in history under the name:

A) Judge;

B) “Russian Truth”;

B) Cathedral Code;

D) Decree on “lesson summers”.

9. Which of the above is typical for economic development Russia in the 17th century?

A) The beginning of the industrial revolution;

B) agricultural overpopulation;

C) the formation of a capitalist structure in industry;

D) the emergence of the first manufactories.

10.The name of the first printer Ivan Fedorov is associated with the century:

11.Which of the following provisions applies to church reform Patriarch Nikon?

A) Establishment of the Holy Synod;

B) separation of church and state;

C) replacing the two-fingered sign of the cross with a three-fingered one;

D) opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

12.Which of these events dates back to the 17th century?

A) the struggle between the Josephites and the non-covetous;

B) church schism;

C) the creation of the Holy Synod;

D) the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia.

13.Which of the following terms refers to the architectural style of churches and temples in the 16th century?

A) cross-dome;

B) gothic;

B) tent;

D) Romanesque.

Complete the tasks:

1. Arrange the rulers of Rus' in chronological order:

A) Dmitry Donskoy;

B) Ivan Kalita;

B) Simeon the Red;

D) Ivan the Red.

2. Set the sequence of events:

A) Battle of Kulikovo;

B) raid of Khan Tokhtomysh;

C) “great stand” on the Ugra River;

D) the battle on the Vozhzha River.

1 .______ 2.______ 3. ______ 4.______

3. Match events and dates:

6. Arrange the names of the following religious figures V chronological order their lives and activities:

A) Metropolitan Hilarion;

B) Patriarch Nikon;

B) Patriarch Filaret;

D) Joseph Volotsky.

1 .______ 2.______ 3. ______ 4.______

Solve the crossword puzzle on the topic “Time of Troubles”:

Horizontally: 1. Armed intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of another state. 2. Place where the truce with Poland was signed in 1618. 3. Service people. 4. Head of Russian Orthodox Church from 1589 5. Nobleman, one of the organizers of the first militia. 6. The name of the first king from the Romanov dynasty. 7. Large landowner in Poland and Lithuania.

Vertically: 8. The period of boyar rule in Russia in the 17th century. 9. Small feudal lord in Poland and Lithuania. 10. Leader of the uprising of peasants and serfs in 1603

Rice. 11 “Crossword on the topic “Time of Troubles.”

3. CONTROL AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS
MASTERING DISCIPLINE

Current control

List of border control points:

Section 15 “Russia and the world at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries.”

3.2 Final control in the discipline

10.

11.

12.

13.

Russian culture of the 13th-17th centuries.

The content and direction of its development in the 13th – 15th centuries was determined by the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the creation of a unified state. Cultural-historical process ser.
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XIII – mid.
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XIV centuries characterized by decline and stagnation, which were caused by the Mongol invasion. Its results: the death and captivity of thousands of people; destruction of cities, architectural structures; the disappearance of many crafts; cessation of stone construction for half a century; death literary monuments, interruption of chronicle writing.

Cultural-historical process 2nd half. XIV–XV centuries - ϶ᴛᴏ the rise of Russian culture, due to the success of economic development, the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, and the leading role of Moscow. Golden age ancient Russian culture- ϶ᴛᴏ rise of culture in the 15th century. The “Golden Age” of Russian icon painting is the heyday of icon painting at the end of the 14th–15th centuries, associated with the work of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Dionysius. Andrei Rublev owns the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank - “Spas”, “Archangel Michael”, “Apostle Paul”. For the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad, Andrei Rublev created the famous “Trinity” icon, which embodies the truth of the Christian understanding of the One God in three persons.

Russian culture XVI V. is still defined by the Christian worldview. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 played a big role in this. He approved the patterns to be followed. In icon painting it was the work of Andrei Rublev, in architecture - the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius. The ideology “Moscow is the third Rome” is being formed. She represents the historical process as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the “eternal city” - perished due to heresy, the second Rome - Constantinople - due to the conclusion of a union with Catholics, the third Rome - Moscow - the true custodian of Christianity. These ideas were embodied in the paintings of the Smolensk Cathedral of the Moscow Novodevichy Convent (c. 1530).

In the 16th century The formation of the Great Russian nation is completed. Secular elements in culture are more noticeable. Russian culture of the 17th century. ends the medieval period of history, elements of modern culture emerge, which is characterized by a process of comprehensive “secularization.”

