What does the liberal side of domestic politics mean. liberals

In 2012, the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (VTsIOM) conducted a survey in which Russians were asked to explain who a liberal is. More than half of the participants in this test (more precisely, 56%) found it difficult to disclose this term. It is unlikely that this situation has changed dramatically in a few years, and therefore let's look at what principles liberalism professes and what this socio-political and philosophical movement actually consists of.

Who is a liberal?

In the most general terms, we can say that a person who is an adherent of this trend welcomes and approves the idea of limited intervention of state bodies in the basis of this system is based on a private enterprise economy, which, in turn, is organized on market principles.

Answering the question of who a liberal is, many experts argue that this is someone who considers political, personal and economic freedom the highest priority in the life of the state and society. For supporters of this ideology, freedom and the rights of every person are a kind of legal basis on which, in their opinion, the economic and social order should be built. Now let's look at who a liberal democrat is. This is a person who, while defending freedom, is an opponent of authoritarianism. According to Western political scientists, this is the ideal that many developed countries are striving for. However, this term can be discussed not only in terms of politics. In its original meaning, this word was used to refer to all freethinkers and freethinkers. Sometimes they included those who in society were prone to excessive condescension.

Modern liberals

As an independent worldview, the considered ideological movement arose at the end of the 17th century. The basis for its development was the works of such famous authors as J. Locke, A. Smith and J. Mill. At that time, it was believed that the freedom of enterprise and the non-interference of the state in private life would inevitably lead to the prosperity and improvement of the well-being of society. However, as it turned out later, the classical model of liberalism did not justify itself. Free, uncontrolled competition led to the emergence of monopolies that drove up prices. Interest groups of lobbyists appeared in politics. All this made legal equality impossible and significantly narrowed the opportunities for everyone who wanted to do business. In the 80-90s. In the 19th century, the ideas of liberalism began to experience a serious crisis. As a result of long theoretical searches at the beginning of the 20th century, a new concept was developed, called neoliberalism or social liberalism. Its supporters advocate the protection of the individual from negative consequences and abuses in the market system. In classical liberalism, the state was something like a "night watchman." Modern liberals have recognized that this was a mistake and have incorporated into their program such ideas as:

Russian liberals

In the political discussions of the modern Russian Federation, this trend causes a lot of controversy. For some, liberals are conformists who play along with the West, while for others they are a panacea that can save the country from the undivided power of the state. This disparity is to a large extent due to the fact that several varieties of this ideology operate simultaneously on the territory of Russia. The most notable of these are liberal fundamentalism (represented by Alexei Venediktov, editor-in-chief of the Ekho Moskva station), neoliberalism (represented by social liberalism (Yabloko party) and legal liberalism (Republican Party and PARNAS party).

liberals- representatives of the ideological and socio-political movement, uniting supporters of representative government and individual freedom, and in the economy - freedom of entrepreneurship.

general information

Liberalism originated in Western Europe during the era of the struggle against absolutism and the domination of the Catholic Church (16-18 centuries). The basis of the ideology was laid during the period of the European Enlightenment (J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, Voltaire). Physiocratic economists formulated the popular slogan do not interfere with action, expressing the idea of non-intervention of the state in the economy. The justification for this principle was given by the English economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo. In the 18-19 centuries. the social environment of the liberals were predominantly bourgeois strata. Radical liberals associated with democracy played an important role in the American Revolution (embodied in the US Constitution of 1787). In the 19th–20th centuries the main provisions of liberalism were formed: civil society, individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, democratic political institutions, freedom of private enterprise and trade.

Principles of liberalism

The essential features of liberalism are determined by the etymology of the word itself (lat. Liberaly - free).

The main principles of liberalism are in the political sphere:

freedom of the individual, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, the recognition of the right of all people to self-realization. It should be noted that in the ideology of liberalism, individual freedom coincides with political freedom and "natural rights" of a person, the most important of which are the right to life, liberty and private property;
limiting the sphere of activity of the state; protection of private life - primarily from the arbitrariness of the state; “the curbing of the state with the help of a constitution that guarantees the freedom of action of the individual within the framework of the law;
the principle of political pluralism, freedom of thought, speech, beliefs.
delimitation of the sphere of activity of the state and civil society, non-interference of the former in the affairs of the latter;
in the economic sphere - freedom of individual and group entrepreneurial activity, self-regulation of the economy according to the laws of competition and the free market, non-interference of the state in the economic sphere, inviolability of private property;
in the spiritual sphere - freedom of conscience, i.e. the right of citizens to profess (or not to profess) any religion, the right to formulate their moral duties, etc.

Success and development of the direction

In its completed classical form, liberalism established itself in the state system of Great Britain, the USA, France and a number of other European states in the second half of the 19th century. But already in the late XIX - early XX centuries. a decline in the influence of liberal ideology is revealed, which developed into a crisis that lasted until the 30s of the 20th century, which was associated with the new socio-political realities of this period.

On the one hand, free competition left without state control led to the self-liquidation of the market economy as a result of the concentration of production and the formation of monopolies, ruined small and medium-sized enterprises; on the other hand, unlimited ownership caused a powerful labor movement, economic and political upheavals, especially manifested in the late 20 x - early 30s. 20th century All this forced us to reconsider a number of liberal attitudes and value orientations.

Thus, within the framework of classical liberalism, neoliberalism is being formed, the origin of which many scientists associate with the activities of the American President F. D. Roosevelt (1933-1945). The rethinking concerned primarily the economic and social role of the state. The new form of liberalism is based on the ideas of the English economist D. Keynes.

neoliberalism

As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of "social liberalism" - neoliberalism - was developed.

The neoliberal program was based on such ideas as:

consensus of the rulers and the ruled;
the need for the participation of the masses in the political process;
democratization of the procedure for making political decisions (the principle of "political justice");
limited state regulation of the economic and social spheres;
state restriction of the activities of monopolies;
guarantees of certain (limited) social rights (the right to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).

