Russian culture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries

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3. Surname of the scientist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904 for discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion
5. The name of public universities that opened in large cities in the early 20th century
8. The name of the concept in the architecture of the late 19th-n.20th century, in which there is a rejection of straight lines and angles in favor of more natural, “natural” lines, the use of new technologies (metal, glass)
10. One of the modernist trends in Russian poetry of the 1910s, formed as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism
12. Surname of the first Russian film entrepreneur, who in 1907 began the production of domestic feature films, built a film factory in Moscow, a number of cinemas
13. One of the greatest Russian historians, ordinary professor at Moscow University
17. Abstract, non-objective, trend in the art of the 20th century, which put forward the idea of ​​refusing to depict the forms of reality
21. The name of the artists who bizarrely combined the traditions of folk art and the modernist style of depiction in their paintings
Vertically
1. Russian opera and chamber singer (high bass), at various times a soloist of the Bolshoi and Mariinsky theaters, as well as the Metropolitan Opera, the first People's Artist of the Republic (1918-1927, the title was returned in 1991), in 1918-1921 - artistic director Mariinsky Theater
2. Surname of the director of the first feature films "Queen of Spades", "Father Sergius"
4. Surname of the scientist who laid the foundations of biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology in the late 19th-20th centuries
6. Pseudonym of a Russian writer, prose writer, playwright. One of the most significant and famous Russian writers and thinkers in the world. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, he became famous as the author of works with a revolutionary tendency, personally close to the Social Democrats and in opposition to the tsarist regime.
7. The surname of the Russian architect, who is one of the most prominent representatives of the Art Nouveau style in Russian and European architecture, is one of the largest architects of the turn of the 19th-20th centuries (the building of the Yaroslavsky railway station, the Ryabushinsky mansion in Moscow)
9. An artistic movement that arose at the end of the 19th century and considered the goal of art to be an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols
11. A trend in the art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by a break with the previous historical experience of artistic creativity, the desire to establish new non-traditional beginnings in art, the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style
13. Branch of human activity, which consists in the creation of moving images. It was invented at the end of the 19th century and became extremely popular in the 20th century.
14. Designation of a trend in literature and art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by opposition to generally accepted bourgeois morality, the cult of beauty as a self-contained value, often accompanied by the aestheticization of sin and vice, ambivalent experiences of disgust for life and refined enjoyment of it, etc.
15. Surname of a scientist who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, who laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics
16. This is mass poetry, close to the lower classes of the city: the authors are often their own, workers. The poems are clear and specific - a kind of response to real events.
18. The term, which, according to the prevailing in Russian criticism of the 20th century. traditions, denote the art (primarily literature) of Russia at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. or early 20th century
19. A trend in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which originated in France and then spread throughout the world, whose representatives sought to develop methods and techniques that made it possible to most naturally capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions
20. They preached the destruction of the forms and conventions of art in order to merge it with the accelerated life process of the 20th century. They are characterized by admiration for action, movement, speed, strength and aggression.

In order to have a good understanding of the peculiarities of Russian culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, one must have an idea of ​​the nature of domestic law, economics, and politics of that period. This is of key importance. The role of Russian culture cannot be overestimated. Thanks to Peter's reforms in the empire, the legislative design of the bureaucracy was also established. In particular, this was reflected in the "golden age" of Catherine II.

Events at the beginning of the 19th century

The century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander I. In practice, it was carried out in order to strengthen the feudal-absolutist order. At the same time, the influence of the new "zeitgeist" must be taken into account. First of all, the reflection of the Great French Revolution on the entire Russian culture can be traced. The love of freedom is one of her archetypes. It is sung by all Russian poetry, from Tsvetaeva to Pushkin. After the ministries were established, there was a further bureaucratization of administration. In addition, the central apparatus of the Russian Empire was improved. The establishment of the State Council is the most important element of Europeanization and modernization of the entire system. Its main functions are: ensuring the uniformity of legal norms and centralizing the legislative business.

Golden period

Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th century developed very intensively. Progressive Western European thoughts and world revolutionary progress had a strong influence on this process. The close relationship of Russian culture with others also affected. This was the period when French developed and these ideas became very popular throughout the state. Russian culture of the early 19th century was strongly influenced by the legacy left over from previous generations. New sprouts of creativity in literature sprang up precisely because of him. This also applies to the spheres of culture, painting and poetry. The works of F. Dostoevsky, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, N. Leskov and N. Gogol are permeated with the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. It is also impossible not to note the work of other literary geniuses, whose attitude towards Orthodox movements was more controversial. We are talking about A. Blok, L. Tolstoy, A. Pushkin and so on. In their work there is an indelible seal that testifies to their Orthodox roots. Also, one should not forget the skeptical I. Turgenev. In his work "Living Relics" the image of popular holiness is presented. Also of great interest is the Russian artistic culture of that time. We are talking about the paintings of K. Petrov-Vodkin, M. Vrubel, M. Nesterov. The origins of their work lie in Orthodox iconography. Ancient church singing has become a striking phenomenon in the history of musical culture. This also includes the later experiments of S. Rachmaninov, P. Tchaikovsky and D. Bortnyansky.

Major contributions

Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th century absorbed the best achievements of other peoples and countries. However, she did not lose her identity. In addition, it had a significant impact on the development of other cultures. As for the history of European peoples, it has left a considerable mark. First of all, we are talking about religious Russian thought. It was formed under the influence of the West. In turn, Western European culture was influenced by theology and philosophy. This is especially true in the first half of the 20th century. A significant contribution to the development of Russian culture was made by the works of M. Bakunin, N. Berdyaev, P. Florensky, V. Solovyov, and many others. We must not forget about the "thunderstorm of the twelfth year." We are talking about a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture. The Patriotic War is inextricably linked with the growth and formation of "Decembristism". It also influenced the traditions of Russian culture. V. Belinsky wrote that that year shook the whole country, and at the same time aroused people's pride and consciousness.

Features of the historical process

His pace was noticeably quickened. This is due to the factors described above. The differentiation of different areas of cultural activity was in full swing. This is especially true in science. The cultural process itself also became more complicated. There was a greater mutual influence of various spheres. In particular, this applies to music, literature, philosophy, and so on. It should also be noted that the processes of interaction between the constituent elements of national culture have intensified. This is its official part, which was patronized by the state, and the area of ​​​​the masses (that is, the folklore layer). The latter comes from the bowels of the East Slavic tribal unions. This layer was formed in Ancient Rus'. It has fully existed throughout the history of the country. As for the bowels of the official-state culture, the presence of an "elitist" stratum can be traced here. She served the ruling class. First of all, this applies to the royal court and the aristocracy. This layer was quite susceptible to foreign innovations. In this case, it is appropriate to mention the romantic painting of A. Ivanov, K. Bryullov, V. Tropinin, O. Kiprensky and other famous artists of the 19th century.

18th century influence

In its first half, raznochintsy intellectuals appeared. By the end of the century, a special social group emerged. We are talking about the serf intelligentsia. It included poets, musicians, architects and painters. If at the beginning of the century the leading roles belonged to the noble intelligentsia, then at the end - to the raznochintsy. People from the peasantry began to join the composition of this layer. This was especially felt after the abolition of serfdom. The raznochintsy included educated representatives of the democratic and liberal bourgeoisie. It could not be said that they belonged to the nobility. Rather, they can be attributed to the peasantry, merchants, philistinism and bureaucracy. This confirms such important features of Russian culture as the beginning of its democratization processes. Their essence lies in the fact that not only members of the privileged classes became educated figures. However, the leading place still belonged to them. The number of scientists, composers, artists, poets, writers from the unprivileged strata increased. In particular, this applies to the serf peasantry, and mainly from the circle of raznochintsy.

Fruits of the 19th century

The art of Russian culture continues to develop actively. Literature becomes its leading area. First of all, the influence of progressive liberation ideology can be traced here. In fact, many works of that period are filled with revolutionary, militant appeals, as well as political pamphlets. This is the most important significance of Russian culture. She was a great inspiration to the progressive youth. The reign of the spirit of struggle and opposition was felt. It permeated the works of progressive writers. Thus, literature became one of the most active forces of society. You can take, for example, the richest world classics and compare Russian culture. Even against its background, the literature of the last century is an exceptional phenomenon. Tolstoy's prose and Pushkin's poetry can be called a real miracle. It is no coincidence that Yasnaya Polyana became the intellectual capital.

A. Pushkin's contribution

It is difficult to say what the culture of Russia would be like without him. A. Pushkin is the founder of Russian realism. Suffice it to recall "Eugene Onegin". This novel in verse was called by the famous critic an encyclopedia of Russian life. This is the highest expression of realism in the works of genius. Also, the stories "Dubrovsky", "The Captain's Daughter", the drama "Boris Godunov" can be attributed to outstanding examples of this direction of literature. As for the world significance of Pushkin, it is inextricably linked with the understanding of the universal significance of the tradition that he himself created. He paved the literary road for A. Chekhov, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, I. Turgenev, N. Gogol, M. Lermontov. It has become a full-fledged fact of Russian culture. In addition, this road is the most important moment in the spiritual development of mankind.

