What are the trends in the literature? Literary trends (theoretical material)

1. The central place is given to the symbol *
2. The striving for the highest ideal prevails
3. The poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon.
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two plans: real and mystical
5. Elegance and musicality of the verse

Option 1

A. Classicism

B. Sentimentalism

B. Romanticism

D. Realism

1. Reflection of the idea of ​​harmony, strict orderliness of the world, faith in the human mind.

2. The opposition of reality and dreams is contained.

3. Opposes the abstractness and rationality of the works of classicism. It reflects the desire to depict human psychology.

4. The protagonist is lonely and misunderstood by others, opposes society.

5. The actions and deeds of the heroes are determined in terms of feelings, the exaggerated sensitivity of the heroes.

6. The plot and composition obey the accepted rules (the rule of three unities: places of time, actions).

7. Depiction of typical heroes in typical circumstances.

8. Main genres - comedy, ode.

9. Idealization of the village way of life, the heroes are ordinary people.

10. The name of the direction in translation means "real, real."

11. Comes to replace classicism.

12. Civil (educational) orientation of the works.

13. M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri"

14. G.R. Derzhavin Ode "Felitsa"

15. N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls"

16. V.A. Zhukovsky "Svetlana"

17. M.V. Lomonosov

18. N.M. Karamzin

19. D.I. Fonvizin

20. L.N. Tolstoy

Test on the topic " Literary directions»

Option 2

When answering the test questions, indicate only the letter that corresponds to the literary direction.

A. Classicism

B. Sentimentalism

B. Romanticism

D. Realism

I. What literary direction does the characteristic correspond to?

1. The actions and deeds of the heroes are determined from the point of view of the mind.

2. Idealization of the natural world (special landscape).

3. An exceptional hero acts in exceptional circumstances.

4. Main genres - elegy, ballad.

5. The hero is individual and at the same time embodies typical features.

6. The name of the direction in translation means "Exemplary"

7. Representatives of the lower classes are endowed with a rich spiritual world.

8. Comes to replace romanticism and exists to this day.

9. Unusual and exotic image of events, landscape, people.

10. The division of comedy heroes into positive and negative.

11. The work shows a special interest in the surrounding reality, the ideal world is opposed to the real one.

12. A hero is judged by how he knows how to show feelings, and not by how much he brings to the state.

II. What literary movement do the works belong to?

13. V.A. Zhukovsky Elegy "Sea"

14. M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"

15. M.V. Lomonosov "Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna"

16. A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"

III. What literary movement does the author's work belong to?

17. G.R. Derzhavin

18. A.P. Chekhov

19. M.V. Lomonosov

20. N.M. Karamzin

Evaluation criteria

"5" - 18-20 points (90% correct answers)

"4" - 14-17 points (70% -89% correct answers)

"3" - 10-13 points (50% -69% correct answers)

"2" - 0-9 points (less than 49% of correct answers)

In modern literary criticism, the terms "direction" and "flow" can be interpreted in different ways. Sometimes they are used as synonyms (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism and modernism are called both trends and trends), and sometimes a trend is identified with a literary school or grouping, and a direction is identified with an artistic method or style (in this case, the direction incorporates two or more streams).

Usually, literary direction called a group of writers similar in type of artistic thinking. One can speak about the existence of a literary trend if writers are aware of the theoretical foundations of their artistic activity, propagandize them in manifestos, program speeches, and articles. So, the first program article of the Russian futurists was the manifesto "Slap in the Face of Public Taste", in which the main aesthetic principles of the new direction were declared.

Under certain circumstances, groups of writers who are especially close to each other in their aesthetic views can be formed within the framework of one literary movement. Such groups formed within a certain direction are usually called literary trend. For example, within the framework of such a literary trend as symbolism, two currents can be distinguished: "senior" symbolists and "junior" symbolists (according to another classification - three: decadents, "senior" symbolists, "junior" symbolists).

CLASSICISM(from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic direction in European art turn XVII-XVIII - early XIX century, was formed in France at the end of the XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyaznin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the direction). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of antique. In addition, the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (the belief in the omnipotence of the mind and that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis) had a huge influence on the formation of classicism.

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creation as strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws created on the basis of studying the best examples ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into "correct" and "incorrect". For example, even best plays Shakespeare. This was due to the fact that Shakespeare's characters combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. So, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody any one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be introduced into comedy, and funny episodes into tragedy. IN high genres"exemplary" heroes were depicted - monarchs, "commanders who could serve as an example to follow. In the low ones, characters were drawn, captured by some kind of "passion", that is, a strong feeling.