In addition, neoliberalism presupposes the protection of the individual from the abuses and negative consequences of the market system. The core values of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological currents. It attracts by the fact that it serves as the ideological basis of the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.

Forms

classical liberalism

Liberalism is the most widespread ideological trend that was formed at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. as the ideology of the bourgeois class. John Locke (1632–1704), an English philosopher, is considered the founder of classical liberalism. He was the first to clearly separate such concepts as the individual, society, state, singled out the legislative and executive powers. The political theory of Locke, set forth in the "Two Treatises on State Government", is directed against patriarchal absolutism and considers the socio-political process as the development of human community from the state of nature to civil society and self-government.

The main goal of the government from his point of view is to protect the right of citizens to life, liberty and property, and in order to reliably ensure natural rights, equality and freedom, people agree to establish a state. Locke formulated the idea of the rule of law, arguing that absolutely any body in the state must obey the law. In his opinion, the legislative power in the state should be separated from the executive (including the judiciary and external relations), and the government itself should also strictly obey the law.

Social liberalism and conservative liberalism

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. representatives of liberal trends began to feel the crisis of the ideas of classical liberalism, associated with the aggravation of social contradictions and the spread of socialist ideas. Under these conditions, new trends in liberalism appeared - "social liberalism" and "conservative liberalism". In “social liberalism”, the main ideas were that the state had social functions, and it was responsible for providing for the most disadvantaged sections of society. "Conservative liberalism", on the contrary, rejected any social activity of the state. Under the influence of the further development of social processes, the internal evolution of liberalism took place, and in the 30s of the 20th century, neoliberalism was born. Researchers attribute the beginning of neoliberalism to the "New Deal" of the American president.

Political liberalism

Political liberalism is the belief that individuals are the basis of law and society, and that public institutions exist to help empower individuals with real power, without currying favor with elites. This belief in political philosophy and political science is called "methodological individualism". It is based on the idea that each person knows best what is best for him. The English Magna Carta (1215) provides an example of a political document in which certain individual rights extend further than the monarch's prerogative. The key point is the social contract, whereby laws are made with the consent of society for its benefit and the protection of social norms, and every citizen is subject to these laws. Particular emphasis is placed on the rule of law, in particular, liberalism proceeds from the fact that the state has sufficient power to ensure it. Modern political liberalism also includes the condition of universal suffrage, regardless of gender, race, or property; liberal democracy is considered the preferred system. Political liberalism means a movement for liberal democracy and against absolutism or authoritarianism.

economic liberalism

Economic liberalism advocates individual property rights and freedom of contract. The motto of this form of liberalism is "free private enterprise". Preference is given to capitalism on the basis of the principle of non-state intervention in the economy (laissez-faire), which means the abolition of state subsidies and legal barriers to trade. Economic liberals believe that the market does not need government regulation. Some of them are ready to allow government supervision of monopolies and cartels, others argue that the monopolization of the market arises only as a consequence of state actions. Economic liberalism maintains that the value of goods and services should be determined by the free choice of individuals, i.e., market forces. Some allow the presence of market forces even in areas where the state traditionally maintains a monopoly, such as security or the judiciary. Economic liberalism views the economic inequality that arises from unequal positions in contracting as a natural result of competition, provided there is no coercion. Currently, this form is most pronounced in libertarianism, other varieties are minarchism and anarcho-capitalism. Thus, economic liberalism is for private property and against state regulation.

cultural liberalism

Cultural liberalism focuses on individual rights related to consciousness and lifestyle, including such issues as sexual, religious, academic freedom, protection from government interference in privacy. As John Stuart Mill said in his essay On Liberty: “The only purpose that justifies the intervention of some people, individually or collectively, in the activities of other people, is self-defense. To exercise power over a member of a civilized society against his will is permissible only for the purpose of preventing harm to others. Cultural liberalism is more or less opposed to state regulation of areas such as literature and art, as well as issues such as the activities of academia, gambling, prostitution, the age of consent for sexual intercourse, abortion, the use of contraceptives, euthanasia, the use of alcohol and other drugs. The Netherlands is probably today the country with the highest level of cultural liberalism, which, however, does not prevent the country from proclaiming a policy of multiculturalism.

Third generation liberalism

Liberalism of the third generation was the result of the post-war struggle of the third world countries with colonialism. Today it is more associated with certain aspirations than with legal norms. Its purpose is to fight against the concentration of power, material resources and technology in a group of developed countries. The activists of this trend emphasize the collective right of society to peace, self-determination, economic development and access to common human heritage (natural resources, scientific knowledge, cultural monuments). These rights belong to the "third generation" and are reflected in article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Defenders of collective international human rights also pay close attention to issues of international ecology and humanitarian assistance.

Outcome

All of the above forms of liberalism assume that there must be a balance between the responsibilities of government and individuals, and that the function of the state should be limited to those tasks that cannot be properly performed by the private sector. All forms of liberalism are aimed at legislative protection of human dignity and personal autonomy, and all claim that the abolition of restrictions on individual activity contributes to the improvement of society. Modern liberalism in most developed countries is a mixture of all these forms. In third world countries, "third generation liberalism" often comes to the fore - a movement for a healthy environment and against colonialism. Liberalism as a political and legal doctrine is based on the idea of the absolute value and self-sufficiency of the individual. According to the liberal concept, it is not society that precedes and socializes individuals, but independent individuals create society itself in accordance with their own will and reason - all social, including political and legal institutions.

Liberalism in modern Russia

Liberalism is more or less common in all modern developed countries. However, in modern Russia, the term has acquired a significant negative connotation, since liberalism is often understood as the destructive economic and political reforms carried out under the rule of Gorbachev and Yeltsin, a high level of chaos and corruption, covered up by orientation towards Western countries. In this interpretation, liberalism is widely criticized because of the fear of further destruction of the country and the loss of its independence. Modern liberalization often leads to a reduction in social protection, and “price liberalization” is a euphemism for “raising prices”.

