Classicism years. Literature

In music, like in no other art form, the concept of “classic” has an ambiguous content. Everything is relative, and any yesterday’s hits that have stood the test of time - be it the masterpieces of Bach, Mozart, Chopin, Prokofiev or, say, The Beatles- can be attributed to classical works.

May lovers forgive me early music for the frivolous word “hit,” but great composers once wrote for their contemporaries popular music, without aiming at eternity at all.

What is all this for? To the one, that it is important to share the broad concept classical music and classicism as a direction in musical art.

The era of classicism

Classicism, which replaced the Renaissance through several stages, took shape in France in late XVII century, reflecting in his art partly the serious rise of the absolute monarchy, partly the change in worldview from religious to secular.

In the 18th century it began new round development public consciousness- The Age of Enlightenment has arrived. The pomp and pomp of Baroque, the immediate predecessor of classicism, was replaced by a style based on simplicity and naturalness.

Aesthetic principles of classicism

The art of classicism is based on cult of reason – rationalism, harmony and logic . The name “classicism” is associated in origin with the word from the Latin language – classicus, which means “exemplary”. The ideal model for artists of this trend was ancient aesthetics with its harmonious logic and harmony. In classicism, reason prevails over feelings, individualism is not welcomed, and in any phenomenon, general, typological features acquire paramount importance. Each work of art must be built according to strict canons. The requirement of the era of classicism is the balance of proportions, excluding everything superfluous and secondary.

Classicism is characterized by a strict division into "high" and "low" genres . “High” works are works that refer to ancient and religious subjects, written in solemn language (tragedy, hymn, ode). And “low” genres are those works that are presented in vernacular language and reflect folk life(fable, comedy). Mixing genres was unacceptable.

Classicism in music - Viennese classics

The development of a new musical culture in the middle of the 18th century gave rise to the emergence of many private salons, musical societies and orchestras, holding open concerts and opera performances.

Capital musical world in those days there was Vienna. Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven are three great names that went down in history as.

The composers of the Viennese school were masters of the most different genres music - from everyday songs to symphonies. A high style of music in which rich figurative content is embodied in a simple but perfect artistic form, - this is the main feature of the work of the Viennese classics.

Musical culture classicism, like literature, as well as art, glorifies the actions of a person, his emotions and feelings, over which reason reigns. Creative artists in their works are characterized by logical thinking, harmony and clarity. The simplicity and ease of the statements of classical composers might seem banal to the modern ear (in some cases, of course), if their music were not so brilliant.

Each of the Viennese classics had a bright, unique personality. Haydn and Beethoven gravitated more towards instrumental music - sonatas, concertos and symphonies. Mozart was universal in everything - he created everything with ease. He had a huge influence on the development of opera, creating and improving its various types - from opera buffa to musical drama.

In terms of composers’ preferences for certain figurative spheres, Haydn is more typical of objective folk-genre sketches, pastoralism, gallantry; Beethoven is close to heroism and drama, as well as philosophy, and, of course, nature, and to a small extent, refined lyricism. Mozart covered, perhaps, all existing figurative spheres.

Genres of musical classicism

The musical culture of classicism is associated with the creation of many genres instrumental music- such as a sonata, symphony, concerto. A multi-part sonata-symphonic form (a 4-part cycle) was formed, which is still the basis of many instrumental works.

In the era of classicism, the main types emerged chamber ensembles– trio, string quartet. System developed Viennese school forms is still relevant today - modern “bells and whistles” are layered on it as a basis.

Let us briefly dwell on the innovations characteristic of classicism.

Sonata form

The sonata genre existed at the beginning of the 17th century, but the sonata form was finally formed in the works of Haydn and Mozart, and Beethoven brought it to perfection and even began to break the strict canons of the genre.

The classical sonata form is based on the opposition of two themes (often contrasting, sometimes conflicting) - the main and secondary - and their development.

The sonata form includes 3 main sections:

1. first section – exposition(carrying out the main topics),
2. second - development(development and comparison of themes)
3. and the third - reprise(a modified repetition of an exposition, in which there is usually a tonal convergence of previously opposed themes).

