European architecture. Beautiful architectural monuments of Europe

The Empire style arose on the eve of the Great French Revolution- i.e. on the eve of significant reform changes. During the Napoleonic era, the monumentality and volume of structures began to be combined with the use of ornaments based on Egyptian motifs.

Art Deco is the art of late modern decoration. Embodying the idea of ​​neoclassicism and modernity, it is distinguished by a luxurious appearance with elements of chic and the use of expensive materials. The architectural style has been known since the mid-20s of the twentieth century and subsequently influenced architecture in the USSR.

English Gothic - the style of architectural solutions used in buildings in medieval England. There are three stages in the development of English Gothic: early English Gothic 1170-1300; decorative style 1272-1349; the vertical style - also known as perpendicular - was widespread in 1350-1539.

Antique architecture existed since the 8th century BC. to the 5th century AD An invaluable contribution to the general direction of further development of architectural techniques and methods of their implementation was made by ancient Greek and Roman architecture.

Baroque- architectural style of European countries in the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century. Distinctive features - expressive and unbalanced visual sensations with a touch of romanticism - are visually conveyed quite clearly. Russian Baroque 1680-1700 was distinguished by the significant influence of the traditions of Russian architecture.

Big style - is directly connected with the reign of King Louis XIV of France and with the flowering of French art in the second half of the 17th century, called the “Golden Age”.

Brutalism as one of the directions of modernism, arose in Great Britain in the 50s of the twentieth century and after a couple of decades became known in all corners of the planet. The main material for execution is always reinforced concrete.

Paper style - the name of utopian architectural ideas due to the obvious impossibility of their implementation in reality.

Burgher style - a tradition of creating building forms widespread in the cities of central Europe, based on the traditional bourgeois worldview and adapted to the everyday needs of small traders and artisans.

Gothic architectural style , widespread in the XII-XV centuries in many European countries, is divided into three main stages of development - Early Gothic, High Gothic and Late Gothic. Initially Gothic style developed on the basis of the Romanesque style, common in Burgundy, and later gained recognition in other European countries. A distinctive feature of the Gothic style is the frame construction of buildings, ensuring the principle of verticality of the entire structure, high towers, columns, arches with a pointed top, windows with multi-colored stained glass windows.

Deconstructivism as an architectural style that took shape in the late 80s of the twentieth century and is distinguished by some aggressiveness in relation to the surrounding urban buildings, as well as by the obvious complexity and fractured external forms of buildings.

Brick Gothic - Gothic style of architecture, common in the North German lands, as well as in Poland and the Baltic states in the 13th-16th centuries. The absence of the possibility of decorating the ornament with sculptures was replaced by the use, along with ordinary red ceramic bricks glazed brick.

Brick style in architecture was formed in the middle of the 19th century and became widespread thanks to the relatively simple method of constructing buildings using brickwork, which served as decoration. In Russia in the second half of the 19th century, the brick style was the main style of industrial buildings, and later this style became popular in the construction of civil buildings.

Classicism- style of European architecture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Architectural and decorative forms of classicism are based on the motifs of ancient architecture and are distinguished by the harmonious simplicity and severity of buildings.

Constructivism - a style in art and architecture that took place in the USSR from 1920 to the first half of the 30s of the twentieth century. This avant-garde style is characterized by rigor and clarity in geometric forms.

Scandinavian constructivism - modern style of the early 21st century. Strictness in geometry and some asceticism. Clear proportions and lack of pomposity, as well as a significant glazing area, which ensures the unhindered penetration of sunlight into the room and the use of natural building materials receives recognition in St. Petersburg.

Metabolism arose in the mid-twentieth century in Japan and is distinguished by some visual incompleteness in the perception of the appearance of the building and the emphasis on this incompleteness.

Modern- common in 1890-1910. It is distinguished by the use of new technologies that made it possible to widely use metal and glass in construction.

Neo-Gothic- a kind of renaissance of brick Gothic architecture that occurred in the late 60s of the 19th century in Germany. The style found its application in the construction of churches.

Neoclassicism - the confusion in defining this style is due to the fact that in Russia and Germany this style dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century and is associated with the revival of classicism of 1762-1840. without the use of plaster, but with a clear emphasis on classical forms made in stone. In France, neoclassicism dates back to the reign of Louis XVI - i.e. to the second half of the 18th century.

Organic architecture is based on the fact that construction projects must fit harmoniously into environment and complement it with all your appearance, but not stand out in any way. Due to the fact that in urban environments there is already little nature, this style has become popular in the construction of country mansions.

Postmodernism - an architectural style that appeared in the second half of the twentieth century in many countries. Adherents of postmodernism consider themselves successors to late modernity, but unlike modernity, various ornamental design options are widely used, often bordering on vulgarity.

Renaissance- a style of Western European architecture of the 15th-16th centuries, based on the revival of ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) architectural forms. Early Renaissance XV century, high Renaissance - first quarter of the XVI century, late Renaissance, aka mannerism- until the beginning of the 17th century.

Retrospectiveism - a variant of neoclassicism, a direction in the architecture of the twentieth century, associated with an awareness of the heritage of all architectural styles and their national characteristics.

Rococo- style French architecture the first half of the 18th century, representing the late stage of the Baroque. Rococo differs from baroque in the small scale of its forms (ornament).

Roman style was widespread in the 10th-12th centuries in a number of Western European countries. The basis for the Romanesque style was ancient Roman buildings. Distinctive features are the brutal asceticism of the buildings with small windows and openings. Secondary buildings were built around the main structure - the tower (donjon). The Romanesque style temple served as a fortress.

Russian style - an architectural direction from the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, based on an awareness of national architectural roots up to Byzantine architecture. All styles that found their embodiment in construction on the territory of Russia were modified in one way or another due to the peculiarities of the traditions of Russian architecture.

Stalin Empire style formed in the late 30s of the twentieth century. This style is characterized by the use of bronze and marble in decoration, as well as architectural orders. The general concept of massive street development was supposed to exude confidence in tomorrow, optimism and pride in one’s country.

Functionalism - an architectural style of the twentieth century, which is based on certain rules, according to which each structure must be designed based on its specific functions. Materials for construction are glass, reinforced concrete and in some cases brick. A distinctive feature is the unmemorable appearance and facelessness of the buildings.

High tech- a variant of late modernism from the late 70s of the twentieth century. Features of the style are the widespread introduction of high technology into simplicity, but this is not pragmatism in its purest form - sacrificing functionality for the sake of style is possible. Wide application of glass, plastic and metal.

Eclecticism- an architectural style common in Europe and Russia in 1830-1890. Although it was based on earlier styles, but with the addition of new features, the architectural form of the structure was set taking into account their purpose and there were no general rules for all structures.

Unusual buildings in the world. Photo

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European architecture- The architecture of European countries is distinguished by a variety of styles.

Primitive era

During the Bronze Age (2nd millennium BC) in Europe, structures were erected from large stone blocks, which are classified as so-called megalithic architecture. Menhirs - vertically placed stones - marked the place of public ceremonies. Dolmens, which usually consisted of two or four vertical stones covered with stone, served as burial places. The cromlech consisted of slabs or pillars arranged in a circle. An example is Stonehenge in England.

Antiquity

One of the oldest structures of European architecture are the ruins of buildings on the island of Crete, the creation of which dates back more than 1000 BC. e. They are the first representatives of ancient architecture, then used by Ancient Greece and Rome. The rounded shapes of columns and arches bore the imprint of ideas about ideal forms and embodied grace and beauty. Statues could be part of a structure as part of a wall or as a replacement for columns. This architecture influenced not only temples and palaces, but also public institutions, streets, walls and the houses themselves. Roman architecture was more complex than Greek, everything began to play in it big role arches The Romans were the first to use concrete, at least in Europe. The most notable structures: the Colosseum and aqueducts.