There were special rules for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. Unity of place: classicist dramaturgy did not allow a change of scene, that is, during the entire play, the characters had to be in the same place. Unity of time: the artistic time of a work should not exceed several hours, in extreme cases - one day. Unity of action implies the presence of only one storyline. All these requirements are connected with the fact that the classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage. Sumarokov: “Try to measure my hours in the game for hours, so that, forgetting, I can believe you *.

So, character traits literary classicism:

The purity of the genre (in the high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in the low genres, tragic and sublime ones);

The purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Heroes are strictly divided into positive and negative, while positive heroes, choosing between feeling and reason, prefer the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unities";

The work should affirm positive values ​​and the state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state (and not a person) was declared the highest value) in conjunction with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, who requires everyone to serve for the benefit of society. Russian classicists, inspired by the reforms of Peter the Great, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which seemed to them a rationally arranged organism. Sumarokov: " Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate sciences. The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that oppose reason, but at the same time lend themselves to education.

SENTIMENTALISM(from English sentimental- sensitive, from French sentiment- feeling) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his ability to deep feelings. Hence - the interest in the inner world of the hero, the image of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. They opposed the unjust orders of the feudal world with the eternal and reasonable laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including man himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of the "natural", "natural" man, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity is also at the basis of the creative method of sentimentalism. If the classicists created generalized characters (a hypocrite, a braggart, a miser, a fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with an individual destiny. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The carriers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, raznochintsy, rural clergy. Cruel - representatives of power, nobles, higher spiritual ranks (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). Manifestations of sensitivity in the works of sentimentalists often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicides).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the image of the rich spiritual world of a commoner (the image of Liza in Karamzin's story "Poor Liza"). The main character of the works was ordinary person. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life was often depicted in pastoral colors. The new content required a new form. The leading genres were the family novel, diary, confession, novel in letters, travel notes, elegy, message.

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

ROMANTISM - art direction in European and American culture late XVIII- first half of XIX century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany and then spread throughout Western Europe. The prerequisites for the emergence were the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism), the Great French Revolution, and German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary trend, as well as any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literatures. The French Revolution of 1789-1899 and the reassessment of the educational ideology associated with it had a decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe. As you know, the XV111 century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a whole century, French enlighteners led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural (natural) equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: "Liberty, equality and fraternity."

The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the winner was the bourgeois minority, which seized power (it used to belong to the aristocracy, the highest nobility), while the rest were left "with nothing". Thus, the long-awaited "kingdom of reason" turned out to be an illusion, as well as the promised freedom, equality and fraternity. There was a general disappointment in the results and results of the revolution, a deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because the basis of romanticism is the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge impact on Russian. This trend continued into the 19th century, so the French Revolution also shook Russia. But, in addition, there are actually Russian prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this is the Patriotic War of 1812, which clearly showed the greatness and strength of the common people. It was to the people that Russia owed its victory over Napoleon, the people were the true heroes of the war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, still remained serfs, in fact, slaves. What was previously perceived by the progressive people of that time as injustice, now began to seem like a flagrant injustice, contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not abolish serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. Thus, the ground for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term "romanticism" in relation to the literary movement is accidental and inaccurate. In this regard, from the very beginning of its inception, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word "roman", others - from knightly poetry created in countries that speak Romance languages. For the first time, the word "romanticism" as the name of a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

Very important for understanding the essence of romanticism is the concept of romantic duality. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the outside world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world. The world for romantics was divided into two parts: here and there. “There” and “here” are antithesis (contrast), these categories are correlated as ideal and reality. The despised "here" is a modern reality, where evil and injustice triumph. "There" - some poetic reality which the romantics contrasted with reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, ousted from public life, were still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of man, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their "there". For example, Zhukovsky was looking for "there" in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in free life uncivilized peoples (Pushkin's poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", Cooper's novels about the life of Indians).

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. It is fundamentally new hero, similar to him did not know the previous literature. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual, restless person, most often lonely and with a tragic fate. The romantic hero is the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

REALISM(from the Latin realis - material, real) - a method (creative setting) or a literary trend that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge of man and the world. Often the term "realism" is used in two senses: 1) realism as a method; 2) realism as a trend that emerged in the 19th century. Both classicism, and romanticism, and symbolism strive for the knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by the rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, and not display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, referring to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself in this way: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling to portray him the way I would like to see. Thus, we can say that the realists represent the real, and the romantics - the desired.