As a rule, the first, fast parts of a sonata or symphonic cycle were written in sonata form, which is why the name sonata allegro was assigned to them.

Sonata-symphonic cycle

In terms of structure and the logic of the sequence of parts, symphonies and sonatas are very similar, hence the common name for their integral musical form– sonata-symphonic cycle.

A classical symphony almost always consists of 4 movements:

• I – fast active part in its traditional sonata allegro form;
• II – slow part (its form, as a rule, is not strictly regulated - variations are possible here, and a three-part complex or simple shape, and rondo sonatas, and slow sonata form);
• III – minuet (sometimes scherzo), the so-called genre movement – ​​almost always complex three-part in form;
• IV is the final and final fast movement, for which the sonata form was also often chosen, sometimes the rondo or rondo sonata form.

Concert

The name of the concert as a genre comes from Latin word concertare – “competition”. This is a piece for orchestra and solo instrument. Instrumental concert, created during the Renaissance and which received a simply grandiose development in the work of the Viennese classics, acquired a sonata-symphonic form.

String Quartet

Compound string quartet usually includes two violins, viola and cello. The form of the quartet, similar to the sonata-symphonic cycle, was already determined by Haydn. Mozart and Beethoven also made great contributions and paved the way for further development this genre.

The musical culture of classicism became a kind of “cradle” for the string quartet; in subsequent times and to this day, composers do not stop writing more and more new works in the concert genre - this type of work has become so in demand.

The music of classicism amazingly combines external simplicity and clarity with deep internal content, which is not alien to strong feelings and drama. Classicism, moreover, is a style of a certain historical era, and this style is not forgotten, but has serious connections with the music of our time (neoclassicism, polystylistics).

A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.

Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Directions of classicism in architecture: Palladianism, Empire style, Neo-Greek, “Regency style”.

The main feature The architecture of classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The emergence of the classicism style

In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: “The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients.” This call to update modern Art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism a necessary contrast to court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided in time with the era of bourgeois revolutions - the English one in 1688, the French one 101 years later.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until mid-18th century century.

Historical characteristics of the classicism style

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe.

Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

From the Rococo forms, initially marked by Roman influence, after the completion of the construction of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, sharp turn towards Greek forms. After the liberation wars against Napoleon, this “Hellenism” found its masters in K.F. Schinkel and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.

The desire to translate the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art into modern construction led to the desire to completely copy an ancient building. What F. Gilly left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Walhalla (Walhalla “Chamber of the Dead”).

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from majestic images military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form triumphal arch Carrousel and Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style.

In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities.

In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classical rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have become. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin, respectively, with grandiose museums and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).

Princely palaces and residences became the centers of construction in the classicist style; Marktplatz (marketplace) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built primarily in the classical style.

But palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses it was no longer possible to distinguish from them. The scope of state construction included public buildings - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. To these were added buildings for social purposes - hospitals, homes for the blind and deaf-mute, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.

The construction of churches no longer played a primary role, but remarkable buildings were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a debate about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for a Christian monastery.

Construction features of the classicism style

After the collapse of the great historical styles, survived centuries, in the 19th century. There is a clear acceleration in the process of architecture development. This becomes especially obvious if we compare the last century with the entire previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic spanned about five centuries, the Renaissance and Baroque together covered only half of this period, then classicism took less than a century to take over Europe and penetrate overseas.

Characteristic features of the classicism style

With a change in the point of view on architecture, with the development of construction technology, and the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. There was also a significant shift in the center of the world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that have not survived highest stage development of the Baroque. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.

Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism. The concept of classicism was the use of ancient form-formation systems in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in contrast to the randomness, lack of rigor of architectural and artistic manifestations worldview.

Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to discoveries about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid theoretical basis movement, whose participants believed ancient culture the pinnacle of perfection in the art of construction, an example of absolute and eternal beauty. The popularization of ancient forms was facilitated by numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments.