Middle Ages

An excerpt characterizing European architecture

The Romanesque style (from the Latin romanus - Roman) is an artistic style that dominated in Western Europe (and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe) in the X-XII centuries (in some places - in the XIII century), one of the most important stages development of the medieval European art. He expressed himself most fully in architecture.

France

Conques (Aveyron), view of the village and Sainte-Foy church

Périgueux (Dordogne), view of the Saint Front church, OK. 1120

Périgueux, Saint Front church

Tournus (Saône-et-Loire), Saint Philibert Abbey Church. After 1020

Angoulême (Charente), Saint-Pierre Cathedral. Started approx. 1120 - 1130

Angoulême (Charente), Saint-Pierre Cathedral.

Montmajour (Bouches-du-Rhône), chapel of Sainte-Croix

Sainte Croix in Montmajour

Saint Nectaire (Puy de Dome), monastery church. Started approx. 1080

Toulouse (Haute-Garonne), Saint Sernin. 1080 - mid-12th century.

The term “Romanesque style” appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, when a connection was established between the architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries with ancient Roman architecture (in particular, the use of semicircular arches and vaults). In general, the term is conditional and reflects only one, not the main, side of art. However, it has come into general use. The main type of art of the Romanesque style is architecture, mainly church (stone temple, monastery complexes). Style characteristics Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building always carefully blended into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially durable and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-recessed portals. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of a monastery or castle is the tower - the donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Spain and Portugal
Loarre Castle (Huesca), XI - XIII centuries.

Loarre Castle

Loarre Castle. Spain

Salamanca, old cathedral. Until the middle of the 12th century. - beginning of the 13th century. Spain

Sant Pere de Rodes (Gerona)

Sant Pere de Rodes

Sant Pere de Rodes. Spain

Coimbra (Portugal), cathedral. Construction started approx. 1140, consecrated 1180

Coimbra, cathedral.

Tomar (Portugal), temple church, late 12th century.

Tomar, temple church

Tomar.Portugal

Fromista (Palencia), San Martin. Before 1066 - after 1100

Sahagun (Leon), San Tirso. XII century The tower was reconstructed after 1949.

Zamora, cathedral. 1151 - 1171

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral: The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, the longitudinal organization of space Increasing the choir or the eastern altar of the temple Increasing the height of the temple Replacing the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone vaults. There were 2 types of vaults: box and cross vaults. Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns. The main motif of the interior was semi-circular arches. The heaviness of the Romanesque cathedral “oppresses” the space. The rational simplicity of the design, made up of individual square cells - grasses.

Germany

Speyer, Cathedral of St. Maria und St. Stephen. 1027 - 1061

Speyer

Speyer

Worms, St. Peter's Cathedral.

Soest, collegiate church of St. Patroclus. OK. 1200

Cologne, St. Maria im Kapitol. 1040 - 1049.

Cologne, St. Pantaleon. End of the 10th century

Mainz, Cathedral St. Martin und St. Stefan. 1081 - 1137

Maria-Lah. Church of the Benedictine monastery. Completed in 1156 and 1177.

Paderborn, St. Maria Cathedral, St. Liborius und St. Kilian. Approx. 1220

Limburg an der Lahn, cathedral. former collegiate and parish church of St. Georg und St. Nicholas. 1215 - 1235

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Italian Renaissance and Baroque architecture. Construction of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Artistic motives of Early Renaissance architecture. Construction of unique religious buildings in Rome. Architecture of the High and Late Renaissance.

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European architecture of the 15th - early 19th centuriesekov

Italian Renaissance and Baroque architecture

In the XIII-XIV centuries. the cities of Northern Italy become the gates of vibrant maritime trade, taking away the role of Byzantium as an intermediary between Europe and the exotic East. The accumulation of money capital and the development of capitalist production contribute to the rapid formation of bourgeois relations, which are already cramped within the framework of feudalism. A new, bourgeois culture is being created, choosing ancient culture as its model; her ideals receive new life, which gave the name to this powerful social movement - Renaissance, t.v. Revival. The powerful pathos of citizenship, rationalism, and the overthrow of church mysticism gave birth to such titans as Dante and Petrarch, Michelangelo Buonarroti and Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas More and Campanella. In architecture, the Renaissance appeared at the beginning of the 15th century. Architects are returning to clear, logical order systems. Architecture takes on a secular and life-affirming character. Lancet Gothic vaults and arches give way to cylindrical and cross vaults and vaulted structures. Antique examples are carefully studied, and the theory of architecture is developed. The previous Gothic style had prepared a high level of construction technology, especially lifting mechanisms. The process of development of architecture in Italy in the XV-XVII centuries. conditionally divided into four main stages: Early Renaissance - from 1420 to the end of the 15th century; High Renaissance - end of the 15th - first quarter of the 16th century, later Renaissance --XVI century, Baroque period - XVII century.

Architecture Early Renaissance

The beginning of the Renaissance in architecture is associated with Florence, which reached the 15th century. extraordinary economic prosperity. Here, in 1420, the construction of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore began (Fig. 1, F1 - 23). The work was entrusted to Filippo Brunellechi, who managed to convince the city council of the correctness of his competition proposal. In 1434, the octagonal pointed dome, 42 m in diameter, was almost completed. It was built without scaffolding - workers worked in the cavity between the two shells of the dome, only its upper part was erected using suspended scaffolding. The lantern above it, also according to Brunelleschi's design, was completed in 1467. With the completion of construction, the height of the building reached 114 m. In 1421, Brunelleschi began rebuilding the Church of San Lorenzo and constructing the Old Sacristy - a small square chapel. The chapel was the first experience in Renaissance architecture of working on centric buildings. In 1444, according to Brunelleschi's design, a large city building was completed - the Orphanage (a shelter for orphans). The portico of the Orphanage is interesting as the first example of a combination of columns supporting arches with a large order of framing pilasters. Brunelleschi also built the Pazzi Chapel (1443) - one of the most elegant works of the early Renaissance. The chapel building, completed with a dome on a low drum, opens to the viewer with a light Corinthian portico with a wide arch. In the second half of the 15th century. Many palaces of the city nobility are being built in Florence. Michelozzo completed the construction of the Medici Palace in 1452 (Fig. 2); in the same year, according to Alberti's project, the construction of the Rucellai Palace was completed, Benedetto da Maiano and Simon Polayola (Cronac) erected the Strozzi Palazzo. Despite certain differences, these palaces have a common spatial design: a tall three-story building, the rooms of which are grouped around a central courtyard framed by arched galleries. The main artistic motif is a rusticated or decorated wall with majestic openings and horizontal rods corresponding to the floor divisions. The structure was crowned with a powerful cornice. The walls were made of brickwork, sometimes with concrete filling, and faced with stone. In addition to the vaults, beam wooden structures were used for interfloor ceilings. Arched window ends are replaced with horizontal lintels. Much work on the study of the ancient heritage and the development of the theoretical foundations of architecture was carried out by Leon Batista Alberti (works on the theory of painting and sculpture, “Ten Books on Architecture”). Alberti's largest works as a practice are, in addition to the Rucellai Palace, the reconstruction of the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence (1480), where volutes, which became widespread in Baroque architecture, were first used in the composition of the facade, the church of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, the facade of which was solved by superimposing two order systems. Alberti's work is characterized by the active use of patterns of order divisions of the facade, the development of the idea of ​​a large order covering several tiers of the building. At the end of the 15th century. the scope of construction is decreasing. The Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453, cut off Italy from the East that traded with it. The country's economy is in decline. Humanism is losing its militant character, art is seen as a means of escape from real life to the idyll, grace and sophistication are valued in architecture. Venice, in contrast to the restrained architecture of Florence, is characterized by an attractive, open type of city palace, the composition of the facade of which, with subtle, graceful details, retains Moorish-Gothic features. The architecture of Milan has retained the features of Gothic and serf architecture, reflected in civil architecture.