Fans of the West (“creative class”) are usually considered radical liberals in Russia, including in their ranks very specific personalities (Valeriya Novodvorskaya, Pavel Shekhtman, etc.) who hate Russia and the USSR as such, for example, comparing them with Nazi Germany, and Stalin and Putin - with Hitler, deifying the United States. Well-known resources of this kind: Echo of Moscow, The New Times, Ej, etc. The opposition, which held mass protests against the Russian authorities in 2011-2012, designated itself as liberal. because of disagreement with the nomination and election of Putin for a third term. But it is interesting that at the same time, Russian President Vladimir Putin, for example, called himself a liberal, liberal reforms were proclaimed by Dmitry Medvedev when he was president of Russia.

from lat. liber - free) - bourgeois. ideological and social and political. a current that united supporters of the bourgeois-parliament. building and bourgeois freedom. L. was widespread among the bourgeoisie during the pre-monopoly period. capitalism. Then L. represented a more or less integral system of views, according to which social harmony and the progress of mankind are achievable only on the basis of private property by ensuring sufficient freedom of the individual in the economy and in all other spheres of humanity. activity (because the common good allegedly spontaneously develops as a result of the implementation by individuals of their personal goals), and the capitalist. system - natural and eternal. The real content of L., specific for each stage of the development of capitalism, manifested itself in the activities of the social strata united under the banner of L. (“middle classes” - the industrial-trade bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia associated with them, the bourgeois nobility, some part of the large, in including part of the monopolistic, bourgeoisie) and has undergone a complex evolution with an extreme diversity of concrete-ist. (in particular, national) forms. In a modified form (in relation to the conditions of imperialism and the general crisis of capitalism), the ideas of L. are still used by the defenders of capitalism. L. was born in the conditions of the struggle of the young progressive bourgeoisie and the bourgeois nobility against feudalism as an instrument of struggle against the feuds. constraint, arbitrariness of absolutism and spiritual oppression of the Catholic. churches; in that period, L. was the bearer of ideals (faith in progress, in the triumph of reason, peace, freedom, equality), common to all anti-feuds. camps, the implementation of which, however, was least of all possible on the basis of a specific program of L. (constitutional monarchy, liberation from the feudal shackles of only large property). The spiritual fathers of L. were representatives of the moderate wing of the rationalist educators (Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, the Physiocrats; the formula of the latter laissez-faire, laissez-passer - "do not interfere with action", became one of the most popular slogans of L.), the creators of the bourgeoisie. classical political economy (A. Smith, D. Ricardo). At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L. in Zap. Europe stands out in a special socio-political. flow. Approximately from 1816, the term "L.", initially extremely vague, also became widespread. In France, during the Restoration period, B. Constant, Guizot and others for the first time gave L. the character of a more or less formalized political. and historical and philosophical doctrine. From the ideological legacy of the Enlightenment, they chose only those provisions that met the everyday needs of the bourgeoisie as the ruling class: deep faith in the human. reason was replaced by admiration for the limited. bourgeois "common sense", the idea of Nar. sovereignty gave way to the demand for "freedom of the individual"; recognizing ist. legitimacy of bourgeois revolutions, French liberals refused to recognize the legitimacy of the revolution. proletarian movement. In an atmosphere of deepening contradictions, and then aggravated in the 30s. 19th century (after the revolution of 1830 in France and the parliamentary reforms of 1832 in England) of the antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the working class of the bourgeois-liber. reforms carried out everywhere through the appropriation of liber. bourgeoisie results of the struggle of the working masses and compromises with the monarchist-clerical reaction, are increasingly becoming anti-flight. character; L. slogans are increasingly becoming a means of disguising the capitalist. operation. European revolutions of 1848-49 remained unfinished in the mean. degrees as a result of the betrayal of the liber. bourgeoisie. But they contributed to clearing the ground for the development of capitalism, and it was the bourgeoisie who reaped their fruits; 50-60s 19th century became the climax. period in the development of L. L. reaches its greatest flowering in the classical. country prom. capitalism - England, where its ideologists from the very beginning developed Ch. arr. economic aspects of L. In the form of the so-called. utilitarianism - the doctrine developed by I. Bentham and a group of "philosophical radicals" (Bowring, Place, James and J. S. Mill), the prosperous middle classes received, along with a carefully thought-out program of the bourgeois. reforms designed to create ideal conditions for free enterprise, the ethical "justification" is unlimited. pursuit of profit - up to usury. In the 40s. 19th century Manchester manufacturers, MPs Cobden and Bright, in the course of the struggle against the Corn Laws, gave L. a classic. form of free trade. After the abolition of the Corn Laws, in the conditions of world trade. British monopoly and the decline of Chartism L. has become the dominant form of bourgeois ideology. Liber. the party led by Palmerston and Gladstone gained predominance in the political. life in England. L. subordinates to his ideological and political. influence means. part of the petty bourgeoisie and skilled workers united in trade unions. Political the dominance of the liberals led to increased social contrasts. With all this, compared with the feud. arbitrariness and constraint, the victory of free enterprise, the approval of the bourgeoisie. law enforcement have historically progressed. deed, met the needs of development produces. forces, contributed to the numerical and spiritual growth of the working class, opened up certain legal opportunities for its organization, for the spread of socialist. ideology and its connection with the labor movement. The later this country embarked on the path of bourgeois. transformation, the more developed the proletariat was in it by that time, the faster the cowardice and counter-revolutionary nature of the liberals were revealed. the bourgeoisie, its tendency to compromise with the reaction (for example, in Germany, Italy and a number of other countries). Having strengthened the bourgeois parliamentarism and free competition, L. has historically exhausted itself as the dominant (or most influential) bourgeois. socio-political flow. All his worldview came into clear conflict with the real picture of the development of capitalist. society, because under imperialism "... some of the basic properties of capitalism began to turn into their opposite ..." (V. I. Lenin, Soch., vol. 22, p. 252). L. in the East arose in the 2nd half. 19 - beg. 20th century (China, Japan, India, Turkey) and from the very beginning, due to the connection of the local bourgeoisie with landownership, its progressive features were extremely limited; the demands of the liberals concerned Ch. arr. ext. modernization of the state apparatus, the creation of modern. army, navy, communications. In the last third of 19 - beg. 20th century the old, "classical" L. of the period of industrial capitalism is falling into decay, the adaptation of L. to new conditions