Types of classicism style buildings

The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel colors. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements, which are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in real life at the end of the 18th and early 18th centuries are associated with classicism. half of the 19th century V. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.

Classicism is a literary style that was developed in France in the 17th century. It became widespread in Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The direction, which turned to antiquity as an ideal model, is closely connected with Based on the ideas of rationalism and rationality, it sought to express social content, to establish a hierarchy literary genres. Speaking about the world representatives of classicism, one cannot fail to mention Racine, Moliere, Corneille, La Rochefoucauld, Boileau, La Bruyre, Goethe. Mondori, Lequin, Rachel, Talma, Dmitrievsky were imbued with the ideas of classicism.

The desire to display the ideal in the real, the eternal in the temporary - this is characteristic classicism. In literature, it is not a specific character that is created, but collective image hero or villain or base. In classicism, mixing genres, images and characters is unacceptable. There are boundaries here that no one is allowed to break.

Classicism in Russian literature is a certain revolution in art, which attached special importance to such genres as epic poem, ode, tragedy. Lomonosov is rightfully considered the founder, and Sumarokov is considered the founder of the tragedy. The ode combined journalism and lyrics. Comedies were directly related to ancient times, while tragedies told about figures national history. Speaking of greats Russian figures period of classicism, it is worth mentioning Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Sumarokov, Volkov, Fonvizin and others.

Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century, as in French, was based on the position of tsarist power. As they themselves said, art should guard the interests of society, give people a certain idea of ​​​​civic behavior and morality. The ideas of serving the state and society are consonant with the interests of the monarchy, so classicism became widespread throughout Europe and Russia. But you should not associate it only with the ideas of glorifying the power of monarchs, Russian writers reflected the interests of the “middle” layer in their works.

Classicism in Russian literature. Main features

The basic ones include:

• appeal to antiquity, its various forms and images;
• the principle of unity of time, action and place (one storyline predominates, the action lasts up to 1 day);
• in the comedies of classicism, good triumphs over evil, vices are punished, basically love line- triangle;
• The heroes have “speaking” names and surnames; they themselves have a clear division into positive and negative.

Delving into history, it is worth remembering that the era of classicism in Russia originates from the writer who was the first to write works in this genre (epigrams, satires, etc.). Each of the writers and poets of this era was a pioneer in his field. In the reform of the literary Russian language main role played by Lomonosov. At the same time, a reform of versification took place.

As Fedorov V.I. says, the first prerequisites for the emergence of classicism in Russia appeared during the time of Peter 1 (in 1689-1725). As a genre of literature, the style of classicism was formed by the mid-1730s. In the second half of the 60s, its rapid development took place. There is a dawn of journalistic genres in periodicals. It had already evolved by 1770, but the crisis began in the last quarter of a century. By that time, sentimentalism had finally taken shape, and the tendencies of realism intensified. The final fall of classicism occurred after the publication of “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word.”

Classicism in Russian literature of the 30-50s also influenced the development of the sciences of the Enlightenment. At this time there was a transition from church to secular ideology. Russia needed knowledge and new minds. Classicism gave her all this.