Lermontov's contribution

He can be called the successor and junior contemporary of Pushkin. First of all, it is worth highlighting the "Hero of Our Time". It is impossible not to note its consonance with the novel "Eugene Onegin". Meanwhile, "A Hero of Our Time" is the pinnacle of Lermontov's realism. His work represents the highest point in the evolution of post-Pushkin poetry. Thanks to this, new paths were opened for the development of domestic prose. Byron's work is the main aesthetic landmark. Russian romantic individualism implies the existence of a cult of titanic passions. Also here can be attributed lyrical expression and extreme situations, which are combined with philosophical self-deepening. Thus, Lermontov's attraction to the lyrical epic poem, romance and ballad becomes understandable. Love occupies a special place in them. Also, do not forget about the "dialectics of feelings" - Lermontov's method of psychological analysis, which made a significant contribution to subsequent literature.

Gogol's research

His work developed in the direction from romantic forms to realism. Gogol's works contributed a lot to the development of Russian literature. As an example, you can take "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka". Here the concept of Little Russia is embodied - a sort of Slavic Ancient Rome. It is like a whole continent on a map of the universe. Dikanka is its original center, the center of national destiny and spiritual specificity. In addition, Gogol founded the "natural school". It's about critical realism. Russian culture of the 20th century was marked by worldwide recognition of Gogol. From that moment on, he became an active and growing element of world literary progress. His work has a deep philosophical potential, which is indicated gradually.

Tolstoy's contribution

His ingenious creativity deserves special attention. It became a new stage in the development of world and Russian realism. First of all, it is worth highlighting the power and novelty of Tolstoy's work. Here, a lot depended on the democratic roots of his activities, moral searches and world consciousness. Tolstoy's realism is distinguished by a special truthfulness. It is also impossible not to highlight the directness and frankness of the tone. The consequence of this is a sharp discovery of social contradictions and crushing power. "War and Peace" is a special phenomenon in world and Russian literature. This is a unique phenomenon of Tolstoy's art. We are talking about an ingenious combination of a multi-figure epic "fresco" and a psychological novel on a grand scale. The first part of the work was published a very long time ago. During this time, several generations of readers have changed. Nevertheless, "War and Peace" continues to be a relevant work for all ages. a modern writer, called this work an eternal companion of man. It is dedicated to the disastrous war of the 19th century. It affirms the moral idea of ​​the triumph of life over death. Russian culture of the 20th century gave this colossal significance.

Dostoevsky's research

It remains to marvel at their titanic character. Dostoevsky is a great Russian writer. His moral research is somewhat different from Tolstoy's. First of all, this is manifested in the absence of an analysis of epic scales. That is, there is no description of what is happening. You have to go underground. This is the only way to see what is really happening. This gives you the opportunity to look at yourself. Dostoevsky had an amazing ability, which consisted in penetrating into the very essence of the human soul. As a result, they gave a description of modern nihilism. This attitude of mind was characterized by him indelibly. Readers are still fascinated by the inexplicable accuracy and depth. As for ancient nihilism, it was inextricably linked with Epicureanism and skepticism. His ideal is noble serenity. It also refers to achieving peace of mind before the vicissitudes of fortune.

Alexander the Great in his time was deeply impressed by the nihilism of ancient India. The same was felt by his entourage. If we take into account the philosophical attitude, then this is somewhat similar to the position of Pyrrho of Elis. The result is the contemplation of emptiness. As for Nagarjuna, for him and his followers, nihilism was the threshold of religion.

The current trend is somewhat different from the past. Its basis is still intellectual conviction. It is not a blessed state of equanimity or philosophical equanimity. Rather, it is about the inability to create and affirm. This is not a philosophy, but a spiritual flaw.

The main stages of the flourishing of musical art

The 19th century was distinguished by the intensive development of literature. Along with this, the musical culture of Russia sparkled brightly. At the same time, she was in close interaction with literature. Thus, Russian artistic culture was intensively enriched. Completely new images appeared. The aesthetic ideal of Rimsky-Korsakov is at the heart of his musical work. Beauty in art is an unconditional value for him. His operas are filled with images of the highly poetic world. This clearly shows that art has a dual power. It transforms and conquers a person. Rimsky-Korsakov combines this function of art with his idea of ​​the quality of a means for moral perfection. This cult is inextricably linked with the romantic affirmation of the Human Creator. He is involved in a confrontation with the alienating tendencies of the past. This music elevates everything human. Its goal is to bring salvation from the "terrible seductions" that are inherent in the bourgeois age. This is another meaning of Russian culture. Thanks to it, society is benefited and a great civic goal is acquired. The work of P. Tchaikovsky made a huge contribution to the flourishing of the national musical culture. He wrote many wonderful works. The opera "Eugene Onegin" was experimental in nature. In addition, the author himself interprets it as "lyrical scenes". The innovative essence of the opera lies in the reflection of the new progressive literature.

Russian culture of the early 20th century

It should be noted that at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. quite complex historical and political events took place in the country. It was thanks to them that Russian culture of the early 20th century was enriched by a variety of forms and directions. She acquired new trends that required understanding of the social and moral problems that had arisen. It should be said that by the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was a country with a large number of illiterate people. The educational system included three levels: higher, secondary and primary. The development of the latter began thanks to the initiative of the democratic group of society. As a result, schools of an updated type began to emerge. Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th century had a great influence on the development of education and raising the literacy of the population. Among the leading educational institutions, we should note workers' educational societies and courses, as well as people's houses. Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries influenced not only life within the state, but also beyond its borders.

Late XIX - early XX century. - the time of tangible quantitative and qualitative changes in the Russian economy. Domestic industry grew at a high rate. The accelerated economic growth was largely facilitated by the policy of accelerated industrialization of the country.

Between the socio-economic base and the political-cultural superstructure, the links in any society are not direct and simple. Often the pre-crisis state of society contributes to the flourishing of culture, and economic prosperity can lead to its decline.

Changes in the socio-economic structure of the country that occurred in the second half of the 19th century had a significant impact on the development of the culture of the people. The era of industrial capitalism caused a need for educated technical personnel, for specialists of various profiles, which people from the noble intelligentsia could no longer satisfy. If the latter used to play a leading role in all areas of the country's cultural life, then since the late 1950s and early 1960s, the raznochintsy intelligentsia has been increasingly included in it.

Having received an education, raznochintsy joined the ranks of the intelligentsia in the field of science and technology, literature and art. The best representatives of the intelligentsia, reflecting liberation ideas in their work, contributed to the development of a democratic trend in culture.

In the post-reform period, there were noticeable changes in the culture and life of the urban and rural population. They were especially noticeable in cities. Representing the centers of development of industry and trade, the revolutionary movement, large cities were at the same time centers of cultural life. Higher educational institutions, scientific institutions, editorial offices of magazines and newspapers, theaters, museums, libraries were concentrated in them, congresses of scientists were convened, and scientific societies operated.

After the reform of 1861. the network of urban primary schools grew, and the striving of the urban proletariat for education and culture intensified. The intensifying revolutionary struggle had a great influence on cultural development. Already in the 1970s, along with revolutionary propaganda, the Narodniks conducted general education classes with the workers. Significant changes are taking place in the countryside. Capitalism has eliminated the immobility of the rural population, caused a surge of it in the cities. Peasants who arrived in the city to earn money acquired new knowledge and cultural skills under the influence of communication with workers. Among the peasants, the understanding of the need for literacy grew, the number of people wishing to learn, and interest in the book grew. But the difficult economic situation of the masses often became an obstacle to enlightenment. Gradually, the life of the peasantry, its family structure, is changing. Thanks to the involvement of women in hired labor, patriarchal relations in the family collapsed, and the role of women increased.

However, the capitalist era in the history of Russia was short-lived - capitalism as a socio-economic formation existed for a little more than half a century. The autocracy, being a feudal political superstructure in the post-reform era, did not fundamentally change its attitude to culture, especially to the problem of enlightening the people. Progressive capitalism created the need for a high level of education of people, the need for total literacy of the population, the policy of the autocracy gave rise to a numerous movement of raznochintsy, who, together with enlightenment, brought revolutionary ideas to the masses.

A distinctive feature of the social and cultural life of the first post-reform decades was the spread of enlightenment.

A broad movement has unfolded in the country for the creation of public schools, changing the methods of teaching in them, and granting the right to education to women. A great deal of work to spread education among the people was carried out by literacy committees, public educational organizations associated with zemstvos. The Moscow Literacy Committee, which arose back in 1845, first raised the issue of introducing universal primary education. In 1861, the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee was established under the Free Economic Society. He set the goal "to promote the spread of literacy mainly among peasants who have emerged from serfdom." Similar educational organizations arose in Tomsk, Samara, Kharkov and other cities of Russia. They carried out work on compiling a catalog of books for elementary school, writing textbooks, and raising funds for the needs of public education.

The development of capitalist relations, the formation of an industrial society, the growth of the urban population, the emergence of new means of communication and communication, the creation of a new type of army urgently demanded an increase in higher and specialized education. Meanwhile, the situation of public education was difficult. Tsarism considered culture as the ideological side of the monarchical system and supported such enlightenment, science, art and literature, which contributed to the strengthening of this system. According to historians, in the middle of the XIX century. The number of literate people was only 6% of the total population. There were 8227 elementary schools, 450 thousand students studied in them, 18 thousand students in 75 gymnasiums, and 5 thousand students in six universities. 80% of students in secondary and higher schools were noblemen. The advanced public of Russia advocated the development of general education, which should be the basis of professional education, and the elimination of the class system of the school.