begins. L. becomes primarily a means of distracting the masses from the revolution. struggle with the help of negligible. concessions to workers. Such is the activity of Lloyd George in England, Giolitti in Italy, and W. Wilson in the USA. Experienced Lebanese leaders (in England, France, and a number of other countries) directed the preparations for World War I and the military. offices, post-war. redistribution of the world, anti-Sov. intervention, suppression of the revolution. movements, introducing into all this, as V. I. Lenin noted, the methods of social demagogy and maneuvering developed over decades. Thus, the role of one of the original tools of the ruling imperialist movement, which had become fixed for L. in the conditions of the general crisis of capitalism, was revealed. bourgeoisie. Certain aspects of the practice of L. in the social question, especially in the part of it relating to the working class, were perceived by right-wing socialists. As the political influence of the working class L. gradually descends from the East. scenes, its functions are transferred to reformism. After the 1st World War and Vel. Oct. socialist. revolution, which opened a new era in the history of mankind, the crisis of L. sharply aggravated and deepened. L. began to experience a painful reassessment of values (above all, a crisis of faith in the salvation and infallibility of bourgeois individualism from the point of view of the interests of the bourgeoisie itself). Based on L. various concepts of the "third way" of the development of society arose, allegedly providing a combination of the interests of the individual and society, "freedom" and "order" on the basis of private property. So, in the period between the 1st and 2nd World Wars, attempts based on Keynes's theory to combine the "regulation" of the economy with social legislation (pensions, benefits for the unemployed, etc.) became widespread; these attempts were presented bourgeois. propaganda as a way to avoid both fascism and communism. Although the anti-communism of the liberals, as a rule, led either to capitulation to fascism, or to a policy of appeasement, which was tragic. consequences, liberal. the concepts of the period between the 1st and 2nd world wars are sometimes regarded by the monopolies as "too leftist", "pro-communist". Along with Keynesianism, after the 2nd World War, neoliberalism became widespread in the FRG, England, France, the USA, and Italy. Its center is in the Federal Republic of Germany (Eiken, Ryustov and others). Neo-liberals oppose "excessive" state intervention in the economy, arguing that with enough room for competition, a "social market economy" is formed, which allegedly provides general welfare. Lit .: Lenin V.I., Liberalism and Democracy, Soch., 4th ed., Vol. 17; his, Two Utopias, ibid., vol. 18; his, On the Liberal and Marxist Concept of the Class Struggle, ibid., vol. 19; Was ist liberal?, Mönch., 1910; Ruggiere G. de, Storia del liberalismo europeo, Mil., 1962; Samuel H., Liberalism, L., 1960 (Russian translation - Samuel G., Liberalism, M., 1906); Saunders J., The age of revolution. The rise and decline of liberalism in Europe since 1815, N. Y., 1949; The liberal tradition from Fox to Keynes, L., 1956. I. N. Nemanov. Smolensk. Liberalism in Russia is bourgeois in its objective content, ideological, and then political. course, the social base of which was made up of landlords, moving to the capitalist. methods of management, the middle bourgeoisie, the nobility and the bourgeoisie. intelligentsia. The origin of the first rudimentary ideas of noble L. refers to the 60s. 18th century - early 19th century In the 40s. 19th century began the process of registration L. as a special ideological and political. currents and dissociation of it from the democratic. trends. Development of capitalism, class. the interests of the growing bourgeoisie inevitably gave rise to L. and his opposition to autocracy and serfdom. The progressiveness of L. was determined by the objective conditions of the necessity of the bourgeois. transformation of societies. and Mrs. building Russia. Since the era of the first revolution. situation and the fall of serfdom in 1861 until Feb. revolution of 1917 there was a struggle between the two East. tendencies - liberal and democratic - on the fundamental question of the type of bourgeois. development of Russia. L., expressing the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, acted as the bearer of the reformist tendency and the landowner-bourgeois. evolution of the Prussian type. Democracy, representing the interests of the peasantry, fought for the revolution. the destruction of all feud.-serf. institutions and vestiges. Political the program and reformist tactics of L., reflecting the striving of the bourgeoisie to eliminate class privileges, the constitution. the transformation of absolutism, the establishment of the legal system, the advancement to power, at the same time testified to its political. flabbiness, a tendency to compromise with the forces of the feud. reaction, fear of revolution. L., keeping the main. features of its ideology, programs and tactics, evolved depending on two factors: the strength of the revolutionary. movements, degrees bourgeois. the evolution of absolutism and the character of governments. policy, acquiring a definition. features on each ist. stage. Main The trend in the evolution of Lithuania was a steadily decreasing, historically and class-limited progressiveness and an invariably growing anti-people and counter-revolutionary spirit. The nodal points of the evolution of L. became revolutionary. situation at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s. 19th century, first Russian. revolution 1905-07, Feb. revolution of 1917 and the victory of Oct. revolution of 1917. The period of decomposition and crisis of the feudal-serf. building (2nd half of the 18th century - mid-19th century), the first, noble period (1825-61) will free. movement was the time of the birth and formation of L. Ideas of progress. enlightenment, criticism of serfdom and autocracy, projects to limit absolutism in the 2nd half. 18th century (S. E. Desnitsky, A. Ya. Polenov, N. I. Novikov, F. V. Krechetov and others) expressed the urgent tasks of the bourgeois. transformation of Russia. In the era of Decembrism, liber. and democratic. trends evolved as shades loosened. movement in general revolutionary. channel. In ist. genesis L. and bourgeois. Democracy Age of Enlightenment 18th century and Decembrism constitutes, therefore, prehistory. In the 30-40s. 19th century, when the definition is formed. maturity of social relations capitalist. type, and the task of eliminating serfdom and bourgeois. transformations become radical and practical. question of the whole Russian societies. life, the demarcation of L. and democracy is planned. The emerging L. found its expression in the views of the so-called. Westerners (K. D. Kavelin, V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, P. V. Annenkov and others) and, in a peculiar form, some Slavophiles. It still existed within the framework of the general antifeod. camp, opposing the reactionary-serf. ideology. However, already at that time, the first differences between the liberals and the democrats were outlined and gradually intensified. Aggravation of the socio-political. antagonisms in the conditions of revolution. situation at the turn of the 50s and 60s. 19th century led to political polarization. forces, to the design of L., his ideology, program and tactics. In societies. the rise of this period determined. liber played a role. movement. In handwritten literature, projects, journalism (magazine Otechestvennye zapiski, Rus. vestnik, Atheney) ideologists L. (Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, I. K. Babst, A. M. Unkovsky etc.) put forward a program of reforms carried out by the government, while maintaining landownership and the monarchy (the release of peasants with land for ransom, the abolition of estate privileges, glasnost, the creation of representative institutions). The process of L.'s separation from democracy was reflected in the liberals' break with Kolokol and Sovremennik; fight against L. revolution. camps headed by N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov. Reforms of the 60-70s 19th century, fear of people. revolution, hostility to the revolution. democrats (approval of the arrests in 1862 of Chernyshevsky, H. A. Serno-Solov'evich, and others), the explosion of chauvinism in connection with the Polish will liberate. The uprising of 1863–64 determined the turn of Latvia towards reaction, which made it possible for tsarism to weaken the anti-government. camp and beat off the revolution. onslaught. 