Rice. 1. Florence Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. 1434. Axonometric section of the dome, plan of the cathedral.

Rice. 2. Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence. 1452. Fragment of the facade, plan.

The activities of the greatest painter and scientist of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci, are associated with Milan. He developed several projects for palaces and cathedrals; a city project was proposed in which, anticipating the development of urban planning science, attention was paid to the arrangement of water supply and sewerage, to the organization of street traffic at different levels. Of great importance for Renaissance architecture were his studies of the compositions of centric buildings and the mathematical basis for calculating the forces acting in building structures. Roman architecture of the late 15th century. was replenished with the works of Florentine and Milanese architects, who, during the period of decline of their cities, moved to Rome to the court of the pope. Here in 1485 the Palazzo Cancelleria was founded, made in the spirit of Florentine palaces, but devoid of the severity and gloomy asceticism of their facades. The building has elegant architectural details, fine ornamentation of the entrance portal and window frames.

ArchiteHigh Renaissance culture

With the discovery of America (1492) and. The sea route to India around Africa (1498) shifted the center of gravity of the European economy to Spain and Portugal. The necessary conditions for construction were preserved only in Rome - the capital of the Catholic Church throughout feudal Europe. Here the construction of unique religious buildings was leading. The architecture of gardens, parks, and country residences of the nobility is developing. A significant part of the work of the largest architect of the Renaissance, Donato Bramante, is associated with Rome. The Tempietto in the courtyard of the Church of San Pietro in Montorio was built by Bramante in 1502 (Fig. 3). This small work of mature centric composition became the preparatory stage of Bramante's work on the plan for the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome.

Rice. 3. Tempietto in the courtyard of the Church of San Pietro in Montorio. Rome. 1502 General view. Section, plan.

The courtyard with a circular gallery was not implemented. One of the significant works on the development of the idea of ​​a centric composition was the construction of the church of Santa Maria del Consoliazione in Todi, which has the utmost clarity of design concept and integrity of the internal space, designed according to the Byzantine scheme, but using frame ribs in the domes. Here, part of the spacer forces is balanced by metal ties under the heels of the spring arches of the sail. In 1503, Bramante began work on the Vatican courtyards: the Loggia courtyard, the Pigna garden and the Belvedere courtyard. He creates this grandiose ensemble in collaboration with Raphael. Design of the Cathedral of St. Peter's (Fig. 111), begun back in 1452 by Bernardo Rossolino, was continued in 1505. According to Bramante, the cathedral should have had the shape of a Greek cross with additional spaces in the corners, which gave the plan a square silhouette. The overall solution is based on a simple and clear pyramid-centric composition, crowned by a grandiose spherical dome. Construction started according to this plan was stopped with the death of Bramante in 1514. His successor, Raphael Santi, was required to lengthen the entrance part of the cathedral. The plan in the form of a Latin cross was more consistent with the symbolism of the Catholic cult. Among the architectural works of Raphael, the following have been preserved: Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence (1517), the partially built “Villa Madama” - the estate of Cardinal G. Medici, Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli, Villa Farnesina in Rome (1511), the design of which is also attributed to Raphael.

Rice. 4. Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome. Plans:

a -- D. Bramante, 1505; b -- Raphael Santi, 1514; c -- A, da Sangallo, 1536; g -- Minel Angelo, 1547

In 1527, Rome was captured and plundered by the troops of the Spanish king. The cathedral under construction acquired new owners who demanded a revision of the project. Antonio da Sangallo Jr. in 1536 returned to the plan in the form of a Latin cross. According to his design, the main façade of the cathedral is flanked by two high towers; the dome has a higher rise, it is placed on two drums, which makes it visible from afar with the façade greatly pushed forward and the enormous scale of the building. Of Sangallo Jr.'s other works, the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (beginning in 1514) is of great interest. The third floor with a magnificent cornice and the decorative treatment of the courtyard were completed by Michelangelo after the death of Sangallo in 1546. In Venice, a number of projects were carried out by Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti): the library of San Marco, the reconstruction of the Piazzetta. Giorgio Vasari, a famous biography of outstanding artists, created the Via Uffizi in Florence, which completed the composition of the ensemble of Piazza della Signoria.

ALate Renaissance architecture

The continuing decline of the economy and the ecclesiastical reaction are affecting the entire cultural life of Italy. In architecture, there is a departure from the calm harmony of the High Renaissance, Gothic motifs are coming to life, the expressiveness of forms and verticalism are increasing. In general, the architecture of the Late Renaissance was characterized by a struggle between two directions: one laid the creative foundations of the future Baroque, the other, which developed the line of the High Renaissance, prepared the formation of the architecture of classicism. Michelangelo Buonarroti is a great sculptor and painter --in 1520 began work on the New Sacristy at the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, where he achieved a plastically expressive, but very intense synthesis of architecture and sculpture. The interior of the sacristy is extensively “tuned” to the large size of allegorical sculptures of members of the Medici family, giving a special monumentality to the architectural space. During the same period, Michelangelo was working on the project of the Laurentian Library in Florence, completed after his death by B. Ammann in 1568. The staircase of the library vestibule is especially famous, where the prospective reduction in the width of the marches and the reduction in the size of the steps create the illusion of expanding space. Capitol Square is one of the earliest examples of the development of an urban ensemble in the history of European architecture (Fig. 5). Michelangelo has been rebuilding it since 1546. According to his design, the square is symmetrically framed by the porticoes of the Capitoline Museum and the Palace of the Conservatives. The rhythm of the powerful pilasters of the buildings gives unity to the entire composition of the square, from which a view of the northwestern part of Rome and the Tiber opens up. Michelangelo's greatest work as an architect was the continuation of the construction of St. Peter's in Rome, entrusted to him in 1547. He takes Bramante's plan as a basis, but significantly strengthens the role of the central part in the composition, for which it was necessary to strengthen the supporting pillars of the dome structure.

Rice. 5. Capitol Square in Rome. Started in 1546. Plan:

1 -- Palace of Senators; 2 -- Palace of Conservatives; 3 -- Museum.

Rice. 6. Villa Farnese in Naprarola. Perestroika 1559--1625 General view, master plan.

Rice. 7. Church of Il Gesu in Rome. Beginning in 1568. Facade, plan.

After the death of Michelangelo in 1564, the dome was built according to his design and model by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana. Only the design was changed: instead of the triple shell planned by Michelangelo, a double shell was adopted. Michelangelo's bold quest had a huge influence on subsequent Italian architecture. Unlike balanced compositions classical architecture his works are based on enhancing the dynamics of form, volume and plastic processing. Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, already a mature architect (he designed the Fontainebleau Palace in France and worked on the construction of the Vatican Belvedere), received an order in 1559 to rebuild the Villa Farnese in Caprarole. He reconstructs the pentagonal castle, built according to the design of Sangallo Jr., and creates a whole park ensemble around it (Fig. 6). The work was completed only in 1625. The Church of Il Gesu in Rome, begun by Vignola in 1558, marks the beginning of a return to compositions in which the main thing is the facade plane, and the structure of the entire space is revealed from the inside (Fig. 7). This is the influence of Gothic techniques and economic considerations (you don’t have to worry about the side facades hidden from the viewer). Compositional principles, laid down by Vignola in the architecture of the Church of Il Gesu, became fundamental during the Baroque period. The treatise “The Rule of Five Orders” brought him great fame as an architectural theorist who systematized the laws of proportionation of ancient buildings. Andrea Palladio, who carefully studied the ancient heritage and continued the traditions of the High Renaissance, worked mainly in Vicenza. In 1540, his project won the competition to rebuild the Palazzo Publico. The 15th century Gothic building, covered with a closed vault, is surrounded by Palladio with two-tier galleries, which give it an open, civil character (Fig. 8). The impression of compositional clarity, plasticity, and delicacy is achieved by the free arrangement of arches and columns of a large order in combination with a wide field of the entablature.