The outstanding scientist and teacher K. D. Ushinsky (1834-1871) is the founder of the folk school and scientific pedagogy in Russia. Ushinsky's pedagogical theory is based on the idea of ​​national education. He approved in Russian didactics the principle of the unity of education and upbringing. Pedagogical ideas are embodied by him in textbooks for elementary school "Children's World". "native word".

During the period of school reforms of the 60s. for the lower classes, the network of primary schools, people's urban, county and rural schools, and parochial schools expanded. In the cities, new educational institutions also arose - Sunday schools for adults, the number of which already in the early 60s. reached 16. Since the end of the 80s. their activities have intensified. The merit of these schools in spreading literacy and knowledge among the population is enormous. Significant is the role of the peasant school, in which in the early 90s. up to І00 thousand people studied But the main element of primary education was the zemstvo public school. In 1864-1874. about 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened, which were distinguished by better teaching methods than in state ones.

The classical gymnasium with the teaching of Greek and Latin and the real schools with the predominant teaching of natural science and exact disciplines established themselves as the dominant type of secondary school.

In the post-reform years, all-class women's gymnasiums were created, as well as higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kyiv. In 1882, a women's medical institute was opened. With the opening of Tomsk University in 1888, the development of higher education in Siberia began. At the beginning of the XX century. opened a university in Saratov. In connection with the technical renovation of industrial production, transport and communications, the number of branch universities increased. Polytechnic, technological, agricultural higher educational institutions were opened. By the end of the XIX century. in Russia, more than 60 state universities functioned, in which about 30 thousand students studied. In 1880, 77.8% of the budget for education were contributions from rural societies and county zemstvos.

In 1893, there were 44,545 government schools in Russia with 2.7 million students, 567 secondary schools with a contingent of 159,000 people, and 9 universities with 14,000 students. About 50% of the total number of students in secondary and higher schools were nobles.

According to the 1897 census, only 21% of the Russian population could read. In general, the possibilities of Russian education lagged behind the needs of the country.

Various means of enlightenment and education contributed to the rise of the cultural level of the population. The printing industry, which became in the second half of the XIX century. separate branch of capitalist production, increased output. In 1894, there were 1315 printing houses that published 804 periodicals (of which 112 were daily X newspapers), 10651 books. By the end of the XIX century. Russia ranked third in the world in terms of the number of titles of published literature. However, there were only 2812 bookstores and shops, mainly in the capitals and large cities, the village was deprived of the opportunity to purchase the necessary literature. In 1980, there were only 0.16 copies of a book per person

In the 80 90s. major publishers were I. D. Sytin (1851 - 1934), who published cheap books for the people, textbooks, children's books, calendars, collected works of Russian classics, etc., and I. N. Granata, A. S. Suvorin (1834-1912), F. F. Pavlenkov (1839-1900, Soykin (1862-1938).

A significant role in public life was played by magazines aimed at the educated strata of Russian society: Sovremennik, Otechestvennye zapiski, Russkoe Slovo, Delo, etc. Satirical magazines and leaflets were popular - Svistok, Iskra, "Beep", "Splinter", "Niva", etc.

In the second half of the XIX century. compared with the previous period, the number of special, scientific, departmental and folk libraries increased, in 1861 a public library was opened in Moscow at the Rumyantsev Museum (now the Russian State Library), the fund of which at first consisted of collections of books, manuscripts, works of art by Count N. P. Rumyantsev (1754 - 1826), then the collections of books by G. R. Derzhavin, II. Ya. Chaadaev, Russian businessman and publisher K. T. Soldatenkov. The number of publicly accessible public and private libraries has increased in the country.

The Historical, Polytechnical museums, the Tretyakov Gallery were also opened in Moscow. In St. Petersburg in 1898, the Imperial Russian Museum was opened.

Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the XIX century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, made scientific reports, published articles in scientific journals.

New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, the Russian Technical Society (1866). Physico-mathematical societies were created at all Russian universities. In the 70s. more than 20 scientific societies operated in Russia.

St. Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P. L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.

An algebraic school arose in Kiev, headed by D. A. Grave (1863 - 1939) D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) was a brilliant chemist who created the periodic system of chemical elements. He proved the inner strength between several types of chemicals. The periodic system was the foundation in the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far ahead.The work of D. I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was only published seven times during his lifetime.

Scientists N. N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A. M. Butlerov (1828-1886) are the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian Organic Chemists.

The founder of the Russian physical school A. G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which was recognized throughout the world.

Of the inventions and discoveries of P. N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called "Yablochkov candle" - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison, A. N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for incandescence.

The discoveries of A. S. Popov (1859-1905) gained world fame. On April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, he announced the invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a "lightning detector" - a radio receiver, found practical application very soon.

A. F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s. he worked on the creation of the aircraft. N. E. Zhukovsky (1848-1921), author of research in the field of solid mechanics, astronomy, mathematics, hydrodynamics, hydraulics, and the theory of machine control. He created a single scientific discipline - experimental and theoretical aerodynamics. He built one of the first wind tunnels in Europe, determined the lift force of an aircraft wing, and developed a method for calculating it.

Of outstanding importance were the works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale, he was the first to indicate the development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.

Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P. N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.

The biological sciences have made great strides. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology

II. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) - the founder of the natural science direction in psychology and the creator of the Russian physiological school. The scientific interests of IP Pavlov (1849-1936) were represented by the physiology of the brain. II Mechnikov (1845-1915) - an outstanding embryologist, microbiologist and pathologist who made a great contribution to the development of science. He is the founder (together with A. O. Kovalevsky, 1840-1901) of a new scientific discipline - comparative embryology and the theory of phagocytosis, which is of great importance in modern microbiology and pathology. His works in 1905 were awarded the Nobel Prize (together with P. Ehrlich).

The largest representative of Russian science was K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920). VV Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem", recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types. Much has been done in the study of the North of Russia, the Urals and the Caucasus, the founder of the Russian geological scientific school, A.P. Karpinsky (1846/47-1936) and A.A. Inostrantsev.

Great interest in the world was caused by expeditions to study Central and Central Asia and the Ussuri region of IM. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), who first described the nature of these regions. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) - head of the Russian Geographical Society, explored the Tien Shan, I. N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) - Russian scientist, traveler, public figure and humanist.

Successfully developed social sciences, the leading among which was history. Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of national history.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of the historical views of the Westerners (V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, T. T. Granovsky, I. S. Turgenev) and the Slavophiles (A. S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu. F. Samarin) with over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict. Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe is at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and showing the way for the rest of humanity.

The Slavophiles argued that there is no single universal civilization, and, consequently, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the "folk spirit" that permeates all aspects of collective life. For Russia, this spirit is the Orthodox faith and the principles of inner truth and spiritual freedom associated with it.

Despite all the ideological differences, the Slavophiles and the Westernizers unexpectedly agreed on the practical issues of Russian life: both trends had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press, speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.

In the post-reform years, philology and linguistics were developed. I. I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) prepared works on the history of the Old Slavonic language and Old Russian literature. His merit is also the creation of the St. Petersburg School of Slavists. V. I. Dal (1801-1872) - the creator of the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" (over 200 thousand words), which, and unlike the academic dictionaries of that time, contains the vocabulary of living folk speech, collected by the author in different regions of Russia , as well as the collection "Proverbs of the Russian people" (over 30 thousand proverbs and sayings). The development of the history of Russia was carried out by a number of prominent historians. In the 50-70s. The talented Russian historian SM. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.

V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) taught the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with the economic and geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N. I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) much attention is paid to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine against the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of "Russian history and biographies of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the amazing successes of Russian science, leading it to leading positions in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westernizers, who, despite the cardinal divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.

Development of literature, theater and music

The dominant trend in literature and art of the second half of the XIX century. was the method of critical realism, the fundamental principle of which was a true reflection of reality and understanding of the depicted phenomena from the point of view of their correspondence to social progress. Enormous social coverage, offensive, accusatory spirit, appeal to topical problems - this is what determined the literature of the post-reform period. Russian literature was distinguished not only by its critical attitude to reality, it exposed evil, looked for ways to combat this evil, and carried out a socially transforming mission. The ideological completeness, deep penetration into life phenomena, rejection of injustice, the richness of the artistic embodiment of literary works determined the leading role of literature in the development of other types of art.

In the second half of the XIX century. and the first decade of the 20th century. accounts for the work of the artist of thought and word L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), who created such masterpieces as the stories "Childhood. Adolescence. Youth", "Hadji Murad", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich", "Kreutzer Sonata", novels " War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection", the dramas "The Power of Darkness", "The Fruits of Enlightenment", "The Living Corpse", etc.

Russian literature of the post-reform decades can be considered a phenomenon of the European artistic culture of the 19th century. No country in the world at that time had such a right and highly spiritual literature. The realist dictatorship of Russia reflected the whole range of problems of a historical and religious nature, comprehended with scientific precision and philosophical depth.

Each of the galaxy of great writers saw the future of Russia differently. But all of them were united by love for the Fatherland, a thirst for its prosperity due to the free and honest labor of all members of society. Many wrote about the need to increase the welfare of the peasantry - V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev. N. A. Nekrasov (1821-1877) became a recognized master of populist poetry of these years. He entered Russian culture as a "saddener of the people's grief", an intercessor of ordinary peasants from oppressors of all stripes. Nekrasov's poetry is realistic and to some extent comparable to realistic prose. It is characterized by the ability of the poet to objectively and accurately evaluate this or that fact, this or that event:

A different role in the culture of Russia was played by the brilliant writer F. M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). According to the apt definition of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, Dostoevsky sought answers to the pressing questions of our time "in the remotest searches of mankind." Possessing a unique gift of prophecy and the ability to analyze the movements of the human soul, the writer professed ideas that went beyond the limits of the ideas of a specific historical period of time into the sphere of higher timeless interests of people's lives. He draws images of the people in accordance with the logic of characters and the truth of life, combining good and evil.