2nd revolutionary situation in con. 70 - early 80s 19th century became a new stage in the development of L., to-ry, as before, remained within the framework of legal opposition to the autocracy, capable only of constitutions. "impulses" and a fruitless targeted campaign (see the Zemstvo movement). In the addresses of zemstvos and mountains. institutions, in speeches liber. presses ("Golos", "Molva", "Order", "Zemstvo", "Bulletin of Europe", etc.) put forward half-hearted measures both in the field of agrarian relations (resettlement of peasants, reduction of redemption payments, transformation of the tax system, etc.), and in the issue of state. system (the reform of the State Council, the involvement of representatives from the zemstvos in law-consultative activities), which did not affect the foundations of autocracy. The program and tactics of L. created favorable conditions for maneuvering the pr-va, facilitating, ultimately, in the beginning. 80s the victory of the reaction. On the second, bourgeois-democratic. stage will free. L.'s movements finally took shape and took shape in a definition. camp, which took the position of monarchic. center in the political grouping. forces. At this time, and the further, the stronger, the reactionary nature of L. "... was manifested in comparison with the revolutionary element of bourgeois democracy. .." (Lenin V.I., Soch., vol. 10, p. 431), his inability to independent progressive historical action. With the entry of Russia into the era of imperialism, the strengthening of the economic power of the bourgeoisie and the beginning of the span. movement, with the transformation of the working class into a center of attraction for democratic forces and the formation of the Social-Democrats, the process of activation of Leningrad, the gradual political and organizational consolidation of its groupings, and the intensification of the struggle for influence over the peasantry take place. , from the 1940s to the early 20th century, did not create its own org-tions, although it had material means and personnel for this. and the peasantry, the formation of political orgs of Leningrad began. in 1901 and 1902 congresses of zemstvo activists were held, in 1902 zemstvos in alliance with the bourgeois. intellectuals founded a journal in Stuttgart. "Liberation" ed. Struve. In the summer and autumn of 1903, the Union of Liberation and the Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists were created. The program documents of L. carried out the idea of "representation of the people" within the framework of the constitutional monarchy. building and increasing peasant allotments while maintaining landownership. L., fearing the growing people's revolution, sought to win hegemony in the liberation movement, demagogically acting as a carrier of national interests, and tried to switch the development of events to a reformist path. The first Russian The revolution of 1905-07 marked a turning point in the evolution of L. It "...remarkably quickly exposed liberalism and showed in practice its counter-revolutionary nature" (ibid., vol. 13, p. 100). L. in the conditions of the upward development of the revolution from Jan. until Dec. 1905 and the growing disorganization of the pr-va showed a sign. political activity, tried to maneuver between tsarism and revolution. people, to transfer development to the constitution. a way to bargain for reforms beneficial to the bourgeoisie. Such is the meaning of the appeal to the people of the July (1905) zemstvo-city congress, the decision of Sept. congress, L.'s tactics in relation to the Bulygin Duma, by October. strike of 1905. After the manifesto of 17 Oct. In 1905, the top bourgeoisie united in the "Union of October 17", and the "Union of Liberation" and the "Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists" created the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) - the main. party L. Counterrevolutionary. character L. openly manifested itself in relation to Dec. armed uprising of 1905. Revolutionary. L. opposed the methods of struggle parliamentary, peaceful methods of "organic" work in the Duma. In the interrevolutionary period L. played an important role in the third June system as Ch. opposition parties, to-heaven propaganda of the constitutions. illusions and reforms, his loyal parl. tactics facilitated the carrying out of the Stolypin Bonapartist agrarian. and Duma politics. L. acted as an active force in the political. and ideological. reactions, which found expression in Sat. "Milestones" (1909). L. was not able to fight for the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution, but the incompleteness of the capitalist. evolution kept the base for its oppositions. speeches against the feudal lords, absolutism. On the eve and during World War I, L. preached the ideas of the bourgeoisie. nationalism and pan-Slavism, ideologically substantiating the imperialist. Russian interests. bourgeoisie, participated in the mobilization of all forces for the needs of the imperialist. war. The defeat of the royal troops, households. devastation, the growth of the revolution. movements, the disorganization of the pr-va, unable to wage war to victory, the strengthening of the influence of the court camarilla forced L. to take the path of opposition to the autocracy and take the initiative to create in August. 1915 in the 4th Duma, the so-called. "progressive bloc". Victory Feb. The revolution of 1917 marked the beginning of the last stage in the history of L. Lieber. parties seized power and became governments. parties striving for the autocracy of the bourgeoisie, for the continuation of the war, for the defeat of the Soviets and the Bolshevik Party. The Kadet Party united around itself all the forces of the bourgeois-landlord-general counter-revolution, which was especially clearly manifested in the Kornilov revolt (see Kornilovshchina). Oct. the revolution led L. to the ideological and political. collapse. The bourgeoisie, including means. part liber. intelligentsia, responded with sabotage and counter-revolution. performances on the establishment of the Soviet. authorities. During the years of civil war L., united with other forces of the counter-revolution, with the help of the intervention of the international. imperialism, tried to destroy the Sov. power. Many Lebanese figures (Struve, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, and others) took an active part in the White Guard. pr-wah, and after civil. wars became the ideologists and organizers of the anti-Sovs. struggle in exile. Liberal-bourgeois. party open participation in the armament. fight against the Soviets. authorities placed themselves outside the framework of owls. legality and owls. democracy. A peculiar manifestation of the ideology of L. in the conditions of the first years of the NEP was the so-called. the Smenovekhov movement, which strove for the restoration of capitalism "from within" the owls. building, based on its internal. rebirth. L. throughout its history was not in the program-tactical. relation to a single and homogeneous movement. In its line with ser. 19th century to early 20th century there were various currents that reflected the interests of certain sections of the bourgeoisie. Since 1905, the process of desks began. design of various