Rice. 8. Palazzo Publico in Vicenza. 1549--1614 Facade rebuilt by A. Palladio.

Palladio continues the tradition of using the “colossal” order, begun by Alberti (Loggia del Capitanio, 1571, and Palazzo Valmarana, begun in 1566). The Villa Rotunda, begun by Pall&dio in 1587, is well known (Fig. 116). Its construction was completed by Scamozzi. Palladio created several churches in Venice. The most significant of them are the churches of San Giorgio Maggiore (1580) and Il Redentore, the facades of which are designed in Baroque motifs. Palladio wrote a theoretical work, “Four Books on Architecture,” which has been republished in many languages ​​since 1570. Palladio's school of architecture became the basis of classicism as an architectural style.

Baroque architecture in Italy

By the beginning of the 17th century. The economic life of Italy fell into complete decline. Architecture develops only in Rome, where the Baroque style was especially pronounced in the construction of religious buildings.

Baroque is characterized by complexity of plans, splendor of interiors with unexpected spatial and lighting effects, an abundance of curves, plastically curving lines and surfaces; The clarity of classical forms is contrasted with sophistication in shaping. Painting, sculpture, and painted wall surfaces are widely used in architecture. In 1614, work on the construction of the Cathedral of St. was finally completed. Petra. Domenino Fontana and Carlo Maderna extend the eastern branch of the plan and complete the impressive entrance hall. With the height of the internal space of the cathedral to the opening of the skylight being 123.4 m and the diameter of the dome being 42 m, the length of the main nave was 187 m, the width was 27.5, and the height was 46.2 m (Fig. 10). In 1667, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, a talented sculptor, built a colonnade on the square in front of the cathedral, completing the formation of the composition of the square. Bernini's work of a completely different nature is the Church of Sant'Andrea in Rome (1670) - one of classical works baroque. When constructing the main staircase at the Sistine Chapel (“Reggia Rock”), Bernini used the effect optical illusion, narrowing the width of the marches towards the upper platform. The largest architect of the Italian Baroque was Francesco Bor-romini, who built the Church of San Carlo at the Four Fountains (beginning in 1638) and Sant'Ivo in the courtyard of the University in Rome (1660). Both churches are small with a centric, whimsical interior space (Fig. 11). The Baroque period is rich in significant urban planning works, including the Piazza del Popolo, begun in 1662 by the architects C. Rainaldi and D. Fontana. Typical examples of late Baroque ensemble composition are the Spanish Steps (A. Specchi and F. da Sancti, 1725), leading to the Cathedral of Santa Trinita dei Monti, as well as the ensemble of the Palazzo Poli with the famous Trevi Fountain in front of it (N. Salvi, 1762).

Rice. 9. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza. 1567--1591 General view, plan

Rice. 10. Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome, General plan of the Vatican.

Rice. 11. Church of Sant'Ivo in Rome. 1660 General view, plan.

In the last work, the synthesis of architecture and sculpture was achieved with exceptional skill and the effect of theatrical action was achieved, in which the sculptures seemed to “perform” against the background of the architectural scenery. In both examples, the problem of architectural organization of space is solved by means of dynamic comparison of masses and surfaces. Country villas of the Baroque era are distinguished by an axial composition, most of which is occupied by an extensive regular park with gazebos, fountains, cascading waterfalls, and wide staircases. The most interesting of them are Villa d'Este in Tivoli, begun in 1549 by Ligorio, and Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati (Giacomo della Porta, 1603). In addition to Rome, magnificent works of the Baroque were created in Venice. The best work of Baldassare Longhena - the Church of Santa Maria della Salute (1682) on the spit of the Grand Canal - a picturesque centric octagonal building with a dome, the drum of which is supported by powerful volutes (Fig. 12).

Urban planning of Italy during the Renaissance periodia and baroque

The Renaissance opened up new possibilities for the formation of human personality. Artists, architects and city planners tried to create different models of the human living environment. During the Renaissance and Baroque eras, the search for modern forms of urban functioning also developed; economic prerequisites and technological advances make the search for a new structure and a new image of the city a social necessity. In urban planning, the object of development is successively ideal cities, then urban planning elements - squares, parks, ensembles of buildings, and later - the city itself as a real task of artistic composition.

Rice. 12. Church of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice. 1682 View from the Grand Canal, plan.

Its solution is complicated by the ever-increasing stratification of society. This was reflected in the structure of the city in the chaos of the development of housing blocks for the common people with separate inclusions of palace and religious ensembles. During the Renaissance, special attention was paid to the construction of cities. The bourgeoisie is not satisfied with crooked, cramped medieval alleys. The idea of ​​a centric city emerges, reflecting the synthesis of the rational forms of Roman military camps with the naturally developing concentric structures of medieval cities. Theoretical basis social structure Utopian philosophers Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella tried to create new cities. A. Filarete, in the project of the ideal city of Sforzinda, for the first time proposes to replace the rectangular planning structure with a radial scheme street network, thus generalizing the experience of the spontaneous geometry of development of medieval European cities. In the developments of L. Alberti, the city is saturated with air, greenery, and a sense of space. The city is understood as a democratic formation, but is divided into neighborhoods according to class. A. Palladio re-evaluates the structures of the city from a Baroque perspective. He proposes to place the princely palace in the center of the city, thereby laying the foundations for palace radial compositions. Interest in the city landscape and the everyday life of townspeople stimulated the development of perspective painting, genre compositions, Renaissance art in general. Some ideal cities were built: Palma Nuova according to the plan of Scamozzi (1583, fig. 13); Livorno and Feste Castro in the 15th century. (architect Sangal-lo) - these cities have not survived; La Valetta (1564) and Grammichele (1693). Another side of practical urban planning, implementing new principles in already established cities, was the creation of compositions in the amorphous urban environment, which later became centers of urban ensembles. Baroque attracts landscape as one of the main components of the urban ensemble. The architectural formation of urban centers continues. At the same time, the square loses the functional and democratic content inherent in it in the era early Middle Ages(place of trade, public gatherings). It becomes a decoration of the city, its front part, hiding the elements of intra-block development. Streets were not given much attention during the Renaissance. During the Baroque period, the main streets were laid out in the form of wide avenues (Via Corso in Rome, opening onto Piazza del Popolo). The ensemble of Piazza del Popolo represents an example of a three-beam composition illustrating the principles of Baroque urban planning. Two churches, built during the reconstruction of the square, cut the city traffic into three channels and are oriented with their apses not to the east, but in accordance with the urban planning plan, with an entrance to the north. In Renaissance architecture great importance development of a project from the standpoint of theoretical mechanics and its engineering justification. There is a differentiation between the work of the designer and the builder. The architect now supervised the construction, but was not one of the craftsmen directly involved in the work. At the same time, he not only worked out the entire project in detail, often on a model, but also thought through the course of construction work, the use of construction mechanisms for lifting and installation. The return to ancient - human-scale and constructively truthful - order systems in the choice of artistic means of expression is explained by the general humanistic orientation of the Renaissance culture. But already in the early works the order is used to divide and enhance the expressiveness of the wall on the facade and in the interior. and then two or three order “scenery” of different scales are superimposed on the wall plane, creating the illusion of the depth of space. The architects of the Renaissance overcame the strict ancient relationship between structure and form and developed, in essence, purely aesthetic norms of “visual” tectonics, the correspondence of which to the constructive and spatial logic of the structure was observed depending on the formulation of the general artistic task. In the Baroque era, the illusory depth interpretation of the wall continues with real volumetric compositions in the form of sculptural groups and fountains (Palazzo Poli with the Trevi Fountain). It is therefore no coincidence that Renaissance architects took an interest in working on urban ensembles and a decisive turn towards understanding architecture as an organized environment. But in the feudal era, the scale of implementation of urban planning initiatives rarely went beyond the ensembles of palace or cathedral squares. O. Choisy, characterizing the Renaissance, wrote that the superiority of the Renaissance lies in the fact that it did not know types of art independent of one another, but knew only a single art in which all ways of expressing beauty merge.