The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is enlightenment realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man "from the bottom" (for example, Figaro in Beaumarchais's plays "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro"). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: "fantastic" (Gogol, Dostoevsky), "grotesque" (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and "critical" realism associated with the activities of the "natural school".

The main requirements of realism: observance of the principles of nationality, historicism, high artistry, psychologism, the image of life in its development. Realist writers showed the direct dependence of the social, moral, religious ideas of the heroes on social conditions, and paid much attention to the social aspect. Central problem realism - the ratio of plausibility and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible depiction of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of the most important features of realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The credibility of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type of "little man" (Vyrin, Bashmachki n, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type of "extra person" (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).

MODERNISM(from French contemporary- the latest, modern) - a philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

This term has various interpretations:

1) designates a number of non-realistic trends in art and literature at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imagism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;

2) used as symbol aesthetic searches of artists of non-realistic trends;

3) denotes a complex set of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only modernist trends proper, but also the work of artists who do not completely fit into the framework of any direction (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

The brightest and significant areas Russian modernism became symbolism, acmeism and futurism.

SYMBOLISM - a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s in the poetic works of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarme. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and dramaturgy, but also with other forms of art. The ancestor, founder, "father" of symbolism is considered French writer Sh. Baudelaire.

At the heart of the worldview of symbolist artists lies the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the spiritual experience of a person and the creative intuition of the artist to be the only "tool" for understanding the world.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not in the image real world, which they considered secondary, but in the transmission of "higher reality". They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, the true essence of things is revealed. The Symbolists developed a new poetic language that does not directly name the subject, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, color scheme, free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant of the modernist movements that arose in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature”, published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the "new art": mystical content, symbolization and "expansion of artistic impressionability."

Symbolists are usually divided into two groups, or currents:

1) "senior" symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, F. Sologub

and others), who debuted in the 1890s;

2) "younger" symbolists who began their creative activity in the 1900s and significantly updated the appearance of the current (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the "senior" and "junior" symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in attitudes and the direction of creativity.

Symbolists believed that art is first of all " comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways"(Bryusov). After all, only phenomena that are subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality operates only in the lower forms of life (empirical reality, everyday life). The Symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area of ​​"absolute ideas" in Plato's terms or "world soul", according to V. Solovyov), not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate into these spheres, and the images-symbols with their infinite ambiguity are able to reflect the entire complexity of the world universe. The Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, higher reality was given only to the elect, who, in moments of inspired insights, were able to comprehend the “higher” truth, absolute truth.

The image-symbol was considered by the symbolists as more effective than artistic image, a tool that helps to “break through” through the cover of everyday life (lower life) to a higher reality. The symbol differs from the realistic image in that it conveys not the objective essence of the phenomenon, but the poet's own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, a symbol, as Russian symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but, first of all, an image that requires a response from the reader. creative work. The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution produced by symbolism in art.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings. This trait of his was repeatedly emphasized by the symbolists themselves: “A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning” (Vyach. Ivanov); “A symbol is a window to infinity” (F. Sologub).

ACMEISM(from Greek. act- the highest degree of something, flowering power, peak) - a modernist literary trend in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, JI. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov. The aesthetic program was formulated in Gumilyov's articles "The Legacy of Symbolism and Acmeism", Gorodetsky's "Some Currents in Modern Russian Poetry" and Mandelstam's "Morning of Acmeism".

Acmeism stood out from symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations for the “unknowable”: “Among the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable similarities with mystical love or anything else” (Gorodetsky) . Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to the material world, the subject, the exact meaning of the word. Symbolism is based on the rejection of reality, and the acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​​​in it and capture them in their works, and do this with the help of accurate and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

Actually, the acmeist current was small, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the "Workshop of Poets". The "Workshop of Poets" was created in 1911 and at first united a fairly large number of people (not all of them later became involved in acmeism). This organization was much more cohesive than the disparate symbolist groups. At the meetings of the "Workshop" poems were analyzed, problems of poetic mastery were solved, and methods for analyzing works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself did not enter the "Workshop". In his article “On Beautiful Clarity”, Kuzmin anticipated many declarations of acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of acmeism appeared. From this moment, the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed “beautiful clarity” as the task of literature, or clarism (from lat. clarus- clear). Acmeists called their current Adamism, linking the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world with the biblical Adam. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects, declare their love for objectivity. So, Gumilyov urged to look not for “unsteady words”, but for words “with a more stable content”. This principle was most consistently realized in Akhmatova's lyrics.