directions of L. Some desks. The groupings that arose in 1905 (the Party of Legal Order, the Progressive-Economic Party, and others) did not last long, and the Lebanese factions were soon distributed among the Octobrists, Progressives, and Cadets. The histories of these parties, primarily the Cadet one, constitute in their totality the history of the Rus. L. in the period 1905-17, With all interparty. and intrapart. disagreements (criticism by Milyukov of the authors of "Vekhi" for self-disclosure dangerous for L., Maklakov's accusation of flirting with democracy and a discussion between them on tactical questions, etc.), all parties and trends of L. were united by fear of the revolution. victory of the people, the desire for a compromise with the absolutist-feudal. reaction, active participation in the struggle against democratic. and socialist. revolution. If there is a specific features of these same beings. features were characteristic of L. in nat. district The scope and maturity of L. were determined by the level of socio-political. development of national district. In con. 19 - beg. 20th century in Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus, and a number of other districts, liberal-nationalist sects took shape. parties and groupings of the local bourgeoisie (the National Democratic Party in Poland, the Ukrainian Democratic Party, the Byelorussian community, Jadidism in Central Asia, Musavatists in Transcaucasia, etc.). They were in opposition to tsarism and sought to achieve self-government and equal rights with the Russian. bourgeoisie. Under the conditions of imperialism and the expansion of nat.-liberate. the struggle of the peoples of the bourgeois-nationalist. L. is losing progress. traits. His dual policy was reduced to attempts to obtain concessions from tsarism and with the help of nationalist. demagoguery to distract the workers from the socio-political. struggle, split their alliance with the Rus. the proletariat. After Oct. liberal-nationalist revolution. parties are included in the common front of the counter-revolution and are actively fighting against the Soviets. authorities. In the ideology, program, tactics and organization of L. in Russia, his main ones were manifested. traits and features: a relatively late separation from democracy and a quick turn to counter-revolution, that is. the specific weight of the noble element, activity within the framework of the legal opposition and the later formation of parties. groupings, fear of revolution, a tendency to compromise with the forces of the feud. reactions. These features of L. had their origins in the weakness and non-revolutionary nature of the Russian. bourgeoisie, in regards. strength and survivability of the remnants of the feud. antiquity. They intensified with the growth of the class. struggle, with the performance of the proletariat, which pushed back L. and became the hegemon of all democratic. forces. Revolutionary. democracy exposed L. and his conciliatory policy. This line is in the span. free. the movement was continued and enriched by the Bolshevik Party. V. I. Lenin gave scientific. analysis ist. evolution of L., its ideology, programs and tactics, revealing the commonality of the most significant features of L. of various periods. Assessment of L., his social and political. role was one of the most important points of disagreement between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Lenin's doctrine of the hegemony of the proletariat in the bourgeoisie. revolution and the struggle of Bolshevism for its implementation undermined the influence of L. and his opportunist. allies in the labor movement - the Mensheviks. The struggle of the Bolsheviks against Lithuania was a necessary condition for the revolution. and democratic. education of the working masses, preparing them for the struggle under the arms. proletariat for a new, democratic and socialist. Russia. L. tried ist. concepts to substantiate their program and tactics. Liber. historiography (Milyukov, Struve, P. G. Vinogradov, and others), based on the reactionary-idealistic. theory, portrayed political. the history of Russia as the history of the consistent development of the reformist activity of the autocracy and the growing progressiveness of Leningrad, while ignoring the decisive role of the class. struggle. Leninist Criticism of Liber. historiography played a big role in exposing the ideology of L. Oct. The revolution of 1917 meant not only the collapse of the ideology, program and tactics of Lithuania, but also revealed the complete failure of its historical and political. doctrines. Lit .: Lenin V.I., Persecutors of the Zemstvo and Annibals of Liberalism, Soch., 4th ed., Vol. 5; his, Two Tactics of Social Democracy in Democratic. revolutions, ibid., vol. 9; his same, Experience in the classification of Russian. political parties, ibid., vol. 11; his, Concerning the Jubilee, ibid., vol. 17; his own, the "Peasant Reform" and the proletarian-cross. revolution, ibid.; his own, In memory of Herzen, ibid., vol. 18; his own, Politich. parties in Russia, ibid.; his, On the liberal and Marxist concept of class. struggle, ibid., v. 19. See also Reference volume, part 1, p. 307-11. Belokonsky I., Zemstvo and constitution, M., 1910; Bogucharsky V., From the history of political. wrestling in the 70s. and 80s. 19th century Party "People's Will", its origin, fate and death, M., 1912; Veselovsky B., History of the Zemstvo for forty years, vol. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1911; Glinsky B: The struggle for the constitution. 1612-1862, St. Petersburg, 1908; Jordan N., Konstituts. movement of the 60s, St. Petersburg, 1906; his, Zemsky liberalism, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1906; Karyshev N. Zemsky solicitations. 1865-1884, Moscow. 1900; Kornilov A., Society. movement under Alexander II, M., 1909; his own, Course in the history of Russia in the 19th century, 2nd ed., part 3, M., 1918; Lemke M., Essays will release. movements of the "sixties", St. Petersburg, 1908; Martov Yu., Society. and mental currents in Russia, 1870-1905, L.-M., 1924; Plekhanov G., Unsuccessful history of the party "Narodnaya Volya", Works, vol. 24; Svatikov S., Society. movement in Russia, Rostov n / D., 1905; Yakushkin V., State. power and state projects. reforms in Russia, St. Petersburg, 1906. Berlin, P., Rus. bourgeoisie in old and new times, M., 1922; Druzhinin N., Decembrist Nikita Muravyov, M., 1933; his own, Mosk. nobility and the reform of 1861, "IAN USSR. A series of history and philosophy", 1948, vol. 5, K "1; Nechkina M. V., Movement of the Decembrists, vol. 1-2, M., 1955; Rosenthal V. N., Ideological centers of the liberal movement in Russia on the eve of the revolutionary situation, in: Revolutionary situation in Russia in 1859-1861, M., 1963; Sladkevich N., Opposition movement of the nobility in the years of the revolutionary situation, there same, M., 1962; Usakina T., Herzen's article "Very dangerous!!!" and the controversy around "accusatory literature" in journalism 1857-1861, M., 1960; Fedosov I., Revolutionary movement in Russia during second quarter of the 19th century, M., 1958; Kheifets M., The second revolutionary situation in Russia, M., 1963; Zayonchkovsky P., Abolition of serfdom in Russia, M., 1954; Kozmin V., From the history of Russian of the illegal press, Common cause newspaper, in the book: Ist. sb., vol. 3, L., 1934; ., 1958; Essays on the history of historical science in the USSR, vol. 1, M., 1955, ch. 8; vol. 2, M., 1960, ch. 2-3; vol. 3, M., 1963, ch. 1, 4, 5; Pokrovsky M. H., Essays on the history of the revolution. movements in Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries, 2nd ed., M., 1927; Chermensky E., Bourgeoisie and tsarism in the revolution of 1905-1907, M.-L., 1939; his, Feb. bourgeois-democratic. revolution of 1917 in Russia, M., 1959. See also lit. to the articles "Legal Marxism", "Zemskoye Movement", "Constitutional-Democratic Party "Progressive Bloc"" and others. MI Kheifets. Moscow.