Rice. 13. “Ideal City” of the Renaissance Palma Nuova, 1593

Material taken from the book: History of Architecture. (V.N. Tkachev). If the material is partially or completely copied, a link to www.stroyproject.com.ua is required.

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The origins of Baroque architecture originate in the architecture of the late Renaissance. In the work of such masters as Palladio and Vignola, who sought to continue and develop the classical traditions, and to an even greater extent in the work of Michelangelo, who resolutely opposed generally accepted classical norms, principles were gradually developed on which the masters of the second half of the 16th century relied. laid the foundations of Baroque architecture. The departure from the harmonious images of the High Renaissance to a more elevated, “heroic” image, the introduction of a pronounced emotional principle into architecture, the growth of elements of representation in palace and religious buildings, the complication and dynamization of spatial construction, an increased plastic sense of architectural masses and forms - all these principles, originated in the architecture of the late Renaissance, were subsequently developed and reworked in Baroque architecture. This does not mean, however, that Baroque architecture represents direct continuation architectural principles of Michelangelo and his contemporaries; There is a fundamental qualitative difference between the architecture of the late Renaissance and Baroque. Using the achievements of the masters of the late Renaissance, Baroque architects developed and reworked them in accordance with the new social content that they were intended to express.

The process of the emergence and development of Baroque principles found its most complete and consistent expression in the architecture of Rome at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries.

New social tasks that arose before the masters of Roman architecture of the late Renaissance predetermined the nature of the interpretation of various types of secular and religious buildings. The palazzo and villa as the home of a major magnate or dignitary, designed for a huge retinue, magnificent receptions and celebrations, are now assembled as integral ensembles, which in turn are elements of a city or palace and park ensemble. Such, for example, is the first example of a new type of palace - Palazzo Farnese; so are Vignola’s two masterpieces - the villa of Pope Julius III and the Caprarola castle.

The growth of Baroque tendencies was especially pronounced in one of Vignola’s later works - the design of the first Jesuit temple - the Church of Il Gesu in Rome, which served as a model for church buildings in all Catholic countries. The external volumetric composition of the temple is losing its integrity. Vignola sharply highlights the main facade (the baroque qualities of which were enhanced in its final version by the architect Giacomo della Porta) as the main, most impressive element volumetric composition and divides it in accordance not so much with the structure of the internal space, but with the scale of the street - a technique that had great urban planning significance. This compositional structure the external volumes of the temple then became generally accepted in Baroque architecture. Vignola’s innovation also lay in the desire to maximize the unification of the interior space of the church. The division into naves essentially disappears: the central nave greatly expands, the transept, which has minor side projections, merges with it, the side naves are replaced by two rows of small chapels, as a result of which the under-dome space, together with the altar niche, acquires a dominant role in the interior.

These qualities give the Jesuit church a touch of pathos, alien to the life-affirming humanistic ideal embodied in the centric and basilica religious buildings of the early and High Renaissance.

The most significant and progressive achievements of Baroque architecture lie in the development of new principles of urban planning and the composition of city and park ensembles.

The urban planning ideas of the Renaissance, developed in numerous treatises and only partially implemented by Bramante in the ensemble of courtyards of the Vatican, Michelangelo - in the Capitol Square and Vasari - in the Uffizi Street in Florence, received in the Baroque era further development. However, in the principles of ensemble composition, the Baroque masters break with artistic traditions Renaissance architecture, which gravitated towards harmoniously balanced combinations of volumes and free spatial structures, and solved the problem of an integral urban ensemble based on a radical redevelopment of parts of the medieval city using strictly symmetrical axial structures. In Baroque urban planning practice, not only buildings and the space of the square formed by them become the object of architectural composition, but also the street is considered as an integral architectural organism, as one of the forms of the ensemble. By giving the streets strictly rectilinear outlines, marking their beginning and end with squares or spectacular architectural and sculptural accents, Baroque architects achieved great richness and variety of architectural motifs and at the same time created a planning system that brought order to the chaotic development of the medieval city.

Great achievements in the field of urban planning belong to the outstanding architect and engineer Domenico Fontana (1543-1607). In the 1580s he was entrusted with the redevelopment and decorative decoration of Rome, the appearance of which was supposed to correspond to the importance of the city as a world center of Catholicism.

Domenico Fontana lays out new straight streets in such a way that the most significant ensembles of the city are connected with each other, forming a single system of architectural accents. This is the three-ray system of streets he implemented for the first time in the history of urban planning, diverging from Piazza del Popolo and connecting the main entrance to the capital with the center and its main ensembles. To enhance the spatial effect and emphasize the axial perspective of the streets, the architect places obelisks and fountains at the vanishing points of radial avenues and at their ends, thereby achieving great compositional unity and completeness. The deep perspective of three avenues unfolding from Piazza del Popolo, accentuated and emphasized by the placement of two identical domed churches on their corners (Sita Maria in Monte Santo and Sita Maria dei Miracoli, begun construction in 1661 according to the design of the architect Rainaldi), produces an extremely impressive impression of richness and a variety of aspects somewhat reminiscent of a system of perspective theatrical scenes.

Drawing. Piazza del Popolo in Rome. Plan. 1. Porta del Popolo (built in 1591) 2. Ancient Egyptian obelisk erected by Domenico Fontana during the reconstruction of Rome in 1585-1588. 3. Church of Santa Maria and Montesanto. 1661-1675 Architects Carlo Rainaldi and Carlo Fontana. 4. Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli. 1675-1679 Architects Carlo Rainaldi and Carlo Fontana. The dotted line shows the outlines of the square in the 17th-18th centuries.

The three-ray city planning system created by Fontana, with the almost theatrical effect of unexpectedly revealing the deep city highways from a single point of view, had a strong impact on all subsequent practice of European urban planning.

The favorite form of monument, intended for installation in squares and streets, in the Baroque era is not a statue, as in the Renaissance, but an obelisk and a fountain decorated with sculpture. The dynamic shape of the obelisk, the complex composition of masses and the plastic variety of shapes, fountains with rapidly falling cascades of heavy water jets fully answered artistic tasks baroque. The fountain organized the space, fixed the main axes of the composition of the ensemble with the dynamics and variety of its sculptural forms, contrasting with the flat surface of the square and the relatively calm facades of the surrounding buildings. Among the most remarkable fountains in Rome, created by masters of the early and mature Baroque, are Bernini's Fountain of Triton in Piazza Barberini and the Fountain of the Four Rivers in Piazza Navona, as well as the huge fountains in Piazza St. Peter's and the fountain connected to the obelisks in Piazza del Popolo.

In Baroque architecture, no new types of buildings were created, but the traditional types of palaces, villas, churches, and monasteries were radically redesigned.