Chekhov opened new paths in the development of domestic and world drama. In his plays, he abandoned the tradition of dividing characters into "positive" and "negative". The character of Chekhov's heroes develops on the basis of a multifaceted analysis of various behavioral motives. Chekhov was keenly aware of an alarming sign of the times - the lack of mutual understanding between people. His heroes are fenced off by an invisible wall, they listen, but seem not to hear each other, plunging into the world of their own experiences.

The historical turning point in the development of the Russian theater is associated with Chekhov's plays "The Seagull", "Three Sisters", "The Cherry Orchard", staged at the Moscow Art Theater by K. S. Stanislavsky and Vl. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko And - " The Seagull" (1895-1896) struck contemporaries with its lyricism and subtlety of symbolism. The love events underlying the play develop sharply and dramatically.

The fine arts of the post-reform period, as well as literature, were closely connected with the turbulent processes of social life. It reflected disputes about the ways of transforming Russia, a harsh critical assessment of social reality, populist views on the peasantry, the age-old Russian longing for perfection and a moral ideal. Common features of painting and literature are publicism, a realistic assessment of everyday and personal phenomena through the prism of generalized typification and social analysis. The moral and educational tasks that both literature and fine arts tried to solve are also common.

The social function of painting of this period changed radically. If the art of classicism obeyed the idea of ​​decorating life, then in the art of the 60s - 70s. the aesthetic moment was no longer considered the main one. It seemed to the artists much more important to truthfully reflect the social problems, thoughts and feelings of representatives of various classes. The desire to keep up with the times, enlightenment beliefs and illusions gave rise to critical painting, highlighting situations of people's misfortunes. Belief in the social significance of art contributed to the formation of a galaxy of artists who found their calling in reflecting the world of poverty, oppression, lack of rights. Among them is the outstanding master V. G. Perov (1834-1882).

Sensitive to changes in the social climate, the artist reflected in his work the development of mindsets of the 60s - 80s.

The development of the theater in the second half of the 19th century is inextricably linked with the name of A. N. Ostrovsky. He created the national Russian theater, which became "a sign of the maturity of the nation, as well as academies, universities, museums." Realistic, full of deep psychologism plays by A. N. Ostrovsky contributed to the establishment of critical realism on the Russian stage. The main centers of theatrical culture were the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg.

Improved Russian opera art.

Music, painting, theater are inextricably linked with the development of literature. Late 19th-early 20th centuries - the period of achievements of Russian musical culture associated with the names of P. I. Tchaikovsky, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, M. A. Balakirev, Ts. A. Cui, SV. Rachmaninov, A. K. Glazunov, SI. Taneev, A. N. Scriabin, I. F. Stravinsky and others.

In the musical culture of the second half of the XIX century. a special place is occupied by the "Mighty Handful", or "New Russian Music School". This is a team consisting of five Russian composers - M. A. Balakirev (1837-1910), A. P. Borodin (1833-1887), Ts. A Cui (1835-1918), MP Mussorgsky (1839-1881) and NA. Rimsky-Korsakov, - took shape in the late 50s and early 60s. The tasks and aesthetic positions of the members of the circle were formed under the influence of the views of the Russian art and music critic V. V. Stasov (1834-1906).

The composers of the "Mighty Handful" in their work developed the traditions of classical music by M. I. Glinka and A. S. Dargomyzhsky, widely pushed the boundaries of the genres of symphonic, opera, instrumental music, enriched them with new forms, bringing them closer to topical issues of social life. During the period of activity of the "Mighty Handful" some of the best works of the circle members were created: the oriental fantasy "Islamey", the symphonic poem "Rus" by M. Balakirev; First Symphony by A. Borodin; operas "William Ratcliff" and "Son of the Mandarin" by Ts. Cui; symphonic picture "Night on Bald Mountain", opera "Boris Godunov" by M. Mussorgsky; First and Second symphonies, opera "Pskovityanka" by N. Rimsky-Korsakov.

According to Stasov, three most important features were characteristic of the music of the new school: the absence of prejudices and blind faith, the desire for nationality, and "its extreme inclination to program music." Composers urged to create national music, draw melodies from folk songs and refer to the plots of social history.

The turn of Russian fine art towards critical realism was marked in the late 1950s. 19th century The most important trends in the development of painting were determined by the artists who united on the initiative of I. I. Kramskoy (1837-1887), N. N. Ge (1831-1894), V. G. Perov (1833-1882) and the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. I. N. Kramskoy became the ideological leader of the association.

The purpose of the Association was defined as the need to promote the painting of Russian artists. To this end, “traveling art exhibitions were to be organized in all cities of the empire in the form of providing the inhabitants of the provinces with the opportunity to get acquainted with Russian art and follow its progress.”

Already the first exhibition of paintings by the Wanderers in 1871 showed that a new direction in painting had emerged, which was characterized by the rejection of academic canons, the transition to critical realism, citizenship, and the depiction of Russian reality. In an effort to serve the people with their creativity, the Wanderers turned to its history, nature, glorified the greatness, strength, beauty and wisdom of the Russian people, resolutely condemned autocracy and oppression.

Realism in Russian fine arts manifested itself in the work of artists I. I. Levitan, I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. A. Serov, sculptors ST. Konenkov, A. S. Golubkina.

I. E. Repin (1844-1930) worked in the genre of portraiture, everyday life, landscape, and history. Deeply popular, associated with democratic ideas, the work of I. E. Repin is one of the pinnacles of Russian classical art.

Late XIX - early XX centuries. - this is the time when artistic culture was represented not only by critical realism, but also by a number of other trends and methods, it went down in history as the silver age of Russian culture. This is a complex, contradictory rise and at the same time the decline of culture. There was a departure from the canons of classical art and a search for refined, elitist forms of expression of thought and feeling in a work of art. The ideological basis of culture was "critical idealism" - a kind of religious and philosophical teaching, in particular, the philosophy of Vl. Solovyov.

In the context of conflicting trends in the development of history, many artists declared the cult of creativity, and themselves - the harbingers of an imminent world catastrophe. They relied on art as a means of bringing people together, turning to such areas as symbolism, acmeism, futurism, avant-garde, which became the basis of modernism as an artistic and aesthetic trend of the 20th century. The ideal of symbolism was D. S. Merezhkovsky (1866 - 1941), he proclaimed "pure" art, its content is a mystical plot and the messianic role of culture, a grotesque perception of reality. The Symbolists included V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub,

3. Gippius, A. Bely, K. Balmont (1867-1942) was one of the leaders of symbolist literature. Among the Symbolists, the creative path of A. A. Blok (1880-1921) also began. Blok's lyrics are a great asset of Russian national culture.

Symbolism in Russian literature was replaced by acmeism (from the Greek. Akme - the highest degree of something, blooming power), whose representatives were the poets N. Gumilyov (1886-1921), A. Akhmatova (1889-1966), O. Mandelstam ( 1891-1938), M. Kuzmin (1875-1936), S. Gorodetsky (1884-1967).

The work of the acmeists was characterized by a rejection of moral quests, an unwillingness to see the negative phenomena of reality, a tendency to eclecticism, and complicated metaphor. The most talented representatives of the direction retreated from their postulates.

Complex social processes of the late XIX - early XX centuries. led to the emergence of new forms and ways of reflection in artistic culture. Striving for the harmony and beauty of the world, the artists saw the task of art in cultivating a sense of beauty in a person.

During this period, a new word in painting was said by V. A. Serov and M. A. Vrubel. They moved to the Art Nouveau style, which was largely predetermined by symbolism and fed on its ideas.

At the end of the 19th century, the style of Mannerism and Art Nouveau dominated in architecture.

Mannerism in a new sense is a pseudo-Russian style. His influence was experienced by the architects A. A. Parland (the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood in St. Petersburg, built on the site of the assassination of Alexander II); AN Pomerantsev Upper trading rows in Moscow, now GUM; Kazansky railway station in Moscow. The Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow was built in this style according to sketches by Vasnetsov. F. O. Shekhtel worked in the Art Nouveau style (the building of the Moscow Art Theater and the Yaroslavl railway station, the mansion and bank of the industrialist Ryabushinsky in Moscow).

In Russia, Art Nouveau was influenced by classicism. This combination was reflected in neoclassicism, the prominent representatives of which were the architects I. V. Zholtovsky and I. A. Fomin.

The significance of the culture of the second half of the 19th century can hardly be overestimated: finally, after many decades and even centuries of lagging behind in the field of painting, Russia, on the eve of the revolution, caught up with, and in some areas even surpassed Europe. For the first time, Russia began to define world fashion in world culture.

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History abstract

"Russian culture of the late 19th early 20th century"

Work completed:

11 "A" class student

Lysova Ekaterina

Checked work:

Stepanchenko I.M.

Volgograd 2014

Introduction

Culture of Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. absorbed the artistic traditions, aesthetic and moral ideals of the "golden age" of the previous time. At the turn of the century, trends appeared in the spiritual life of Europe and Russia related to the worldview of a person of the 20th century. They demanded a new understanding of social and moral problems. All this led to the search for new visual methods and means. In Russia, there was a period that contemporaries called the "silver age" of Russian culture.