LIBERAL

(lat. liberalis, from liber - civilly free). Free thinker, standing for a free form of government.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

LIBERAL

lat. liberalis, from liber, civilly free. Free-thinking, standing for a free image of government.

Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .

LIBERAL

free, free-thinking, consonant with liberalism.

A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .

Liberal

1) related to liberalism, characteristic of it;

2) showing liberalism 3.

New dictionary of foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .

Liberal

pertaining to a liberal, liberalism, peculiar to them.

A large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 .

Liberal

oh, oh, flax, flax ( fr. liberal lat. liberalis free).
1. full f. Related to liberalism. Liberal Party.
2. manifesting liberalism. L. knowledge assessment approach.
liberality- the same as liberalism.

Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words L. P. Krysina.- M: Russian language, 1998 .

Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what "LIBERAL" is in other dictionaries:

Cm … Synonym dictionary

liberal- oh, oh. liberal, eadj. 1. Rel. to liberal and liberalism (political current), expressing liberalism. BAS 1. The main .. parties in France are: Royalists Constitutional, Ministerial, Liberal, opponents of the hereditary line, ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

LIBERAL, liberal, liberal; liberal, liberal, liberal 1. adj. towards liberalism; imbued with liberalism. liberal speeches. liberal reforms. Liberal talk. 2. only full. The name of some political organizations and ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

LIBERAL, oh, oh; flax, flax. 1. full Pertaining to liberalism (in 1 value). Liberal Party. L. worker. 2. Manifesting liberalism (in 2 values). L. approach to what n. | noun liberalism, and, wives. (to 2 values). Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

liberal- terribly liberal ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms

liberal- oh, oh; flax, flax 1) full. f. Pertaining to liberalism. Liberal Party. liberal newspaper. 2) Showing liberalism. Liberal approach to knowledge assessment. 3) outdated. Infused with liberalism. The secretary was liberal, even radical ... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

I adj. 1. ratio with noun. liberalism I, liberalization associated with them 2. Liberalizing. II adj. 1. Showing excessive tolerance, harmful indulgence, connivance. 2. Characteristic of liberalism [liberalism II 2.], ... ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

Liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, ... ... Forms of words

Conservative intolerant reactionary routine… Antonym Dictionary

Books

liberal conservatism. History and Modernity, . The book contains a comprehensive analysis of the processes of the genesis, formation and evolution of Russian liberal conservatism as a system of ideas and politics, organization and tactics; his…
Liberal redistribution of the agrosphere in Russia. Book 3. Market domestication of the Russian peasant, V. I. Staroverov, A. N. Zakharov. In a series of books under the general title Liberal redistribution of the agrosphere of Russia, the social, economic and political contradictions of the modern…

A few years ago, the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion conducted a survey of the population, the main question of which was: "What is liberalism, and who is a liberal?" Most of the participants were confused by this question, 56% could not give an exhaustive answer. The survey was conducted in 2012, most likely, today the situation is unlikely to change for the better. Therefore, now in this article we will briefly consider the concept of liberalism and all its main aspects for the education of the Russian audience.