Classicism is artistic direction, which originated in the Renaissance, took, along with the Baroque, important place in the literature of the 17th century and continued development in the Age of Enlightenment - right up to the first decades of the 19th century. The adjective “classical” is very ancient.: even before getting its main value in Latin, "classicus" meant "noble, wealthy, respected citizen." Having received the meaning of “exemplary,” the concept of “classical” began to be applied to such works and authors that became the subject of school study and were intended for reading in classes. It was in this sense that the word was used both in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, and in the 17th century the meaning “worthy of study in classes” was enshrined in dictionaries (dictionary of S.P. Richle, 1680). The definition of “classical” was applied only to ancient, ancient authors, but not to modern writers, even if their works were recognized as artistically perfect and aroused the admiration of readers. The first to use the epithet "classical" in relation to writers of the 17th century was Voltaire ("Century Louis XIV", 1751). Modern meaning the words “classical”, significantly expanding the list of authors belonging to literary classics, began to take shape in the era of romanticism. At the same time, the concept of “Classicism” appeared. Both terms among the romantics often had a negative connotation: Classicism and the “classics” were opposed to the “romantics” as outdated literature, blindly imitating antiquity - innovative literature (see: “On Germany”, 1810, J. de Stael; “Racine and Shakespeare” , 1823-25, Stendhal). On the contrary, opponents of romanticism, primarily in France, began to use these words as a designation of truly national literature, opposing foreign (English, German) influences, and defined the great authors of the past with the word “classics” - P. Corneille, J. Racine, Moliere, F. La Rochefoucauld. High appreciation of the achievements of French literature of the 17th century, its significance for the formation of other national literatures of the New Age - German, English, etc. - contributed to the fact that this century began to be considered the “era of Classicism”, in which the leading role was played by French writers and their diligent students in other countries. Writers who clearly did not fit within the framework of classicist principles were judged to be "laggard" or "lost their way." In fact, two terms were established, the meanings of which partly overlapped: “classical”, i.e. exemplary, artistically perfect, included in the fund of world literature, and “classic” - i.e. relating to Classicism as a literary movement, embodying its artistic principles.

Concept – Classicism

Classicism is a concept that entered the history of literature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries., in works written by scientists of the cultural-historical school (G. Lanson and others). The features of Classicism were primarily determined from the dramatic theory of the 17th century and from N. Boileau’s treatise “ Poetic art"(1674). It was considered as a direction oriented towards antique art, drawing its ideas from Aristotle’s Poetics, and also as embodying the absolutist monarchical ideology. A revision of this concept of Classicism in both foreign and domestic literary criticism occurred in the 1950s-60s: from now on, Classicism began to be interpreted by most scientists not as “an artistic expression of absolutism,” but as “ literary direction, which experienced a period of bright prosperity in the 17th century, during the years of the strengthening and triumph of absolutism" (Vipper Yu.B. About the "seventeenth century" as a special era in history west European literatures 17th century in the world literary development.). The term “Classicism” retained its role even when scientists turned to non-classicist, baroque works of literature of the 17th century. The definition of Classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, strict subordination to rules (the so-called “three unities”), and comparison to ancient models. The origin and spread of Classicism was associated not only with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, but also with the emergence and influence of the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences, especially mathematics. In the first half of the 20th century, Classicism was called the “school of the 1660s” - the period when French literature Great writers - Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine and Boileau - were working at the same time. Gradually, its origins were revealed in Italian literature of the Renaissance: in the poetics of G. Cintio, J. C. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, in the tragedies of D. Trissino and T. Tasso. The search for an “orderly manner”, laws “ true art"found in English (F. Sidney, B. Johnson, J. Milton, J. Dryden, A. Pope, J. Addison), in German (M. Opitz, I. H. Gottsched, I. V. Goethe, F .Schiller), in Italian (G.Ciabrera, V.Alfieri) literature of the 17th-18th centuries. Russian Classicism of the Enlightenment took a prominent place in European literature (A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin). All this forced researchers to consider it as one of the important components artistic life Europe for several centuries and as one of the two (along with Baroque) main movements that laid the foundations of the culture of the New Age.