There were two points of view on the development of culture at the turn of the century. The point of view of modern scientists is connected with the concept formulated by the Russian philosopher Berdyaev, who wrote about the revival of Russian culture in the early twentieth century. Previously, another point of view, formulated by Russian socialists of that time and accepted in Soviet science, was widespread: Russian art of the early twentieth century. experienced not a renaissance, but a decline. This opinion was based on the conclusion about the crisis of bourgeois society and bourgeois culture in the era of imperialism.

consider a variety of artistic trends in the culture of Europe in the 19th century;

explore new trends that emerged in European culture of the 19th century; golden age of bourgeois imperialism

deepen knowledge about cultural and historical development;

Literature

Literary development in Russia was difficult, contradictory and stormy. Many literary trends were born and developed. The power of the literature of critical realism did not dry out in the person of L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov. In the works of these writers, social protest is intensified (“After the Ball”, Hadji Murad”, “Resurrection” by L.N. Tolstoy), the expectation of a cleansing storm (“The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov).

The traditions of critical realism continued to be preserved and developed in the works of the great writer I.A. Bunin (1870-1953). The most significant works of this period are the stories “Village” (1910) and “Dry Valley” (1911).

The birth and development of proletarian literature takes place, later it will be called the literature of socialist realism. First of all, this is due to the creative activity of M. Gorky. His “Gorodok Okurov”, “The Life of Matvey Kozhemyakin”, the chain of stories “Across Rus'” carried a broad truth of life. In 1912, the literary path of A. Serafimovich begins (A.S. Popov, 1863-1949). The most significant work of the pre-revolutionary period is the novel "City in the Steppe", it shows the formation of proletarian morality.

From 1912 to 1917 (with interruptions) the poet Demyan Bedny (E.A. Pridvorov, 1883-1945) worked in the working newspaper Pravda. And in 1914. under the editorship of M. Gorky, the first "Collection of proletarian writers" was published. The poets themselves considered their poetry as an ideological and aesthetic basis on which innovative and highly artistic literature had yet to emerge.

In the pre-October decade (meaning the Great October Revolution of 1917, which ended with the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the establishment of the power of the Bolshevik Party), a whole galaxy of peasant poets entered Russian literature, among which the figure of Sergei Yesenin (1895 -1925) had the greatest significance. His first collection "Radunitsa" was published in 1916. and had great success. Yesenin's poems were highly appreciated by the royal family, the poet was repeatedly invited to Tsarskoye Selo.

The most interesting thing happened in poetry, here several trends fought and interacted with each other: symbolism, acmeism, futurism, “peasant poetry”, etc. At this time, a great many magazines and almanacs were published for a variety of tastes. It was a new take-off of Russian poetry, so it is commonly called the “Silver Age”.

The phenomenon of European scale was symbolism. Russian symbolism refracted Western philosophical and aesthetic attitudes through the teachings of V.S. Solovyov about the “soul of the world” and acquired a national identity. Philosopher-idealist and poet V.S. Solovyov imagined that the old world of evil and deceit was on the verge of death, that divine beauty (Eternal femininity, the Soul of the world) descended into the world, which should “save the world”, connecting the heavenly (divine) beginning of life with the earthly, material, create the “kingdom of God on the ground".

Symbolism was closely connected with social upheavals and ideological searches of the pre-revolutionary decades. Russian symbolism has gone through three waves. Performances 80-90g. N. Minsky, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gipius reflected the decadent tendencies of the times of the crisis of liberal and populist ideas. Symbolists sang "pure", "free" art, the mysterious world of the unreal, the theme of "spontaneous genius" was close to them. “And I want, but I am not able to love

of people. I am a stranger among them,” says D. Merezhkovsky 1. “I need something that is not in the world,” Z. Gippius echoed him2. The symbolist of the “second wave” (1890-1900) V. Bryusov asserted: “The day of the end of the Universe will come. And only the dream world is eternal.”3 With the “second wave” (V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont) of the late 19th century. and especially with the “third wave” (I.F. Anensky, V.I. Ivanov, A.A. Blok, A. Bely and others) of the early 20th century. symbolism in Russia.

It turned into an independent literary and philosophical trend, which actively influenced the cultural and spiritual life. The publishing centers “Scorpion”, “Vulture”, “Musachet”, the magazines “Vesy”, “Golden Fleece” published the works of symbolist poets who were intensely experiencing the problem of personality and history, their “mysterious” connection with “eternity”. The inner world of the individual was an indicator of the general tragic state of the world, including the “terrible world” of Russian reality, doomed to death; and at the same time a premonition of an imminent renewal.

Most of the Symbolist poets responded to the events of the 1st Russian Revolution (1905-1907). Blok writes “Rising from the darkness of the cellars ...”, “The Barca of Life”, etc., Bryusov - “The Coming Huns”, Sologub - a book of poems “Political Tales”, Bolmond - Collection of “Songs of the Avenger”, etc.

In 1909 - 1910 during the period of political reaction, symbolism is in crisis and decay, the aesthetic views and ideological sympathies of the poets diverged, each went his own way.

Symbolist poets also reacted differently to the October Revolution. Merezhkovsky and Gippius emigrated after October 1917. Blok, Bely, Bryusov perceived it as the realization of a dream of changing the forms of culture and life. The last outbreak of activity of Russian symbolists is connected with the days of the October Revolution, when the Scythians group (A.A. Blok, A. Bely, S.A. Yesenin and others) again strives to combine symbolism and revolution. The pinnacle of these searches was the poem of the "Twelve" block, which lay at the origins of Soviet poetry.

Symbolism was a bright page in the history of Russian culture. In literature, he enriched the political possibilities of verse (semantic polyphony, the reform of melodious verse, the renewal of lyric genres, etc.), as poets sought to convey the unusualness of their worldview “with one sound, one image, one rhyme”, according to V. Bryusov, complete detachment from the rules, from the classical measure of creativity, according to K. Balmont (1867-1942).

Disillusioned with the symbolic stamp, some of the poets, led by Nikolai Gumilyov, created in the autumn of 1911. “Workshop of poets”, and a little later a new trend - acmeism (from the Greek AKME - the highest degree, something, blooming power) - a trend of Russian poetry in 1910, proclaiming the liberation of poetry from the symbolic “unknowable” and a return to the material world, the exact meaning words.

The views of Akmist poets were reflected in numerous theoretical articles, but we are interested in Akminism because the work of major Russian poets such as N.S. Gumilyov (1886-1921), S.M. Gorodetsky, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov, E.Yu. Kuzmina-Karavaeva, O.E. Meldenshtam (1891-1938), A.A. Akhmatova (1889-1966) the connection of the last two with acmeism was short-lived. In 1912 among

1. “History of world artistic culture” S.V. Filimonova, part 3, Mozyr, 1998, p. 163.

2. “History of world art culture” S.V. Filimonova, part 3, Mozyr, 1998, p. 163.

3. “History of world artistic culture” S.V. Filimonova, part 3, Mozyr, 1998, p. 163.

They were united by the acceptance of the earthly world in its visible concreteness with all the details of life, a lively and direct sense of nature, culture, as well as an increased interest in past literary eras. The latter allowed Mendelstam to define acmeism as "longing for world culture." But each poet was deeply individual, deep and interesting. It is difficult to say better than Gumilyov about the tragic mystery of Russian history - the evil, terrible “Rasputinism”.

Often, creativity went beyond the narrow framework of acmeism, a realistic beginning, patriotic motives became predominant.

Acmeist poets, having gone through the school of symbolism, left their mark on the history of poetry, poets used their finds in the field of artistic form in the following decades.

Modernism (avant-gardism) in Russian poetry was represented by the work of the Futurists. In Russia, futurism as a trend existed as a trend approximately from 1910 to 1915.

In poetry, the head of the futurist school was the Italian Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, but for the Russian futurists he was a weak authority, since his views were politically oriented (pro-fascist). Russian futurism was of an aesthetic nature, in the manifestos of the futurists it was about the reform of the word, poetry, culture. During Marinetti's visit to Russia (January-February 1914), Livshits, Khlebnikov, Mayakovsky sharply opposed him and his views in support of the war. Futurists sought to create the art of the future, declared the rejection of traditional culture, cultivated urbanism (the aesthetics of machine industrialization and the big city). To do this, they destroyed the natural language in poetry, intertwined documentary material with fantasy, creating their own rebellious "absurdities".

The fate of Russian futurism is similar to the fate of symbolism. But there were also features. If for the Symbolists one of the central moments of aesthetics was music (composers Taneyev and Rachmaninov, Prokofiev and Stravinsky, Gliere and Mayakovsky created numerous romances to the verses of Blok, Bryusov, Sologub and especially Balmont), then for the futurists - line and light. The poetry of Russian futurism was closely connected with avant-gardism in painting. It is no coincidence that almost all Futurist poets are known as good artists - V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, E. Guro, V. Kamensky, A. Kruchenykh and, of course, the Burliuk brothers. At the same time, many avant-garde artists wrote poetry and prose, participated in futuristic publications as writers. Painting in many ways enriched futurism. K. Malevich, V. Kandinsky, N. Goncharova and M. Larionov almost created what the futurists were striving for.