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About the concept

There are several definitions that describe the concept of this ideology. Liberalism is:

political movement or ideology that unites admirers of democracy and parliamentarism;
worldview, which is characteristic of the industrial, defending their rights of a political nature, as well as entrepreneurial freedom;
theory, which absorbed philosophical and political ideas, which appeared in Western Europe in the 18th century;
the first meaning of the concept was free-thinking;
tolerance and tolerance for unacceptable behavior.

All these definitions can be safely attributed to liberalism, but the main thing is that this term denotes an ideology that affects the structure and states. WITH Liberalism is Latin for freedom. Are all the functions and aspects of this movement really built in freedom?

Freedom or restriction

The liberal movement includes such key concepts as about public good, individual freedom and equality of people within the policy and . What liberal values does this ideology promote?

Common good. If the state protects the rights and freedom of the individual, and also protects the people from various threats and controls compliance with the implementation of laws, then such a structure of society can be called reasonable.
Equality. Many shout that all people are equal, although it is obvious that this is absolutely not true. We differ from each other in various aspects: intelligence, social status, physical data, nationality, and so on. But liberals mean equality in human opportunity. If a person wants to achieve something in life, no one has the right to prevent this on the basis of race, social and other factors . The principle is that if you put in the effort, you will achieve more.
natural rights. British thinkers Locke and Hobbes came up with the idea that a person has three rights from birth: life, property and happiness. It will not be difficult for many to interpret this: no one has the right to take a person’s life (only the state for certain misconduct), property is seen as a personal right to own something, and the right to happiness is that very freedom of choice.

Important! What is liberalization? There is also such a concept that means the expansion of civil liberties and rights within the framework of economic, political, cultural and social life, it is also a process when the economy gets rid of the influence of the state.

Principles of liberal ideology:

there is nothing more valuable than human life;
all people in this world are equal;
everyone has his inalienable rights;
the individual and his needs are more valuable than society as a whole;
the state arises by common consent;
a person forms laws and state values independently;
the state is responsible to the person, the person, in turn, is responsible to the state;
power must be divided, the principle of organizing life in the state on the basis of the constitution;
only in fair elections can a government be elected;
humanistic ideals.

These principles of liberalism formulated in the 18th century English philosophers and thinkers. Many of them never materialized. Most of them look like a utopia, to which humanity so vehemently strives, but cannot achieve in any way.

Important! Liberal ideology could be a lifeline for many countries, but there will always be some "pitfalls" that hinder development.

Founders of ideology

What is liberalism? At that time, every thinker understood it in his own way. This ideology absorbed completely different ideas and opinions of thinkers of that time.

It is clear that some of the concepts may contradict each other, but the essence remains the same.

The founders of liberalism English scientists J. Locke and T. Hobbes (18th century) can be considered along with the French writer of the Enlightenment Charles Montesquieu, who was the first to think and express his opinion about the freedom of man in all spheres of his activity.

Locke laid the foundation for the existence of legal liberalism and stated that only in a society in which all citizens are free can there be stability.

The original theory of liberalism

The followers of classical liberalism gave more preference and paid more attention to the "individual freedom" of a person. The concept of this concept is expressed in the fact that a person should not obey either society or social orders. Independence and equality- these are the main steps on which the entire liberal ideology stood. The word "freedom" then meant the absence of various prohibitions, limits or vetoes on the implementation of actions by a person, taking into account the generally accepted rules and laws of the state. That is, the freedom that would not go against established dogmas.

As the founders of the liberal movement believed, the government should guarantee equality between all its citizens, but a person already had to take care of his financial situation and status on his own. Limiting the scope of governmental power was what liberalism, in turn, tried to achieve. According to theory, the only thing the state was supposed to provide for its citizens was security and policing. That is, the liberals tried to influence the reduction to a minimum of all its functions. The existence of society and power could only be on the condition of their general subordination to laws within the framework of the state.

The fact that classical liberalism still exists became clear when, in 1929, a terrible economic crisis arose in the United States. Its consequences were tens of thousands of bankrupt banks, the death of many people from starvation and other horrors of the state's economic recession.

economic liberalism

The main concept of this movement was the idea of equality between economic and natural laws. Government intervention in these laws was prohibited. Adam Smith is the founder of this movement and its main principles:

for the impetus of economic development, personal interest is needed;
state regulation and the existence of monopolies harm the economy;
economic growth must be promoted discreetly. That is, the government should not interfere in the process of the emergence of new institutions. Enterprises and suppliers operating in the interests of income and within the market system are subtly guided by an "invisible hand". All this is the key to competently meeting the needs of society.

neoliberalism

This direction was formed in the 19th century and implies a new trend in, which consists in the complete non-interference of the government in trade relations between its subjects.

The main tenets of neoliberalism are constitutionalism and equality between all members of society in the country.

Signs of this current: the authorities should promote self-regulation of the economy in the market, and the process of redistributing finances should first of all take into account the low-income strata of the population.

Neoliberalism does not oppose state regulation of the economy, while classical liberalism denies this. But the regulation process should include only the free market and the competitiveness of subjects to guarantee economic growth along with social justice. The main idea of neoliberalism – support of foreign trade policy and internal trade to increase the gross income of the state, that is, protectionism.

All political concepts and philosophical movements have their own characteristics, and neoliberalism is no exception:

the need for government intervention in the economy. The market must be protected from the possible emergence of monopolies, and a competitive environment and freedom must be ensured;
protection of principles and justice. All citizens must be involved in political processes to maintain the right democratic "weather";
government should support different economic programs, associated with financial support for low-income social strata.

Briefly about liberalism

Why is the concept of liberalism distorted in Russia?

Conclusion

Now the question is, "What is liberalism?" will no longer cause dissonance among the respondents. After all, the understanding of freedom and equality is simply presented under other terms that have their own principles and concepts that affect different areas of the state system, but remain unchanged in one thing - only then the state will flourish when it ceases to restrict its citizens in many ways.