16. Transformations in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century: contents, results, consequences.

In the 17th century, as a result of the activities of the first Romanovs, the socio-economic and political crisis of the Time of Troubles was overcome. At the end of the century, trends towards Europeanization of the country emerged. Russia has been active foreign policy and trade in Europe and Asia, the economy began a transition from small-scale handicraft production to manufactories, Western European culture actively penetrated into Russian culture. For the further effective development of the country it was necessary to provide access to the seas. The solution to this problem required the presence strong personality in power, reorganization and rearmament of the army, development of the economy for waging a long war. Due to the absence of the bourgeoisie, these problems had to be solved by the autocratic government at the expense of the forces and resources of the entire society. He became such a reformer Peter I Alekseevich (1682–1725).

Peter's activities can be divided into two periods: 1695–1715 and 1715–1725.

Important feature first period is to solve the problems of internal reconstruction of the country due to Seven Years' War. Reforms were carried out mainly by force and were accompanied by gross government intervention in the economy (regulation of trade, industry, taxes). The reforms did not have a clear plan and were carried out as a response to the needs of the current moment, the appropriate people were not prepared to carry out the reforms, and there was a struggle with the old administrative personnel. For this reason, many reforms were unsuccessful and not completed.

In second period reforms have become more systematic. The results of the reforms began to show, experienced people(chicks of Petrov's nest).

In general, Peter's reforms were subordinated to the interests of the entire society. All of Peter’s activities were based on this, although they were of a violent nature.
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Concerning pace of reforms, then they depended on the urgency of solving a specific problem. At the same time, some reforms led to a radical breakdown of social relations and a restructuring of structures and institutions.

At the forefront of all reforms was the creation of a combat-ready army of the European standard; all other reforms were subordinated to this main concern of Peter. On the initiative of Peter, it was created regular army And Navy , military educational institutions were opened (navigation, engineering and artillery schools), military legislation was adopted, and governing bodies of the army and navy were created. The army was recruited on the basis of regular recruitment kits

and was for life. In foreign trade policy was actively pursued(encouraging development own production and exports, high import taxes). Industry was protected from foreign competition by high import duties ( protectionist policy).

But first of all, Peter took care of those industries that worked to supply the army. Peter allowed the owners of manufactories to buy peasants to work in factories ( possessional peasants).

Reform control systems the country was carried out according to Western, mainly Protestant models. As a result of administrative reforms, a centralized bureaucratic apparatus emerged, which generally survived until 1917. This apparatus was headed by the tsar himself, who had full legislative, executive and judicial power. Thus Russia entered period of absolutism. In 1711, the completely degraded Boyar Duma was replaced Senate, whose members are appointed by the king. The function of the Senate was to issue decrees; it exercised executive and judicial power. Oversaw the activities of the Senate since 1722 prosecutor general with the right of personal reporting to the tsar and the prosecutor's office subordinate to him. In 1717–1718, Peter replaced the old system of orders with sectoral ones collegium. Cities are subordinate magistrates, the patriarchate was abolished in the church and created Synod. Thus the church became part of the state apparatus. In 1708–1710 it took place regional reform: the country is divided into 8 provinces headed by governors who had administrative, judicial and military powers. Governorates were divided into provinces, provinces into counties.

In 1718–1724, a population census was carried out and capitation tax(tax on men). This led to a doubling of taxes and the extension of serfdom to previously free sections of the population. As a result of the census, peasants were divided into public and private. The urban population is divided into regular(merchants, industrialists, traders, large artisans) and irregular(small artisans and urban poor). This division made it possible to increase the economic activity of merchants and artisans by freeing regular people from many government duties.

The privileged classes remained aristocracy and nobility. At the same time, their land ownership was made dependent on civil service. However, the aristocracy and nobility were finally equalized in rights. Advancement up the social ladder was facilitated by the introduction Table of ranks, which made it possible to expand the layer of nobility. Promotion up the career ladder was determined professional qualities person.

ʼʼMilitary ranks who rise to the rank of chief officer ( VIII class) not from the nobles, then when someone receives the rank described above, he is a nobleman, and his children who will be born in the chief officership, and if there are no children at that time, but there are before, and the father will beat his forehead, then the nobility will be given and to that one son only, for whom the father will ask.ʼʼ

Russian culture of the 13th-17th centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Russian culture of the 13th-17th centuries." 2017, 2018.