FUTURISM - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which received greatest development in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the Futurist Manifesto. The main provisions of this manifesto: the rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. As the main elements of futuristic poetry, Marinetti calls "courage, audacity, rebellion." In 1912, the Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste". They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experimentation, sought to find new means speech expressiveness(proclamation of a new free rhythm, loosening of syntax, destruction of punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content (“what is important is not what, but how”) and the absolute freedom of poetic speech.

Futurism was a heterogeneous direction. Within its framework, four main groups or currents can be distinguished:

1) "Hilea", which united cubo-futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh and others);

2) "Association of Egofuturists" (I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);

3) "Mezzanine of poetry" (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);

4) "Centrifuge" (S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was the "Gilea": in fact, it was she who determined the face of Russian futurism. Its participants released many collections: "The Garden of Judges" (1910), "Slap in the Face of Public Taste" (1912), "Dead Moon" (1913), "Took" (1915).

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the Futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which through the creative will of man creates "a new world, today's, iron ..." (Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Based on a living colloquial language, the futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

socialist realism(socialist realism) - the worldview method of artistic creativity used in art Soviet Union, and then in other socialist countries, introduced into artistic creativity by means of state policy, including censorship, and responding to the solution of the tasks of building socialism.

It was approved in 1932 by the party organs in literature and art.

In parallel, unofficial art existed.

Artistic depiction of reality "accurately, in accordance with the specific historical revolutionary development."

· the coordination of artistic creativity with the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, the active involvement of the working people in the construction of socialism, the assertion of the leading role of the Communist Party.

Lunacharsky was the first writer who laid its ideological foundation. Back in 1906, he introduced such a concept as "proletarian realism" into everyday life. By the twenties, in relation to this concept, he began to use the term “new social realism”, and in the early thirties he devoted to “dynamic and through and through active socialist realism”, “a good, meaningful term that can be revealed interestingly with the right analysis”, a cycle of programmatic and theoretical articles that were published in Izvestia.

The term "socialist realism" was first proposed by I. Gronsky, chairman of the Organizing Committee of the USSR Writers' Union, in Literaturnaya Gazeta on May 23, 1932. It arose in connection with the need to direct the RAPP and the avant-garde to artistic development Soviet culture. Decisive in this was the recognition of the role of classical traditions and understanding of the new qualities of realism. In 1932-1933 Gronsky and head. sector fiction The Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks V. Kirpotin strongly promoted this term [ source not specified 530 days] .

At the 1st All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934, Maxim Gorky stated:

“Socialist realism affirms being as an act, as creativity, the purpose of which is the continuous development of the most valuable individual abilities of a person for the sake of his victory over the forces of nature, for the sake of his health and longevity, for the sake of great happiness to live on the earth, which he, in accordance with the continuous growth of his needs, wants to process everything, as a beautiful dwelling of mankind, united in one family.

It was necessary for the state to approve this method as the main one for better control over creative people and better propaganda of their policies. In the previous period, the twenties, there were Soviet writers who sometimes took aggressive positions in relation to many outstanding writers. For example, the RAPP, an organization of proletarian writers, was actively involved in criticizing non-proletarian writers. The RAPP consisted mainly of aspiring writers. During the period of creation of modern industry (years of industrialization) Soviet power what was needed was an art that lifts the people to "labor feats." The fine arts of the 1920s also presented a rather motley picture. It has several groups. The most significant group was the Association of Artists of the Revolution. They depicted today: the life of the Red Army, workers, peasantry, leaders of the revolution and labor. They considered themselves the heirs of the Wanderers. They went to factories, plants, to the Red Army barracks in order to directly observe the life of their characters, to “draw” it. It was they who became the main backbone of the artists of "socialist realism". Less traditional masters had a much harder time, in particular, members of the OST (Society of Easel Painters), which united young people who graduated from the first Soviet art university [ source not specified 530 days] .

Gorky solemnly returned from exile and headed the specially created Union of Writers of the USSR, which included mainly Soviet writers and poets.