The main feature was that several groups united under the common roof of one direction: 1. cubo-futurists (the prefix “cubo” comes from the cubism they propagandized in painting: sometimes members of this group called themselves “budetlyane”): D. Burlyuk, V. Khlebnikov , V. Kamensky, since 1912 V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, B. Livshits; 2. in St. Petersburg ego-futurists (from lat. ego - I): V. Olimpov, I. Ignatiev, V. Gnedov, G. Ivanov, led by the most talented Igor Severyanin; 3. in Moscow, the Mezzanine Poetry Group (1913-1914): V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev, S. Tretyakov, B. Lavrenev and others; 4. A group of poets who have concentrated around the publishing house “Centrifuga”: S.P. Bobrov, N.N. Aseev, B. Pasternak, K. A. Bolshakov, Bozhidar.

Each of these groups considered, as a rule, the spokesman for "true" futurism and led a fierce debate with other groups, but from time to time, members of different groups approached or moved from one group to another. The most vivid and consistent aesthetics and philosophy of Russian futurism is reflected in the work of Cubo-Futurists. After the appearance of the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” and at the same time an almanac in December 1912, they argued about the Cubo-Futurists, their poems began to be discussed in the collections “Dead Moon”, “Gag”, “Roaring Parnassus”, “Trebnik of Three”, etc.

What was behind the bold experiments and defiant experiments of the futurists?! The Futurists tried to bring art out into the street, into the crowd.

They protested against bourgeois stereotypes.

They reflected the psychology of the urban lower classes, the anarchist revolt of the lumpen proletariat. Hence the rough vocabulary of the “man of the street”, the demonstrative combination of the “high” and “low” planes of the city's existence at the beginning of the 20th century.

During the First World War, the Futurist poets each went their own way. Already in 1915, M. Gorky said that “there is no Russian futurism. There is only Igor Severyanin, Mayakovsky, D. Burliuk, V. Kamensky.” The October Revolution was hailed by most Futurists as a step towards the new future they aspired to, but the renewal of the former group proved impossible. The most politically active part of the pre-revolutionary futurists entered the LEF (Left Front of the Arts, headed by Mayakovsky) organized in 1922 and, consequently, into Soviet literature.

With all its internal contradictions, futurism played a certain role in the formation of the greatest poets: such as Mayakovsky, Khlebnikov, Pasternak, Aseev, and others, and also brought a lot to poetry: new vocabulary, rhythm, and innovative rhyme of verse. And Khlebnikov's word creation opened up unknown paths for poetry. The art of many “budetlyans” has stood the test of time and is about to enter the 21st century.

Finishing a short conversation about an amazing period in Russian literature, I would like to draw attention to the desire for a synthesis of the arts (among the Symbolists - music and poetry, among the Futurists - poetry and painting). This desire is clearly seen in theatrical art.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. in Russian prose, the flowering of the main literary trend of the second half of the last century, critical realism, continued. New significant works were created by Tolstoy. Social and socio-psychological problems are deeply reflected in the work of Chekhov.

However, the artistic techniques of critical realism ceased to satisfy many writers at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. A deeper interest in the individual, his inner world, the search for new visual means and forms - all this caused the emergence of modernism in literature and art. It had many currents. The desire of art to transform reality by artistic means gave rise to Russian symbolism. His theorist in the mid-1890s. Bryusov spoke. Another direction - acme changed as a reaction to symbolism. Gumilyov, Akhmatova, Mandelstam, Tsvetaeva, who created a new lyric poetry, turned to the world of human feelings. The denial of traditional culture was expressed in the activities of supporters of the "art of the future" - futurists (Severyanin, Mayakovsky).

However, at the beginning of the 20th century Russia was overwhelmed by a wave of tabloid literature oriented towards petty-bourgeois tastes (low-browed melodrama, detective stories, erotica).

at the pass of time, a premonition of a great break was felt literally in everything, Russian culture flourished. This short, like any flowering, period of epochs from the early 1890s to the mid-1910s is commonly called the Silver Age. This sonorous name was born by analogy with the popular definition of "The Golden Age of Russian Literature" (why "Golden" The main themes are citizenship, love of freedom, patriotism, grandiosity, relevance).

Literature teacher: But Pushkin's harmony is unattainable. Theories, names, directions were rapidly changing. The "Silver Age" brought together a variety of poets, artists, artists, musicians, philosophers in an attempt to find a new fusion of creativity and life.

The content of the speech of the third group: It was in culture that the salvation of the world, shaken by technical innovations and social explosions, was seen. The crisis in the country was reflected in the diversity of literary trends. The initiators were symbolist poets (definition, content, origin). Initially, symbolism took the form of decadence (definition, content, origin). They used color symbols: black - mourning, death. Blue - solitude, sadness, magical meaning. Yellow - betrayal, treason. Gray - dust, the color of plaque.

All the poets of the Silver Age are connected by one thing: they wrote about their beloved, beautiful Motherland with its complexities. They paved the way for modern literature. And all the poets of our contemporaries turn to their work.

History teacher: This "new beauty", this search for a new form was reflected in the painting of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. What are the features of the Russian painting school of the "Silver Age"?

Art teacher: Symbolism as a phenomenon was also characteristic of Russia in the 20th century. The largest among them are Vrubel, Petrov-Vodkin.

Painting

Conclusion

The historical paradox lies in the fact that the freedom and multicolored artistic life of those years serve both as a confirmation of the strength of Russian culture and a confirmation of the weakness of the distorted consciousness of a part of the educated Russian society. In those specific socio-psychological conditions, culture could not maintain social balance, but it was not her fault. She left such masterpieces that the world admires today. This socio-cultural phenomenon went down in history under the name of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture.

The history of national culture is our spiritual wealth. Culture contains the memory of the people, through culture, each new generation, entering into life, feels itself a part of this people.

Culture develops continuously, and each generation of people relies on what was created by its predecessors.

Time and neglect of descendants led to the loss of many cultural monuments. But the history of Russian culture shows that in addition to losses, there were also finds and discoveries. Thus, many centuries later, The Tale of Igor's Campaign returned to our culture, and the spiritual significance of Russian literature was revived. Thus, ancient Russian icons were restored, which were discovered under several layers of late painting. The domestic non-Marxist philosophy is being mastered again, and the literature and art of the Russian diaspora of the 20th century coming into our culture.

The history of national culture is not limited to the national framework. An enormous contribution to Russian culture was made by representatives of other peoples, just as figures of Russian origin gave their strength and talent to the cultural development of the peoples of the USSR and other countries.

Russian culture was formed and is developing today as one of the branches of the mighty tree of world universal culture. Her contribution to world cultural progress is undeniable: these are cultural scientific discoveries, and masterpieces of literature and art, and, perhaps most importantly, loyalty to humanistic ideals.

Mastering the cultural wealth of mankind is becoming an ever more constant need of the time, and the study of the history of national culture is acquiring exceptionally important social significance.

Bibliography

1. Albert Jacques, Bender Johan and others. History of Europe. - M.: "Enlightenment", 1996.

2. Bolshakov V.P. The originality of the culture of the New Age in its development from the Renaissance to the present day. - Veliky Novgorod: NovSU named after Yaroslav the Wise, 2004

3. Resurrection N. O. Culturology. - History of world culture. - M.: UNITI - DANA, Unity, 2003.

4. Gurevich P. S. Culturology. 2nd edition. - M.: Knowledge, 2002.

5. Drach G. V. Culturology. - Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 1996.

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This period is marked by the complexity of the socio-cultural situation in Russia. The era of the Russian-Japanese and the First World Wars, three revolutions, terrible catastrophes and social explosions.

At the same time, the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. marked by the achievements of scientific and technological progress. The introduction of electricity into industry, the appearance of automobiles and airplanes, the discovery of radio and X-ray waves - everything changed the face of the country, the life of people. At the beginning of the century, the first Russian cities appeared with more than a million inhabitants. Since the spring of 1896, first in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and then in other large cities (in 1903-1904), cinema began to function. By 1913 there were more than 1,400 cinemas in Russia.

The general process of development of Russian art was contradictory, striking with the variety of artistic methods, schools, trends,

In Russian artistic culture, this period was called Silver Age, which came after the Golden, embodied the highest achievements of Russian art.

The originality of the artistic culture of the Silver Age can be described as a parallel development of the realistic trend and a number of non-realistic trends, united by the name of the avant-garde. According to art critic V. Vanslov: "In the 20th century, realism and avant-garde were evaluated in struggle and mutual negation."

Realism retains artistic significance and fruitfulness. It is enough to give an example of creativity L.N. Tolstoy(1898 - 1910) - dramaturgy ("Fruits of Enlightenment" 1891; "The Living Corpse" - 1900; prose - "Kreutzer Sonata" 1891; "Father Sergius" - published in 1912, "Hadji Murad" - published in 1912; religiously -philosophical searches - "Confession" published in 1906 and others.

At the turn of the century, realistic tendencies with elements of impressionism were embodied in prose and drama A.P. Chekhov(1860 - 1904), associated with the Moscow Art Theater, the work of K. Stanislavsky and V. Nemirovich-Danchenko: prose - "Ward No. 6" - 1892, "House with a mezzanine" - 1896; "Ionych", "Man in a case", "Gooseberry" all in 1898; dramaturgy - "Uncle Vanya", "The Seagull" 1896; "Three Sisters", "The Cherry Orchard" - both 1904.

A. Kuprin, I. Bunin, V. Veresaev develop the realistic tendencies of Russian classical literature. Nowadays, their direction is called neorealism.