The external appearance of the early Baroque city palaces (their prototype in many respects was the Farnese Palazzo) becomes restrained and often even ascetically harsh. In the Palazzo Ruspoli, characteristic of this time, only some of the most compositionally important elements of the external facade - the entrance portal, some windows - receive rich architectural and sculptural treatment. This reflected both the consideration of urban planning requirements, that is, the need to subordinate buildings of secondary importance to the main architectural accents, and the tastes of the feudal aristocracy, which strived for outwardly emphasized restraint, stiffness and isolation. But the courtyard of the palazzo (an example is the courtyard of the Palazzo Borghese in Rome), the interiors and those parts that are associated with the palace garden are treated with much greater luxury in decoration and decoration. The interior space of the palace is arranged as a magnificent suite of chambers intended for ceremonial receptions and celebrations.

Early Baroque architects showed themselves to be more original masters in the architecture of villas and adjacent garden and park ensembles. A student of Michelangelo and Vignola, the architect Giacomo della Porta (1537-1602) owned one of the first buildings of this type, the Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati (1598-1603).

The villa is located on a mountainside, the high building of the main building is placed on a powerful plinth, forming a wide terrace with two rounded ramps. Three radially diverging roads lead to the building: a central access road that forms middle beam, as if passes through the main front hall of the villa, oriented along this axis, and is continued in the main alley of the park, laid out behind the villa between the mountainside and the park facade. Thus, the entire ensemble receives a strictly natural axial structure, highlighting the villa building as the main one composition center, a kind of focal point of the entire planning system.

In the park of Villa Aldobrandini, especially interesting is the large semicircular grotto that ends the central alley, lavishly decorated with pilasters and niches, decorated with sculpture and fountains, caryatids supporting loose entablatures and flowerpots, sculptural reliefs and balustrades. There is a cascade above the grotto - in the form of steps with quickly flowing gurgling streams of water.

One of the features of the composition of Roman Baroque villas is the location of the ensemble of the villa and the park on a steep terrain. The rise of the soil takes the form of park terraces rising above each other, laid out across the entire width of the site. The terraced construction of the ensemble made it possible to achieve the spatial effects favored by Baroque architects, based on the principle of multifacetedness and consistent perception of parklands, forming a system of green scenes stretching into the distance.

In the Villa d'Este in Tivoli, built by the architect Pirro Ligorio (c. 1510-1583), terraces decorated with green spaces, balustrades and retaining walls, in which decorative niches and grottoes with sculpture and fountains are arranged, are connected by numerous stairs and ramps . Horizontal lines of terraces and slanted lines stairs and ramps form a single compositional system, permeated by a strong movement directed towards the main building of the villa, which closes the compositional axis of the ensemble.

From the central alley of the park there is a view of the villa building, which is unusually impressively placed on the highest terrace, dominating the area. An equally spectacular panorama opens from the windows of the villa onto the park terraces cascading down like a giant amphitheater and onto the surrounding area. The park landscape and natural surroundings thus become an integral part of the composition of the building itself and its interior. The entire process of perceiving architecture and its surroundings from certain points of view is strictly calculated and stuns the viewer with the endless richness of spatial aspects, contrasts of light and shadow, the variety and sharpness of textural comparisons of foliage and stone, calmly flowing or rapidly rushing streams of water.

For the religious architecture of the early Baroque, the end of the struggle that was waged around the construction of the Cathedral of St. is indicative. Peter's in Rome. The concept of Bramante and Michelangelo, who defended the idea of ​​a centric domed temple, the perfection and harmony of forms of which echoed the humanistic ideals of the Renaissance, encountered resistance from the forces of the Counter-Reformation. This struggle ended after the death of Michelangelo with the project of Carlo Maderna (1556-1629). At the insistence of Pope Paul V Maderna in 1607-1614. added a three-nave basilica part with a new narthex and main facade to the centric building of the cathedral. By lengthening the front branch of the equilateral Greek cross that underlies the composition of the plan, Maderna turned it into the form of a Latin cross, traditional for medieval churches, thereby distorting the design of Bramante and Michelangelo. The huge dome, completed after Michelangelo’s death in forms close to his design by the architect Giacomo della Porta, because of this lost its dominant significance in the composition. Maderna was also unable to overcome the contradiction that arose between the pompous forms of the heavy Baroque façade, reminiscent of a monumental decoration attached to a cathedral, and Michelangelo’s powerful centric massif, which is why “the unity and integrity of the composition were violated.

The attitude of the Baroque masters to the order was most clearly reflected in the design of church facades. As in Renaissance architecture, the order remains the main means of artistic expression, but its tectonic nature is changing. Baroque order systems are characterized not so much by constructive logic as by plastic and pictorial expressiveness, which explains the predominantly decorative interpretation of order forms.

In the last quarter of the 16th century, Giacomo Delda Porta reworked Vignola's design for the façade of the Gesù Church and thereby created the first Baroque church façade, which later became a kind of canon for Catholic church architecture.

The façade of the Gesù is still permeated with a relatively restrained, but clearly expressed movement; it is directed towards the center of the composition - the entrance portal, as if drawing the viewer inside the church and imperiously directing him to the altar. This movement of architectural masses is achieved by condensing order elements and divisions, as well as by increasing plastic relief and variety of details from the periphery to the center of the composition. The nature and arrangement of orders and wall details - openings, pediments, platbands, niches, sculptural cartouches - are subordinated to a single goal: to achieve the greatest possible plastic expressiveness and dynamism of architectural masses. The picturesqueness of the facade is enhanced by the light and shadow contrasts that arise due to the uneven distribution of plastic forms on the surface of the wall, as well as due to numerous cracks and breaks in the cornices, rods and pediments. A sort of wavy relief is formed, continuously changing in accordance with changes in Lighting. The very language of architectural forms here contributes to increased emotional expressiveness of the image.

Since the 30s. 17th century The second phase of Italian Baroque architecture begins. The time has come for the full development of the stylistic principles that were formed during the previous period. During the mature Baroque period, religious architecture occupied a predominant place, which left its mark on the entire architecture as a whole.

In the urban planning practice of this time, a type of square was developed, the space and development of which were subordinated to a monumental structure, playing the role of a compositional dominant. This is how a type of square was created, turning into a kind of open vestibule in front of the church building. This task was solved on a grand scale by Bernini in Piazza St. Peter, in a more intimate way - in the square in front of the Church of Santa Maria della Pace by the architect Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669). In accordance with general character architecture of the period under review, the compositional solutions of these areas, based on complex curvilinear outlines, are distinguished by great spatial dynamics.

The secular architecture of the mature Baroque is characterized by the further development of the city palace type. New principles for planning the palace are being developed; a closed volume of simple outlines is replaced by a spatial solution. In the Roman Palazzo Barberini (ca. 1524-1663), typical of this time, in the creation of which Maderna, Borromini, Bernini and Pietro da Cortona took part, the extended wings form a court d'honeur (court of honor) on the street side; the entrance part is interpreted in the form of an oval-shaped front vestibule with a complex system of extensive staircases leading to the reception halls. The vestibule is directly connected to the exit to the garden loggia and the garden, thanks to which a single suite of entrance rooms and loggia is formed and a perspective on the garden with its rich decorative decoration is revealed. The main façade, interpreted in solemn, majestic forms, is devoid of its former restraint and severity; The façade on the garden side is distinguished by even more lavish architectural decoration.

In religious architecture, the architects of the mature Baroque paid special attention to the design of the church facade and interior.