For the first time, an official definition of socialist realism was given in the Charter of the Writers' Union of the USSR, adopted at the First Congress of the Writers' Union:

Socialist realism, being the main method of Soviet fiction and literary criticism, requires from the artist a truthful, historically concrete depiction of reality in its revolutionary development. Moreover, the veracity and historical concreteness artistic image reality must be combined with the task of ideological transformation and education in the spirit of socialism.

This definition became the starting point for all further interpretations up to the 80s.

« socialist realism is a deeply vital, scientific and most advanced artistic method, developed as a result of the successes of socialist construction and the education of Soviet people in the spirit of communism. The principles of socialist realism ... were a further development of Lenin's teaching on the partisanship of literature. (Large soviet encyclopedia, 1947 )

Lenin expressed the idea that art should stand on the side of the proletariat in the following way:

“Art belongs to the people. The deepest springs of art can be found among a wide class of working people... Art must be based on their feelings, thoughts and demands and must grow with them.

Plan.

2. artistic method.

Literary trends and currents. literary schools.

4. Principles of artistic representation in literature.

The concept of the literary process. Periodization concepts literary process.

The literary process is the process of changing literature over time.

In Soviet literary criticism, the leading concept of literary development was the idea of ​​a change creative methods. The method was described as a way for the artist to reflect non-literary reality. The history of literature has been described as a gradual development of the realistic method. The main emphasis was placed on overcoming romanticism, on the formation of the highest form of realism - socialist realism.

A more consistent concept of the development of world literature was built by Academician N.F. Konrad, who also defended the progressive movement of literature. At the heart of such a movement was not a change in literary methods, but the idea of ​​discovering a person as the highest value (humanistic idea). In his work “West and East”, Conrad came to the conclusion that the concepts of “Middle Ages” and “Renaissance” are universal for all literatures. The period of antiquity is replaced by the Middle Ages, then the Renaissance, followed by the New Age. In each subsequent period, literature focuses more and more on the image of a person as such, more and more aware of the intrinsic value of the human person.

The concept of academician D.S. Likhachev is similar, according to which the literature of the Russian Middle Ages developed towards strengthening the personal principle. The great styles of the era (Romanesque style, Gothic style) were to be gradually replaced by the author's individual styles (Pushkin's style).

The most objective concept of Academician S.S. Averintsev, it gives a wide coverage of literary life, including modernity. At the heart of this concept is the idea of ​​reflexivity and traditional culture. The scientist identifies three major periods in the history of literature:

1. Culture can be non-reflexive and traditional (the culture of antiquity, in Greece - before the 5th century BC). Non-reflexivity means that literary phenomena are not comprehended, no literary theory, the authors do not reflect (do not analyze their work).

2. culture can be reflective, but traditional (from the 5th century BC to the new era). During this period, rhetoric, grammar, and poetics arise (reflection on language, style, creativity). Literature was traditional, there was a stable system of genres.

3. The last period, which is still going on. Reflection is preserved, tradition is broken. Writers reflect, but create new forms. The beginning was laid by the genre of the novel.

Changes in the history of literature can be progressive, evolutionary, regressive, involutionary.

artistic method

The artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of figurative reflection of life. One can speak of the method as the structure of the writer's artistic thinking, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The method is embodied in the content of a literary work. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles, thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic embodiment of characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction. The method manifests itself in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations for their behavior, actions, in the correlation of characters and events, in accordance with the life path, the fate of the characters, and the socio-historical circumstances of the era.

The concept of "method" (from the Greek "path of research") denotes "the general principle of the artist's creative attitude to cognizable reality, that is, its re-creation." These are a kind of ways of knowing life, which have changed in different historical and literary eras. According to some scholars, the method lies at the basis of currents and directions, represents the way of aesthetic exploration of reality, which is inherent in the works of a certain direction. Method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category.

The problem of the method of depicting reality was first recognized in antiquity and was fully embodied in the work of Aristotle "Poetics" under the name of "theory of imitation". Imitation, according to Aristotle, is the basis of poetry and its goal is to recreate the world like the real one, or, more precisely, what it could be. The authority of this theory remained until the end of the 18th century, when the Romantics proposed a different approach (also having its roots in antiquity, more precisely in Hellenism) - the re-creation of reality in accordance with the will of the author, and not with the laws of the "universe". These two concepts, according to Soviet literary criticism of the mid-20th century, underlie two “types of creativity” - “realistic” and “romantic”, within which the “methods” of classicism, romanticism, different types of realism, modernism fit.