A. Kuprin(1870 - 1953) - "Listrigons" (1907-1911); "Gambrinus" - 1907, "Garnet Bracelet" - 1911, "Anathema" - 1913. It should be noted that Kuprin lived in the Crimea in Balaklava; it is its fishermen who are the subject of the story "Listrigons" 1907-1911.

I. Bunin(1870 - 1953) - Nobel laureate, since 1920 in exile. In Russia: "Antonov apples" - 1900, "The gentleman from San Francisco" - 1915, "Easy breathing" - 1910 and others. At the same time, I. Bunin is an outstanding poet: “Leaf Fall”, 1981; singer of love ("Dark Alleys" and others), brilliant stylist, master of language.

V. Veresaev(1867 - 1945) in the novels and short stories "Without a Road" - 1895, "Freak" - 1989, "Two Ends" - 1899-1903, "Doctor's Notes" - 1901 and others raised questions about the fate of the Russian intelligentsia of the critical period. Novels N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky(1852 - 1906; "Childhood of the Theme", "Gymnasium students", "Students", "Engineers"). "The Story of My Contemporary" (published 1922) V.G. Korolenko(1853 - 1921) were a reliable narrative of the spiritual life and quests of Russian youth.

During this period, the creative path of M. Gorky (1868 - 1936) begins, creating at the turn of the century realistic stories, short stories and novels ("Foma Gordeev", - 1899, "Troy" - 1901) and plays ("Petishites" - 1902, " At the Bottom" - 1902, "Summer Residents" - 1905, "Enemies" - 1906 and others). On the initiative of Gorky, the Znanie publishing house was organized, uniting realist writers (N. Teleshov, A. Serafimovich, I. Shmelev, E. Chirikov and others). At the same time, M. Gorky is the author of romantic works: "Tales of Italy", 1911 - 1913, "Old Woman Izergil", 1895 and others.

Along with realism, neorealism in the literature of the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. both in Europe and in Russia, unrealistic trends are being formed, including symbolism. The concept of symbolism united poets of two generations:

"senior" symbolists(poets of the 90s): Z. Gippius (1869 - 1921), D. Merezhkovsky (1865 - 1911), V. Bryusov (1873 - 1924), F. Sologub (1865 - 1941) and others.

"junior" symbolists- generation of the 1900s: A. Blok (1880 - 1949), A. Bely (1880 - 1934), Vyach. Ivanov (1866 - 1949) and others.

Following Rimbaud, Malaria, Baudelaire, Russian symbolists, based on the poetics of the symbol, sought to recreate an unreal artistic space, the effect of uncertainty, which brought them closer to the poetics of romanticism. Creativity was proclaimed (theurgy, life-creation), interchangeability, the ability to synthesize arts (S. Bulgakov: "... every art in its depths is all art ...", C. Baudelaire - the law of "universal analogy"). The philosophical basis was the ideas of A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche and others.

United such different masters teaching Vl. Solovyova: the ideas of "integral creativity", the subordination of matter to the ideal divine principle.

K. Balmont- "In the boundlessness", 1895; “We will be like the sun”, 1902;

A. Bely– “Gold in azure”, 1904; "Northern Symphony, 1904;

A. Blok- "Retribution", 1908 - 1913; "Poems about the Beautiful Lady", 1904, 1905; Nightingale Garden, 1915 and others.

Oh, I want to live crazy

Perpetuate all things,

Humanize the impersonal

Fulfill the Unfulfilled!

A. Blok, "Yambs"

A. Blok, V. Bryusov, in the best works of A. Bely, K. Balmont, F. Sologub did a lot in the development of forms, the musicality of the language means of Russian verse, in the enrichment of the "country of Russian poetry" and rightfully established themselves as significant masters. Creation A. Blok constituted an epoch in Russian culture (the cycles "Retribution", "On the Kulikovo Field", "Motherland", "Yambs", etc.), reflecting the complexities and contradictions of Russian art of this period.

New direction of Russian modernism - acmeism(from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, peak, blooming power) were the largest poets of the 20th century. The manifesto of acmeism was N. Gumilyov's article "The Legacy of Symbolism and Acmeism", reflecting his artistic orientation. One of the forms of organization was the "Workshop of Poets", to which belonged: N. Gumilyov (1886 – 1921), A. Akhmatova (1889 – 1966), O. Mandelstam (1891 – 1938).

At the center of the aesthetics of acmeists is the problem of the greatness of the word, a reverent attitude towards the native language. The program was Gumilyov's poem "The Word":

On that day, when over the new world
God bowed his face, then
The sun was stopped by a word
In a word, cities were destroyed ...

The fate of these poets is tragic: N. Gumilyov was shot (1921), O. Mandelstam died in the camps (1938).

Anna Akhmatova in later works, Requiem», « A poem without a hero”reflected the tragedy of the era of the 30s. XX century. She was recognized as a great Russian poet, became the conscience of a generation.

In the formidable military year of 1942, on February 23, she wrote poems in which she called the Russian word the property of the people, a symbol of their courage and immortality.

Courage

We know what's on the scales now
And what is happening now.
The hour of courage has struck on our clocks,
And courage will not leave us.
It's not scary to lie down under the bullets of the dead,
It's not bitter to be homeless,
And we will save you, Russian speech,
Great Russian word.
We'll carry you free and clean
And we will give to our grandchildren, and we will save from captivity
Forever!

The direction, which received the name of the Russian avant-garde, is rapidly developing. Of the areas of avant-garde in Russia, the most developed futurism, later transformed into cubo-futurism.

In the previous sections of the book, it was noted that Western Europe was the birthplace of Futurism, and its founder was Tomaso Marinetti, a young Italian poet who published The First Futurist Manifesto in 1909 in Paris. “The main element of our poetry,” said Marinetti, “will be courage, audacity and rebellion.”

The author positioned the “offensive movement”, not only the “gymnastic step” as the defining features of his direction, but even the speed of the “racing car”, uniting all this with the “beauty of speed” and dynamism, destructive power.

Russian futurism, although it was in many respects similar to Italian, was not so monolithic. V. Mayakovsky (1893 – 1930), V. Khlebnikov (1885 – 1922), A. Kruchenykh(1886 - 1968), finally, D. Burliuk(1883 - 1967), nicknamed "the father of futrism", were bright individuals, experimenters. After Marinetti's visit to Russia (1914), D. Burliuk and V. Kamensky published a letter stating: "We have nothing in common with the Italian futurists, except for the nickname."

The Futurists set the task of creating a "synthetic" art, uniting all types of artistic activity. Proceeding from this, synthesis, the synthesis of arts are the distinctive features of the creative style of the Futurist masters.

They were poets, artists, and theater workers.

I immediately smeared the dubnya map,

Splashing paint from a glass,

I showed on a platter of jelly

Oblique cheekbones of the ocean.

On the scales of a tin fish

I read the call of new lips

Nocturne play

We could

On a drainpipe flute?

V. Mayakovsky (1913)

Futurists were engaged in language creation (V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov), the search for new pictorial forms (D. Burliuk, A. Kruchenykh, A. Exter, M. Goncharova, V. Larionov and others), held disputes, organized exhibitions. It was fruitful to contact primitivism, folk print. Avant-garde artists paid special attention to the problems of form: compositional solutions, color and line, rhythm, texture, etc.

Describing the originality of the Russian avant-garde, Dm. Sarabyanov emphasized that his figures were solving “general problems of being”: the relationship between the earthly and the cosmic (Malevich), the priority of the spiritual over the material (Kandinsky), the unity of mankind in its historical, modern and future state (Filonov), the realization of the human dream in “its merging with human memory (Chagall). “These problems were solved not in philosophical treatises, but in pictorial formulas, and these formulas received philosophical overtones.” Futurism in Russian poetry found expression in the work of D. Burliuk (1882 - 1967), V. Khlebnikov (1885 - 1922), A. Kruchenykh (1886 - 1968). The brightest poet, whose work reflected the features of futurism, was V. Mayakovsky (1893 - 1930), who expanded the boundaries of his poetry, which became a cry of pain for a man conquered by the city ("Vladimir Mayakovsky", "A Cloud in Pants" and others)

Poetry was the singer of native nature, the spokesman for the innermost secrets of the human soul. S. Yesenina(1895 - 1925): collections " Radunitsa» 1916; " pigeon» 1918, « Persian motifs» 1925, poems « Anna Snegina» 1925, « Black man» 1926 and others. The world of man and the world of nature in S. Yesenin's poem are inseparable. He penetratingly wrote:

I think:
How beautiful
Earth
And on it is a man

The short life and creative path of the poet reflected both the contradictions of reality and the complexity of his personality. But the main direction of his poetry has always been love for the Motherland, its culture, nature, for the Russian word:

But even then,
When all over the planet
The tribal feud will pass,
Lies and sadness will disappear
I will chant
With the whole being in the poet
sixth of the earth
With a short name "Rus".

In the cultural life of Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries. a significant event was the creation of the Moscow Public Art Theater K.S. Stanislavsky And IN AND. Nemirovich-Danchenko. The theater upheld realistic principles of play. His repertoire included plays by A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Tolstoy, G. Hauptmann, G. Ibsen.

During this period, the creativity of wonderful actors flourishes: M.N. Yermolova, A.P. Lensky, Sadovsky dynasty(Small Theatre), M.G. Savina, V.N. Davydov, V.F. Komissarzhevskaya(Alexandria Theatre) and others. The productions of E. Meyerhold at the Alexandrinsky Theater, who subsequently created their own team, were distinguished by their original interpretation and originality.