The evolution of the facade, which began with Vignola in the project of the Gesù Church, proceeds simultaneously along the line of an increasing compositional unification of architectural forms and an increase in their plastic expressiveness. Straight planes are replaced by curved ones, instead of the previous pilasters, half-columns appear, and then columns, which even begin to separate from the facade, making its spatial structure even more complex and enriched. All these techniques enhance the pathetic character of religious architecture and activate the power of its plastic impact.

An example in this regard is the facade of the church of Santa Maria della Pace (1656-1657), built by Pietro da Cortona, which closes the composition of the square of the same name. Directed upward, the well-proportioned facade is sharply divided in height into two almost equal parts: the lower one, in the form of a semicircular portico that protrudes forward and casts a deep shadow, and the upper one, in which the convex surfaces of the wall are combined with loose columns and pilasters. A semicircular pediment, torn in the middle, crowning the center of the composition with a window sandwiched between bundles of pilasters and attached columns, is in turn arranged into a triangular pediment, uniting all this complex layering of forms into one whole.

The features of religious architecture were revealed even more clearly in church interiors. In Baroque architecture, the interior often acquires a self-sufficient significance, since the divisions of the facade are more consistent with the scale of the street and surrounding buildings rather than with the internal space of the building itself. The interior was the place of a magnificent theatrical rite of the Catholic church service (as well as in palaces - the place of ceremonial receptions and celebrations), therefore the Baroque masters concentrated all the means of artistic expression in the interior, using the possibilities of a synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting and decorative art.

Spatial solutions for church interiors are exceptionally complex and whimsical. For example, the plan of the Church of Sant'Ivo, built by Borromini, resembles the outline of a bee in a hexagonal cell of a honeycomb - an allusion to the bees from the coat of arms of the building's customer, Pope Urban VIII Barberini. A variety of materials were used to decorate the interiors - colored marbles, enlivened by the bright patterning of natural veins and spots, gilded bronze, and expensive wood. Stucco molding, wood and stone carving were widely used. The complexity of the spatial structure, combined with the shine of marble and gilding and skillfully used lighting effects, gave rise to a feeling of the unreal, illusory. The interior was richly decorated with statues and reliefs, which seemed to form a single whole with architecture and works of painting, with the help of which dizzying illusionistic and perspective effects were achieved. The picturesque plafonds of Baciccio in the Church of Gesu and Andrea Pozzo in the Church of Sant'Ignazio, breaking through the ceiling, illusorily expand the space of church interiors to infinity. thereby bringing the trends of Baroque architecture to their logical conclusion.

The largest representative of the Italian Baroque, who played a decisive role in the formation and development of this style, was the great architect and sculptor Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). An unusually gifted and versatile master (he was also a painter), Bernini became the true artistic dictator of Rome. As a court architect and sculptor for the popes, he carried out major orders and stood at the head of a huge number of architects, painters, sculptors and decorators who participated in the construction and decoration of squares, streets, palaces and places of worship in Rome.

In the work of Bernini the architect, the main place is occupied by the work on the complex of the cathedral and the square of St. Petra.

Bernini united both main parts of the cathedral, which had previously seemed disconnected - the centric one, built by Michelangelo, and the basilica, built by Maderna. A brilliant decorator, Bernini achieved this by placing a giant bronze ciborium (canopy) with spiral columns and a fanciful finish in the dome space of the cathedral, as well as a spectacular sculptural design of the altar apse visible behind the ciborium. Thus, the center of the temple interior was clearly emphasized and its longitudinal axis was highlighted: the viewer entering the cathedral immediately found himself involved in a rapid movement from the vestibule to the dome part.

During the construction of the main Royal Staircase (“Scala Regia”, 1663-1666), connecting the papal palace with the Cathedral of St. Peter, Bernini used the technique of artificial perspective. Thanks to the gradual narrowing of the staircase covered with a coffered vault and the corresponding reduction in the height of the columns running along its sides, the architect achieved not only the impression of an illusory increase in the size and length of the staircase, but also a purely theatrical effect - the figure of the pope, appearing during ceremonial exits on the top landing of the staircase, seems to grow on its own scale.

The most outstanding work of urban planning practice of the mature Baroque in terms of grandeur of scale, breadth of design and artistic perfection is the square created by Bernini in front of the Cathedral of St. Peter (1656-1667). The construction of the square was caused by the need to create an atrium, traditional for medieval basilicas, in front of the main cathedral of the Roman Catholic Church - a vast space surrounded by colonnades, a container for large masses of people during the ceremonial exits of the pope and religious festivals. On the other hand, the construction of such a square in front of the forward main facade of the cathedral made it possible to make the facade more significant, to achieve the compositional unity of the cathedral and its desired relationship with the surrounding space. Thus, Bernini finally moved away from the plan of Bramante - Michelangelo, but, having corrected Maderna’s mistake, he, with amazing art, included the cathedral building into an ensemble built on new, Baroque principles.

The ensemble of the square consists of a small, recently (c. 1950) rebuilt outer square in front of the colonnade, then an oval square formed by two open semicircles of the colonnade, with fountains standing almost at the geometric centers of the semicircles, and an obelisk between them, and finally a trapezoidal square between the facade of the cathedral and two side galleries connecting the colonnade with the cathedral. The total depth of the square, reaching more than a quarter of a kilometer (280 m), allows the eye to capture the entire composition as a whole, including the powerful dome crowning the centric part of the temple. To build four-row covered colonnades covering the space of an oval square (their height is 19 m with the same width) with passages for carriages and passages for pedestrians, 284 columns, 80 pillars and 96 large statues crowning the attic were needed. The Tuscan order of columns adopted by Bernini, their proportions and forms would have been distinguished by almost classical restraint and monumentality, if not for their somewhat emphasized physicality and weight, as well as the magnificent attic crowned with decorative sculpture.

From the moment the viewer enters the oval square of the colonnade, in Bernini’s words, “like open arms,” they capture the viewer and direct his movement to the dominant of the composition - the main facade, from where the movement continues through the vestibule and longitudinal naves to the altar. It is significant that in the square itself the viewer is forced to move not along its longitudinal axis - this is prevented by the obelisk in the center of the square, but along the bend of the colonnades. Therefore, first the Viewer sees the distant goal of his movement - the cathedral with the dome crowning it, then various aspects of the space of the square and the angles of the colonnades are revealed before his gaze, until finally the viewer finds himself on a trapezoidal square in front of the facade of the cathedral, which suddenly appears again in front of him, shaking his imagination grandeur of size and splendor of form.

Of Bernini's individual religious buildings, the most outstanding is the Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale (1658-1678). Its façade is arranged in the form of a monumental order portal with smooth, loose pilasters at the corners supporting an entablature and a triangular pediment. The entrance to the church is decorated with a two-column portico, topped with a semicircular entablature, as if emerging from the depths of the arched opening, and a magnificent decorative cartouche. The foot of the portico is designed in the form of a semicircular staircase. The high stone fence adjacent to the flanks of the portal, by contrast with its concavity opposite the portico and staircase, emphasizes the movement that captivates the viewer into the depths of the building.

The plan of the church is an oval with the long axis transverse to the entrance. The richly decorated altar niche seems to be moved close to the viewer entering the church. The space under the dome is surrounded by a crown of low chapels, forming deep niches in the lower tier of the wall, dissected by Corinthian pilasters. The upper tier of the wall with windows ends in an oval dome with a skylight in the center. The oval shape, widely used in Baroque architecture, in contrast to the static forms of a circle or square used in centric buildings of the Renaissance, has a certain dynamic direction and continuous variability of curvature. Using these properties, Bernini creates an interior composition full of movement and contrasts. Deep niches located along the perimeter of the oval, varied in shape and decorative decoration, enrich the interior with the plasticity of their continuously changing shapes and turns, the contrasts of deep shadows with the bright light pouring from under the dome.