Concerning the problem of the relationship between method and direction, it must be taken into account that the method as a general principle of figurative reflection of life differs from the direction as a historically specific phenomenon. Consequently, if this or that direction is historically unique, then the same method, as a broad category of the literary process, can be repeated in the work of writers of different times and peoples, and therefore, different directions and trends.

Literary trends and currents. Literary schools

X.A. Polevoi was the first in Russian criticism to use the word "direction" to refer to certain stages in the development of literature. In his article "On Directions and Parties in Literature" he called the direction "that inner striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all, or at least very many, works of literature in a certain given time... Its basis, in a general sense, is the idea of ​​the modern era. For " real criticism» - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov - the direction was correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities. But the main feature that unites them is that the direction fixes the unity of the most general principles for the embodiment of artistic content, the commonality of the deep foundations of the artistic worldview. There is no set list of literary trends, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of the historical, cultural, social life of society, national and regional peculiarities some kind of literature. However, traditionally there are such areas as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal and meaningful features.

Gradually, along with “direction”, the term “flow” comes into circulation, often used synonymously with “direction”. So, D.S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (1893) writes that “between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, special mental currents, a special air, are established, as between opposite poles, brimming with creativity." Often "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to "flow".

The term "literary trend" usually denotes a group of writers, connected by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. So, modernism - the general name of various groups in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes the departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of being - includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism , futurism, imagism, etc.

The belonging of artists to one direction or current does not exclude deep differences in their creative individualities. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves.

A trend is a smaller unit of the literary process, often within a direction, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in a certain literature. Quite often, the commonality of artistic principles in a current forms an “artistic system”. Yes, within the framework French classicism distinguish two currents. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes (“Cartesian rationalism”), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in the ideological principles of such writers as J. Lafontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both currents differ in the system used artistic means. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings). A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of commonality, up to a common theme, style, and language, are generally recognized as belonging to the same school.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school.

Many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything.

The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers are often literary groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy his artistic principles. Group of English religious poets early XVII century formed the Spencer School.

It should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To consider it in this way means to schematize the literary life of the epoch, to impoverish the history of literature. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V.M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”

The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, therefore one should be extremely careful when using such categories as “flow” and “direction”. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

Style is traditionally included in the Literary Theories section. The term "style" as applied to literature has a number of meanings: the style of the work; the style of the writer's work, or individual style (say, the style of poetry by N.A. Nekrasov); the style of the literary direction, current, method (for example, the style of symbolism); style as a set of stable elements art form, determined by the general features of the worldview, content, national traditions inherent in literature and art in a certain historical era (the style of Russian realism of the second half of the 19th century).

In a narrow sense, style is understood as the manner of writing, the features of the poetic structure of the language (lexicon, phraseology, figurative and expressive means, syntactic constructions, etc.). In a broad sense, style is a concept used in many sciences: literary criticism, art criticism, linguistics, cultural studies, and aesthetics. They talk about work style, behavior style, thinking style, leadership style, etc.

Style-forming factors in literature are the ideological content, form components that specifically express the content; this also includes the vision of the world, which is connected with the worldview of the writer, with his understanding of the essence of phenomena and man. Stylistic unity also includes the structure of the work (composition), analysis of conflicts, their development in the plot, the system of images and ways of revealing characters, the pathos of the work. Style, as a unifying and artistically organizing principle of the whole work, even absorbs the way landscape sketches. All this is style in the broadest sense of the word. In the originality of the method and style, the features of the literary direction and trend are expressed.

According to the features of the style expression, they judge literary hero(attributes of its external appearance and form of behavior are taken into account), about the belonging of the building to a particular era in the development of architecture (Empire style, Gothic style, Art Nouveau style, etc.), about the specifics of the image of reality in the literature of a particular historical formation (in ancient Russian literature- the style of monumental medieval historicism, the epic style of the 11th-13th centuries, the expressive-emotional style of the 14th-15th centuries, the baroque style of the second half of the 17th century, etc.). No one today will be surprised by the expressions “game style”, “life style”, “leadership style”, “work style”, “building style”, “furniture style”, etc., and every time, along with a generalizing cultural meaning, a specific evaluative meaning is embedded in these stable formulas (for example, “I prefer this style of clothing” - unlike others, etc.).

Style in literature is a functionally applied set of means of expression arising from the knowledge of the general laws of reality, realized by the ratio of all elements of the poetics of a work in order to create a unique artistic impression.