A significant phenomenon in the artistic culture of Russia at the turn of the century was the activity of the first film directors, among them - Ya.A. Protazanov ( 1881 - 1945), a galaxy of popular actors (V. Kholodnaya, I. Mozzhukhin, V. Maksimov, V. Polonskaya).

Actively developing musical life. Higher musical education was represented by the St. Petersburg and Moscow Conservatories, which arose back in the 60s. XIX century. Musical schools in Kyiv, Saratov, Odessa were transformed in the 10s. at the conservatory. The Philharmonic Society in Moscow is actively operating, " Evenings of modern music" In Petersburg, " Music exhibitions".

The greatest composers of the 20th century were S. Rachmaninov (1873 – 1943), A. Glazunov (1865 – 1936), A. Scriabin(1872 - 1915). Music was marked by innovative tendencies I. Stravinsky and young S. Prokofieva. A major role in the promotion of Russian art abroad was played by " Russian seasons in Paris" S. Diaghilev, where Stravinsky's ballets ("Firebird", "Petrushka") were presented, danced A. Pavlova, M. Fokin And V. Nijinsky, the scenery was painted by A. Benois and A. Golovin.

The activities of representatives of the plastic arts were diverse and diverse - painting, graphics, architecture, sculpture,applied arts. One of the most important aspects of the artistic life of Russia during this period was the abundance of exhibitions (10-15 per year), the expansion of their geography (Kharkov, Odessa, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Saratov and others). The Association of Traveling Exhibitions continues its activities, along with it - the St. Petersburg Society of Artists, the Moscow Association of Artists. Since the beginning of 1899, exhibitions of the new society have been organized in St. Petersburg " World of Art". Thanks to the activities of a member of this circle S.Dyagileva(1872 - 1929), Russian art goes abroad, and international exhibitions function in Russia.

Was open to spectators Russian Museum in St. Petersburg (1898); in August 1892 P. Tretyakov donated his art collection to the city of Moscow; in 1898, the laying of the building of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow (now the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts) took place. There were several private art galleries in Moscow: P. Shchukin, I. Morozov, A. Bakhrushev and others

Art criticism is developing, young critics and art historians are speaking: A. Benois (1870 – 1960), I. Grabar(1871 - 1960), published a lot N. Roerich(1874 - 1947) and others.

realistic direction in painting, as in literature, it was very fruitful. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. were still working I. Repin, V. Surikov, V. Vasnetsov, V. Vereshchagin, V. Polenov and others. During this period, the talent of V.A. Serov (1865 - 1911), who deepened the content of realism and expanded its expressive possibilities ("Girl with peaches", "Girl illuminated by the sun", portraits of Gorky, Yermolova and others). Serov varied his artistic style depending on the features of the work, the originality of nature (portraits of M. Morozov, banker V. Girshman, Princess Orlova). A significant place in his work is occupied by historical compositions ("Peter I"), mythological subjects ("The Abduction of Europe", "Odysseus and Nausicaa").

One of the outstanding masters who paved new paths in painting, - K. Korovin(1864 - 1939), influenced by impressionism ("In Winter", "Summer", "Roses and Violets" and others) Korovin creates scenery for the performances of the Russian Private Opera S. Mamontov, the Imperial and the Bolshoi Theater. The best theatrical works of Korovin are connected with national themes, with Russia, its epic and fairy tales, its history and nature.

Excited and soulful art M. Vrubel(1856 - 1910). The expressiveness of his works increases, thanks to dynamic painting, shimmering color, energetic drawing. This is an easel painting, and book illustration, and a monumental and decorative panel, and theatrical scenery.

One of the central in his work is the theme Demon inspired by the poetry of M. Lermontov ("Seated Demon", "Flying Demon", "Defeated Demon"). Epic heroes come to life in his panel "Mikula Selyaninovich", "Bogatyr". Fairy-tale images of "Pan", "The Swan Princess" are beautiful. The portraits (S. Mamontov, V. Borisov and others) are original and significant.

The poeticization of images of nature and man was embodied in the work of V. Borisov-Musatov (1870 - 1905).

A significant phenomenon in Russian artistic life was the ideological and artistic association " World of Art", which included A. Benois (1870 - 1960), K. Somov (1869 - 1939), L. Bakst (1866 - 1924), E. Lansere (1875 - 1946), M. Dobuzhinsky (1875 - 1957). In two types of art, the artists of the "World of Arts" achieved the most significant success: in theatrical and decorative and in graphics. Landscapes of old St. Petersburg and its suburbs, as well as a portrait, made a great contribution to the graphics of the early 20th century. A. Ostroumova-Lebedeva. I. Bilibin, D. Kardovsky, G. Narbut and others worked fruitfully in book graphics.

Talented masters united and " Union of Russian Artists"(1903 - 1923), in the exhibitions of which K. Korovin, A. Arkhipov, A. Vasnetsov, S. Malyutin and others took part, A. Rylov, K. Yuon, I. Brodsky were close to the "Union" in their artistic positions , A. Malyavin. Scenery- the main genre in the art of the masters of the "Union of Russian Artists". They depicted the nature of central Russia, and the sunny south, and the harsh north, and ancient Russian cities, ancient estates. These artists were interested in the rapid visual coverage of the world, dynamic composition, blurring the boundaries between compositional painting and natural studies.

In the decade 1907 - 1917. art includes talented painters. Z.E. Serebryakova(1884 - 1967) developed the traditions of Venetsianov, the great masters of the Renaissance ("Harvest", "Whitening of the Canvas"). Her portraits (self-portrait, portraits of children) are distinguished by inner warmth, artistic expressiveness.

K.S. Petrov-Vodkin(1878 - 1939) was fond of ancient Russian art, especially icon painting. This was reflected in the paintings "Mother", "Morning", where the images of peasant women symbolize high spiritualized moral purity. A new phenomenon was the painting "Bathing a Red Horse" (1912), which is distinguished by the laconic composition, the dynamics of space, the classical rigor of the drawing and the harmony of color, built on the main colors of the spectrum.

The formation of creativity is associated with the beginning of the 20th century M.S. Saryan(1880 - 1972). His laconic works are built on bright and solid color silhouettes, contrasts of rhythm, light and shadow ("Street. Noon. Constantinople", "Date Palm. Egypt" and others).

One of the most significant phenomena of Russian art at the beginning of the 20th century is the work of M.V. Nesterov (1862 - 1942). The artist turned to the world of the ideally beautiful, glorified the purity of religious feeling. A huge role in the works of Nesterov is played by the landscape, with which the inner world of his characters is connected. This " Hermit", "Vision to the youth Bartholomew", "Great tonsure"and others. The skill of Nesterov as a portrait painter is also developing. Most of the portraits the artist paints against the background of the landscape (portrait of his daughter: the figure of a girl in a black Amazon stands out in a beautiful silhouette against the background of the evening landscape, embodying the ideal of youth, beauty of life and harmony).

A noticeable revival at the beginning of the 20th century is experiencing sculpture, a galaxy of great masters appeared. P.P. Trubetskoy (1866 - 1938) revealed his talent in portraits ("Artist I.I. Levitan", portrait of L. Tolstoy). The monument to Alexander III gained wide popularity.

To the bright phenomena in Russian art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. refers to the work of A.S. Golubkina (1864 - 1927). Her art is emphatically inspired, filled with deep content and consistently democratic. She creates sculptural portraits of the writer A.N. Tolstoy and a simple woman ("Marya", 1903). Her favorite technique is sharp chiaroscuro modeling, with the help of which the sculptor achieves a special dynamics and emotionality of the image.

Talented, original and multifaceted sculptor S. G. Konenkov (1874 - 1971) during this period created the work "Stonebreaker", "Samson", one of the most captivating images - "Nike" (1906). A large place is occupied by the traditions of Russian folklore ("The old man-polyevich", etc.).

Architecture late XIX - early XX centuries. differs in the development of the Art Nouveau style; who put forward the task of a decisive renewal of the artistic and figurative language. One of the most important creative problems was the synthesis of the arts. A characteristic feature of modernity is the interweaving of creative manners, various trends. Modern has evolved rapidly. Its early stage was characterized by formal and decorative techniques, mannered ornamentation. At the turn of 1900 - 1910s. rationalistic tendencies intensified. Late modern is characterized by a desire for simplicity and rigor.

One of the leading masters of Art Nouveau - F.O. Shekhtel (1859 - 1926). His main works are the mansion of S.P. Ryabushinsky; Yaroslavsky railway station (1902) - an example of national modernity ("neo-Russian style"), etc.

A characteristic example of early modernism is the Metropol Hotel (architect V.F. Valkot), the facades are decorated with majolica panels, made according to the sketches of M. Vrubel and A. Golovin. In St. Petersburg, the Kshesinskaya mansion (A.I. von Hugen), the building of the Eliseev store on Nevsky Prospekt (G.V. Baranovsky), the Vitebsk railway station (S.A. Brzhozovsky).

Since the 1910s, there has been a desire in architecture to revive the tradition of ensemble building of the Classicism era. Representatives of neoclassicism - I.A. Fomin (1872 - 1936), V.A. Schuko (1878 - 1939), A.V. Shchusev (1873 - 1949) - the author of the Kazan railway station in Moscow.

Throughout the centuries-old history, Russian art has changed, enriched, improved, but has always remained original, expressing the national character of Russian culture.