Changes in the architecture of the city palace in the second half of the 17th century. can be seen in the example of Palazzo Chigi (Odescalchi), built in Rome according to Bernini’s design. The building, begun in 1664, was completed only in the 18th century, and was greatly distorted by an extension. The main facade of the palace was conceived by Bernini in the form of a central part developed in width with a smooth lower floor, treated like a monumental base, and two upper floors, dissected to the full height by pilasters of a large order. In contrast to the order divisions of the center, the side parts were arranged in the form of flat rusticated wall surfaces, enlivened only by the order window frames. The clarity of the compositional concept, the solemn rhythm of large pilasters alternating with order platbands of the second, front floor, the monumental crowning of the volume with a high relief entablature and an attic-balustrade with sculptures gave the appearance of the building emphasized pomp and grandeur. The type of city palace created by Bernini had a significant impact on palace architecture in other European countries in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Bernini's architectural works, for all their scope and brightness in embodying the principles of the Baroque, are free from the extremes of the Baroque method. The master’s desire for majestic but harmonious architectural images is also indicative.

In contrast to Bernini, the work of his rival, the second largest representative of Baroque architecture, Francesco Borromini (1599-1667), provides an example of sharpening the expressive tendencies of this style. Pushed aside by the almighty Bernini from major urban planning works and from secular orders, Borromini found use of his powers mainly in religious architecture, working on orders from clerical circles. The peculiarities of his talent, which favored the expression of those tendencies that corresponded to the artistic policy of Catholicism, were the reason that in the work of Borromini - with all the courage and originality of his plans and the remarkable skill of this great architect - the irrational features of the Baroque were clearly reflected.

Already in Borromini's early work - the oratorio of the Filipino monks (begun in 1637) - the features of his art appear quite clearly. For the first time in Italian architecture, the master uses the spectacular concave form of a two-tier facade, dissected by pilasters and crowned with a complex keel-shaped pediment. The fractional plasticity of the wall, treated in the spaces between the pilasters with multi-layered panels, the restless rhythm of the windows framed by frames of complex shape, the deep shadows of the niches - all this evokes the impression of excitement, anxiety, and nervous pathos. In Borromini's subsequent works these qualities are further enhanced.

The most characteristic buildings of Borromini, which make it possible to trace the ideological sharpness of the image and consider the means of its artistic embodiment, are the churches of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1635-1667) and Sant Ivo (1642-1660) in Rome. The plans of the churches are extremely complex and are built on a rhythmic alternation of concave and convex wall lines following the outlines of a rhombus (San Carlo), or triangular and spherical niches following the outlines of a hexagon (Sant Ivo). The bizarre shapes of the plan form a dynamic structure of the interior, as if in a state of continuous change. Numerous turns of wavy curved walls, thanks to which identical elements and details - columns, pilasters, windows, niches, visible simultaneously from different angles, seem infinitely diverse, deprive the viewer of the opportunity to grasp the structure of the whole, to feel the reality of space and the objectivity of forms.

The spatial dynamics are expressed with particular force in the interior of Sant Ivo, where the sharp triangular protrusions of the walls transform into an impetuous upward star-shaped dome, which on the outside ends in an extraordinary spiral, as if screwing into the sky, crowned with an openwork crown. Relatively small in size, the interiors of the churches of Sant Ivo and San Carlo seem to be filled with some kind of mysterious and supernatural movement. The lampshades flooded with light, decorated with complex shaped caissons and sculptural decorations, do not stop this movement, but, on the contrary, give it the character of boundlessness. Numerous sculptures placed in the depths of shaded niches enhance the pathetic expressiveness of the architecture.

In the main façade of the Church of San Carlo (1660-1667), Baroque forms were developed, executed with the dynamics and picturesqueness inherent in Borromini. The composition of the facade, dissected by two-tier columns and decorated with niches, is based on the same technique of constructing a complex wave-like shape (convex middle and concave edges) that forms the basis of the interior composition. This achieves stylistic unity of the facade and interior, as well as a richness of shapes and angles. The general movement of the architectural forms of the facade is directed towards the center of the composition - the entrance portal, above which is placed a statue of St. Carla Borro-mei. Only the small cloister of the church, with the clarity of its forms, brings a calming note to the overall dramatic design of this structure.

A different type of church building is represented by the church of Sant'Agnese (1652-1657), rebuilt by Borromini. The composition of this church with a wide facade, two bell towers at the corners and a monumental central part topped with a dome is due to its location on the very elongated Piazza Navona, where the building is destined to play the role of an architectural dominant. The type of domed church building with two bell towers created by Borromini became widespread in Western European architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries.

The work of Borromini and the system he developed expressive means served as a source for the creation of many later works of the Baroque, in which this system was brought to the utmost pretentiousness and mannerism.

An outstanding master of the late Baroque was the architect and mathematician Guarino Guarini (1624-1683), who worked mainly in Turin. His compositions are distinguished by their extraordinary sophistication of spatial structures and decoration. Such is his chapel of Santa Sindone (begun in 1667) of the cathedral in Turin. The composition of the chapel's plan, based on the intersection of several concentric circles of different diameters, creates an even more complex spatial structure than in the works of Borromini. The main rotunda is topped with a system of two domes - an open lower one and a parabolic upper one, completely cut through by oval windows alternating in a checkerboard pattern. Light streams and rays of the sun pouring through dozens of windows in the dome should create the illusion of the firmament and shining luminaries.

Of the civil buildings of Guarini, the Palazzo Carignano in Turin (1680) should be noted, indicating the use in palace architecture of techniques developed in religious architecture. The facade with its spectacularly curved central part, crowned with a complex curvilinear pediment, a concentration of order divisions and sculptural decoration in the center, complex window frames of the second and third floors, an abundance of textural contrasts and a variety of motifs and forms gives the impression of a rich and sophisticated architectural decoration. Guarini's work testifies to the predominance of decorative and formal-experimental tendencies in Baroque architecture and the beginning of the decline of the style.

The architecture of Venice occupies a special place in the Italian Baroque of the 17th century. Here, unlike Rome, the secular principle prevailed over church trends, in which the traditions of Venetian art played a significant role.

The largest Venetian architect of this time was Baldassare Longhena (1598-1682). His main work is the Church of Santa Maria della Salute (1631-1687), the largest domed building in Venice, built at the entrance to the Grand Canal. In the complex volumetric composition of the church with its smooth transitions from a powerful octagonal base, surrounded by a crown of rectangular chapels, to a smaller octahedron of the second tier and a round drum and dome resting on it, there are many unexpected pictorial comparisons, a variety of angles, lines and shapes. The main portal of the church resembles a majestic triumphal arch. Together with the rich sculptural decoration, the giant spiral volutes of the dome drum, the marble surface of the walls reflected in the waters of the canal, the church gives the impression of an almost fabulous structure in terms of its richness of imagination and picturesque forms. In contrast to the religious buildings of the Roman Baroque, the appearance of the church is distinguished by purely secular pomp and elegance. In this sense, the compositional solution of the interior is characteristic: between the altar, in front of which the service is performed, and the audience, there is a place for the choir and orchestra, like in a theater. Of the private palaces built by Longhena, the most significant are Palazzo Nesaro (1679) and Palazzo Rezzonico (begun ca. 1650). In contrast to the ponderous Roman baroque palaces, the facades of Venetian palazzos, due to the clear identification of the order frame and very large window openings, combined with rich decor and the almost complete absence of walls, give the impression of greater lightness and elegance. Baroque features are reflected in the almost sculptural interpretation of order forms, window casings and other details, made in deep relief and creating a picturesque play of light and shadow.