Durability of Classicism

One of the reasons for the longevity of Classicism was that the writers of this movement considered their work not as a way of subjective, individual self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchanging, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. The classicist vision of reality, formed on the threshold of the New Age, possessed, like the Baroque, internal drama, but subordinated this drama to the discipline of external manifestations. Ancient literature served for classicists as an arsenal of images and plots, but they were filled with relevant content. If early, Renaissance Classicism sought to recreate antiquity through imitation, then Classicism of the 17th century entered into competition with ancient literature, sees in it, first of all, an example of the correct use of the eternal laws of art, using which one can be able to surpass the ancient authors (see the Dispute about the “ancient” and “new”). Strict selection, ordering, harmony of composition, classification of themes, motifs, and all the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for the writers of Classicism an attempt to artistically overcome the chaos and contradictions of reality, correlated with the didactic function of works of art, with the principle of “teaching”, drawn from Horace , entertaining." A favorite conflict in the works of Classicism is the clash of duty and feelings or the struggle of reason and passion. Classicism is characterized by a stoic mood, contrasting the chaos and unreason of reality, one’s own passions and affects with a person’s ability, if not to overcome them, then to curb them, in extreme cases - to both dramatic and analytical awareness (the heroes of Racine’s tragedies). Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the artistic worldview of the characters of Classicism. The hierarchy of ethical and aesthetic values ​​determines the predominant interest of Classicism in moral, psychological and civil themes, dictates the classification of genres, dividing them into “higher” (epic, ode, tragedy) and lower (comedy, satire, fable), the choice for each of these genres specific theme, style, character system. Classicism is characterized by the desire to analyze analytically different works, even art worlds, tragic and comic, sublime and base, beautiful and ugly. At the same time, turning to low genres, he strives to ennoble them, for example, to remove crude burlesque from satire, and farcical features from comedy (“high comedy” by Molière). The poetry of Classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought and meaning; it refuses sophistication, metaphorical complexity, and stylistic embellishments. Of particular importance in Classicism are dramatic works and the theater itself, which is capable of most organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions. In the bosom of Classicism developed and prose genres- aphorisms (maxims), characters. Although the theory of Classicism refuses to include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, in practice the poetics of Classicism had a tangible impact on the concept of the novel as an “epic in prose”, popular in the 17th century, and determined the genre parameters “ little novel”, or “romantic short story” of the 1660-80s, and “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) by M.M. de Lafayette is considered by many experts to be an example of a classic novel.

Theory of Classicism

The theory of Classicism is not limited only to Boileau’s poetic treatise “Poetic Art”: although its author is rightly considered the legislator of Classicism, he was only one of many creators of literary treatises of this direction, along with Opitz and Dryden, F. Chaplin and F. d’Aubignac. It develops gradually, experiences its formation in disputes between writers and critics, and changes over time. National versions of Classicism also have their differences: French - develops into the most powerful and consistent artistic system, has its influence on the Baroque; German - on the contrary, having emerged as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic school worthy of other European literatures (Opitz), as it were, “chokes” in the stormy waves of the bloody events of the Thirty Years' War and is drowned out and covered by the Baroque. Although the rules are a way to keep creative imagination and freedom within the boundaries of the mind, Classicism understands how important intuitive insight is for a writer, poet, and forgives talent for deviating from the rules if it is appropriate and artistically effective (“The least that should be looked for in a poet is the ability to subordinate words and syllables to certain laws and write poetry. A poet must be... a person with a rich imagination, with an inventive imagination" - Opitz M. Book about German poetry. Literary manifestos). A constant subject of discussion in the theory of Classicism, especially in the second half of the 17th century, is the category “ good taste”, interpreted not as an individual preference, but as a collective aesthetic norm developed by a “good society”. The taste of Classicism prefers simplicity and clarity to verbosity, laconicism, vagueness and complexity of expression, and decency to striking, extravagant. Its main law is artistic verisimilitude, which is fundamentally different from an artlessly truthful reflection of life, from historical or private truth. Plausibility depicts things and people as they should be, and is associated with the concept of moral norm, psychological probability, decency. Characters in Classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which contributes to their transformation into universal human types. His poetics in its original principles is opposed to the Baroque, which does not exclude the interaction of both literary movements not only within the framework of one national literature, but also in the work of the same writer (J. Milton).

In the Age of Enlightenment, the civil and intellectual nature of the conflict in the works of Classicism, its didactic-moralistic pathos, received special significance. Enlightenment Classicism comes into contact even more actively with other literary movements of its era, is no longer based on “rules”, but on the “enlightened taste” of the public, and gives rise to various options Classicism (“Weimar classicism” by J.W. Goethe and F. Schiller). Developing the ideas of “true art,” Classicism of the 18th century, more than other literary movements, lays the foundations of aesthetics as a science of beauty, which received both its development and its very terminological designation precisely in the Age of Enlightenment. The demands put forward by Classicism for clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the structure and plot of works retain their aesthetic relevance today.

The word classicism comes from Latin classicus, which means exemplary, first-class.

Time of occurrence.

In Europe- XVII - beginning 19th century

The end of the 17th century was a period of decline.

Classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the Great french revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism declines, the dominant style European art becomes romanticism.

In Russia- in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century.

Place of origin.

France. (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc.)

Representatives of Russian literature, works.

A. D. Kantemir (satire “On those who blaspheme the teaching”, fables)

V.K. Trediakovsky (novel “Riding to the Island of Love”, poems)

M. V. Lomonosov (poem “Conversation with Anacreon”, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”

A. P. Sumarokov, (tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”)

Y. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies “Dido”, “Rosslav”)

G. R. Derzhavin (ode “Felitsa”)

Representatives of world literature.

P. Corneille (tragedies “Cid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”.

J. Racine (tragedies of Phaedrus, Mithridates)

Voltaire (tragedies "Brutus", "Tancred")

J. B. Moliere (comedies “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”)

N. Boileau (treatise in verse “Poetic Art”)

J. Lafontaine (fables).

Classicism from fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary.

Features of classicism.

• The purpose of art- moral influence on the education of noble feelings.
• Reliance on ancient art(hence the name of the style), which was based on the principle of “imitation of nature.”
• The basis is the principle rationalism((from Latin “ratio” - mind), a look at piece of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed.
• Cult of the mind(belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be reorganized on a rational basis).
• Headship state interests over personal, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. Affirmation of positive values ​​and the state ideal.
• Main conflict classic works - this is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. Positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, when choosing between love and the need to completely devote himself to serving the state, he must choose the latter), and a negative one - in favor of feeling.
• Personality is the highest value of existence.
• Harmony content and form.
• Compliance in dramatic work rules "three unities": unity of place, time, action.
• Dividing heroes into positive and negative. The hero had to embody one character trait: stinginess, hypocrisy, kindness, hypocrisy, etc.
• Strict hierarchy of genres, mixing of genres was not allowed:

"high"- epic poem, tragedy, ode;

“middle” - didactic poetry, epistles, satire, love poem;

"low"- fable, comedy, farce.

• Purity of language (in high genres- high vocabulary, in low - colloquial);
• Simplicity, harmony, logic of presentation.
• Interest in the eternal, unchanging, the desire to find typological features. Therefore, images are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, characteristics that are enduring over time.
• Social and educational function of literature. Education of a harmonious personality.

Features of Russian classicism.

Russian literature mastered the stylistic and genre forms of classicism, but also had its own characteristics, distinguished by its originality.

• The state (and not the individual) was declared the highest value) in conjunction with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, requiring everyone to serve for the good of society.
• General patriotic pathos Russian classicism. Patriotism of Russian writers, their interest in the history of their homeland. They all study Russian history, write works on national and historical topics.
• Humanity, since the direction was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
• Human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that are opposed to reason, but at the same time amenable to education.
• Affirmation of the natural equality of all people.
• Main conflict- between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
• The works are centered not only on the personal experiences of the characters, but also on social problems.
• Satirical focus- an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, which satirically depict specific phenomena of Russian life;
• The predominance of national historical themes over ancient ones. In Russia, “antiquity” was domestic history.
• High level of development of the genre odes(from M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin);
• The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
• At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

Three periods of classicism in Russian literature.

1. 30-50s of the 18th century (the birth of classicism, the creation of literature, the national language, the flourishing of the ode genre - M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarkov, etc.)
2. 60s- late XVIII century ( the main task literature - education human citizen, human service for the benefit of societies, exposing the vices of people, the flourishing of satire - N.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonviin).
3. Late XVIII -early XIX century (the gradual crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies, national motives, the image of an ideal nobleman - N.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, etc.)

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna.