Sergei Andreevich Vishnyakov Russian culture in historical perspective: architecture, literature, painting, music, theatrical art, cinematography, modern cultural space. Russian culture

Do you know how many UNESCO cultural heritage sites are in Russia? If you want to know, read to the end.

No. 10. Palace Bridge

The Palace Bridge in St. Petersburg connects the city center with Vasilyevsky Island. This is one of the most visited sights of the city and its visiting card.
The bridge was built according to the project of A.P. Pshenitsky for four years, from 1912 to 1916. The Dvoretsky Bridge was opened on December 23, 1916.

The bridge got its name from the Winter Palace and Palace Embankment located next to it. With the advent of the new government in 1917, the bridge was renamed Republican, in 1944 the historical name was returned.

The bridge is 260 meters long and 27.8 meters wide. The middle of the five spans is adjustable, two-winged. Each wing is balanced by seven counterweights. The mass of the metal structures of the Palace Bridge is 4868 tons, and the weight of the counterweights is 2800 tons.

The spread wings of the Palace Bridge are one of the symbols of St. Petersburg. During festive events, they are sometimes used as screens for projecting documentaries.

No. 9. St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in Kronstadt

Naval Cathedral of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Nicholas Naval Cathedral) - the largest of the Naval Cathedrals Russian Empire. Erected in 1903 - 1913. in Kronstadt in neo-Byzantine style, designed by V. A. Kosyakov.

Since May 2013, it has been considered the main temple of the Russian Navy and the center of the Military Deanery District of the St. Petersburg diocese.

The Naval Cathedral of St. Nicholas is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List and is protected by the state.

No. 8. Great Peterhof Palace

The Great Peterhof Palace is the main building of the ensemble of the Lower Park and the Upper Garden in Peterhof.

Initially, it was a rather modest royal palace, built in the style of "Peter's Baroque" in 1714-1725 according to project J-B. Leblon, and then N. Michetti. In 1747-1752. was rebuilt by the architect F.-B. Rastrelli for Empress Elizabeth Petrovna in mature baroque style. The length of the facade facing the sea is 268 m. Two one-story galleries depart from the central building, which end in the West with the Building under the coat of arms, and in the east - with the Church building.

During the Nazi occupation in September 1941, a fire broke out in the palace, which destroyed all the interiors. And in 1944, during the retreat, the Germans blew up the central part of the palace. After 8 years, the appearance of the palace was restored, and in 1964 the first halls were opened to tourists.

No. 7. Kazan Kremlin

The Kazan Kremlin is the oldest part of Kazan. This is a whole complex of architectural, historical and archaeological monuments that reveal the centuries-old history of the city: the archaeological remains of three settlements of the 12th-13th centuries, the 14th-15th centuries and the 15th-16th centuries, the white-stone Kremlin, a number of temples and buildings with a great historical, architectural and cultural value.
The territory of the Kremlin is an irregular polygon in plan, repeating the outlines of the Kremlin hill. It is located on the cape of a high terrace on the left bank of the Volga and the left bank of the Kazanka.

The Kazan Kremlin is the official residence of the President of Tatarstan. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000.

No. 6. Palace Square

Palace Square- This architectural ensemble, which arose in the second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. The main square of St. Petersburg.

The square is framed by historical and cultural monuments of federal significance: the Winter Palace, the Headquarters Building of the Guards Corps, the General Staff Building with the Arc de Triomphe, the Alexander Column.

The size of Palace Square is 5.4 hectares (Red Square in Moscow has an area of 2.3 hectares). Palace Square is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

No. 5. Catherine Palace and Park

Tsarskoye Selo is a suburb of St. Petersburg. In 1937 the village was renamed into the city of Pushkin. The museum-reserve "Tsarskoye Selo" is located here. The Catherine Palace and the park are an integral part of the Tsarskoye Selo imperial residence.

The Catherine Palace (Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace) is a former imperial palace, the official summer residence of three Russian monarchs - Catherine I, Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II.
The palace building was founded in 1717 by order Russian empress Catherine I, during the 18th century it was repeatedly rebuilt and in its present form it is an example of the late Baroque. IN Soviet time a museum was opened in the palace.

The palace was badly damaged during the Great Patriotic War. Its restoration took many years and is still ongoing. The restoration is carried out by the Leningrad School of Restorers. The Catherine Palace is included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Every year, thousands of tourists come to Pushkin to admire the Catherine Palace and the park. The palace is very rich in famous objects: the Great (Throne) Hall, the Amber Room, the halls of the "Golden" enfilade.

The Catherine Park consists of two parts: the regular Old Park and the landscape English Park. 107 hectares of beauty and grace, united with nature.

No. 4. St. Basil's Cathedral

The Cathedral of the Intercession of the Holy Mother of God (St. Basil's Cathedral) is an Orthodox church located on Red Square in Moscow.

St. Basil's Cathedral is well known throughout the world as one of the most famous symbols of Moscow and the entire Russian state.

The Intercession Cathedral was built by order of Ivan the Terrible in honor of the victorious campaign of the tsarist army against Kazan. During the war, after each victory in major battle a small wooden church was being built on Red Square next to the Trinity Church. Each new church bore the name of the saint on whose day the victory was won. Upon returning from a campaign in 1552, the king decided to build a temple in honor of the Intercession of the Mother of God on the site of the Trinity Church and eight wooden churches. Since the victory over the Kazan army took place on the feast of the Protection of the Mother of God. Construction was carried out from 1555 to 1561. The temple was built by Russian architects - Postnik and Barma.

Included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Russia.

No. 3. Saint Isaac's Cathedral

St. Isaac's Cathedral (Cathedral of St. Isaac of Dalmatia) is the largest Orthodox church in St. Petersburg. Located on St. Isaac's Square. It has the status of a museum.

Built in 1818-1858 by architect Auguste Montferrand. The construction was supervised by Emperor Nicholas I.

St. Isaac's Cathedral - built in the style late classicism, in which new directions appear (neo-Renaissance, Byzantine style, eclecticism).

The height of the cathedral is 101.5 m, length 111.3 m, width - 97.6. The dome has impressive dimensions: the outer diameter is 25.8 m, the inner diameter is 21.8. The building is decorated with 112 monolithic granite columns. different sizes. The walls are faced with light gray Ruskeala marble.

No. 2. Red Square

Red Square is the main symbol and the most famous historical place Moscow. It is located in the Central Administrative District between the Kremlin and Kitay-gorod. Red Square and located on it architectural structures included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Muscovites consider Red Square "the heart of the capital". Here are the main holidays of the country. Here they celebrate New Year, hold a parade in honor of May 9th.

The area of Red Square is 24,750 m², the length is 330 m, and the width is 75 m. The area, paved with Crimean dolerite paving stones, is a pedestrian zone. Car traffic on the square has been banned since 1963. There is also a ban on the movement of bicycles and mopeds.

No. 1. Church of the Savior on Blood

The Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ on Blood, or the Church of the Savior on Blood in St. Petersburg, is an Orthodox memorial single-altar church in the name of the Resurrection of Christ.

The temple was erected in memory of the fact that on this site on March 1 (13), 1881, an attempt was made on the life of Alexander II, which led to his death. The temple was built as a monument to the martyr tsar with funds collected from all over Russia.

Located in the historical center of St. Petersburg on the banks of the Griboyedov Canal, next to the Mikhailovsky Garden and Konyushennaya Square. The height of the nine-domed temple is 81 m, the capacity is up to 1600 people.

The temple was built by order of the emperor Alexander III in 1883-1907 by joint project architect Alfred Parland and Archimandrite Ignatius (Malyshev), who later withdrew from construction. The project is made in the "Russian style". On August 19, 1907, the cathedral was consecrated.

The Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood is one of the most beautiful, festive and colorful churches in Russia. The decor of the building used a variety of finishing materials - brick, marble, granite, enamels, gilded copper and mosaics.

There are 27 UNESCO cultural heritage sites in Russia. Of these, 15 are classified as cultural, and the remaining 12 are natural.

Sergei Andreevich Vishnyakov

The culture of Russia in a historical perspective: architecture, literature, painting, musical art, theatrical art, cinematography, modern cultural space

Topic 1. Architecture

Until the end of the 10th century, there was no monumental stone architecture in Rus', but there were rich traditions of wooden construction. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone temples begins. The cross-domed type became widespread, which had the following construction scheme: the interior of the temple was divided by four massive pillars, forming a cross. On these pillars, connected by arches, a “drum” was erected, ending with a hemispherical dome.

The first stone building was tithe church, built in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century by Greek masters. At the beginning of the 11th century, another stone building was erected in the city of Chernigov - the Transfiguration Cathedral. The pinnacle of Russian architecture of this time is Saint Sophia Cathedral, built in 1037–1054 in Kyiv by Greek and Russian craftsmen. Many-domed domes have never been seen in temple architecture before. The temple symbolized not only the greatness of the church, but also the power of princely power.

Beginning in the 12th century new stage in the development of architecture. The architecture of the XII-XIII centuries is distinguished by the smaller scale of buildings, simpler, but at the same time beautiful forms, and simplicity of decoration. The most typical was a cubic temple with a massive tower-shaped dome. Early examples of this architectural style are Cathedral of the Spaso-Evfrosiniev Monastery in Polotsk, Cathedral of Michael the Archangel in Smolensk.

The influence of the Romanesque style becomes noticeable, which did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture, but affected the external design of buildings: groups of semi-columns, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. The use of elements of this style spread in the Smolensk principality, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus (Assumption Cathedral, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl). Assumption Cathedral erected on a high bank so that it dominates all visible space. It was distinguished by majesty and grace of forms. In addition to the stone belt of columns that divided the temple into two parts, sculptural reliefs are introduced into its design. This cathedral has survived to the present, although it was rebuilt after a fire in 1185, when it was significantly expanded and became five-domed.

Church of the Intercession on the Nerl River admires the impeccability and purity of forms. Architectural details repeatedly emphasize its vertical rhythm, marking the connection of this temple with the air element. The facades of the church are decorated with white stone carvings.

In the field of architecture, the second half of the 13th-14th centuries is characterized by the renewal of stone architecture, which began in Novgorod and Pskov earlier than in other lands. Significant architectural structures were erected in these cities, the construction of which used the traditions of the past. Among them are churches Spas on Ilyin(1374) in Novgorod, Vasily on the Hill(1410) in Pskov. abundance decorative ornaments on the walls, the general elegance is characteristic of these buildings.

The first stone buildings in the Moscow principality date back to the 14th-15th centuries. These are preserved to this day Assumption Cathedral(1400) in Zvenigorod, Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery(1427) in Moscow. During the creation of these cathedrals, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white-stone architecture continued. The accumulated experience in the field of urban planning made it possible to create the mighty, full of grandeur and strength of the Moscow Kremlin, the first white stone walls of which were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. A century later, the grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters, who then occupied a leading place in the architectural sphere of Europe, ended with the creation at the end of the 15th century Ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin existing to this day. It was one of the largest fortresses, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science.

The heart of the Kremlin Cathedral Square, which overlook the main cathedrals. The central building of the Kremlin is Ivan the Great belltower. In 1475-1479 the main Cathedral - Assumption, where the kings were crowned kings, the most important state decisions were announced. In the years 1481-1489 erected Blagoveshchensky cathedral- the house church of the Moscow sovereigns, and the tomb of the Moscow grand dukes was built nearby - Cathedral of the Archangel(1505–1508). Then it was built Faceted Chamber(1487–1491), which got its name from the “facets” that adorned the outer walls, and was part of the royal court, its throne room, where foreign ambassadors were introduced to the king, receptions were held.

One of the outstanding manifestations of the heyday of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of tented temples, which do not have pillars inside and rest on the foundation. Most famous monuments of this style are Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, Intercession Cathedral, or, as it is also called, St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, built in honor of the capture of Kazan.

The Church of the Ascension became the prototype of St. Basil's Cathedral (1555–1561). The architects of the cathedral, Barma and Postnik, built it by order of the king and the church. The central church was supposed to be surrounded by seven aisles in honor of the seven saints, whose holidays fell on the days of the Kazan campaign of the Russian army. But the architects acted not as ordered by almighty customers, but according to their own understanding, as masters, better versed in the laws of creativity. The will of the tsar and metropolitan receded before beauty. The base of the cathedral is a circle. Two squares are inscribed in it, resulting in an octagon, at the corners of which chapels were placed, and in the center - the main Intercession Church. Eight towers of the temple, placed on a high ground floor, are crowned with figured multicolored domes that surround the central tower, completed with a high tent. Around the cathedral there is a bypass gallery covered with a vault, which separates the first floor from the second, emphasizing the variety of architectural decoration. The rich and peculiar ratio of parts creates an amazing harmony.

Another direction to architecture XVI century was the construction of five-domed monastery cathedrals. Such cathedrals were built in many monasteries of the largest Russian cities. In particular, this Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal.

The extensive construction of stone kremls continued. In the 30s of the 16th century, part of the Moscow Kremlin was surrounded on the eastern side by a brick wall, called Kitaygorodskaya. At the very end of the century, the architect Fyodor Kon erected white-stone walls around the White City (modern boulevard ring in Moscow) nine kilometers long. Stone fortresses - kremlins were built in the Volga region (Kazan, Astrakhan), in the north-west of Russia (in Novgorod, Pskov, Pechora) and even in the far north (on the Solovetsky Islands).

Another direction in architecture was the construction of small stone temples. They were the centers of settlements - areas inhabited by artisans of various specialties, and were dedicated to a specific saint - the patron of a particular craft.

It should be noted that among all types of art, architecture in the 16th century received greatest development, took a huge step forward, which determined the subsequent development of architecture in the 17th century. Like other spheres of Russian culture of the 17th century, architecture showed a tendency to strengthen secular motifs, to abandon strict church canons. The main thing that characterizes the architecture of this time is the departure from medieval simplicity, the desire for external elegance, picturesqueness, and the strengthening of the decorative principle in it.

One of the most notable secular buildings of the first half of the 17th century is Terem Palace in the Moscow Kremlin, built by architects A. Konstantinov, T. Sharutin and L. Ushakov. Two belts of multicolored tiles, a gilded roof, and colorful patterns on the walls gave the palace a fabulous look. The Moscow Kremlin itself also changed its appearance, where the Spasskaya Tower, and then other towers, were decorated with white stone patterns and tiles.

At the heart of Russian culture are Russian national values. To understand what Russian culture is, one must first understand the historically established, traditional values of the Russian people, to understand the mental system of values of the Russian people. After all, Russian culture is created precisely by Russian people with their worldview and spiritual way of life: without being a bearer of Russian values and without having a Russian mentality, it is impossible to create or reproduce it in your , and any attempts along the way will be a fake.

At the heart of Russian culture are Russian national values.

The most important role in the development of the Russian people, the Russian state and the Russian world was played by the agricultural peasant community, that is, the origins of the generation of Russian culture were embedded in the value system of the Russian community. The prerequisite for the existence of the Russian individual is this very community, or as they used to say "world". It should be noted that a significant part of its history Russian society and the state was formed in the conditions of military confrontation, which always made it necessary to neglect the interests of individuals in order to preserve the Russian people as a whole, as an independent ethnic group.

For Russians, the goals and interests of the team are always higher than personal interests and the goals of a single person - everything individual is easily sacrificed to the general. In response, the Russian people are used to counting and hoping for the support of their world, their community. This feature leads to the fact that a Russian person easily puts aside his personal affairs and fully devotes himself to a common cause. That is why are state people , that is, such a people who are able to form something common, large and extensive. Personal gain always comes after the public.

Russians are a state people because they know how to form something common for everyone.

A truly Russian person is categorically sure - first you need to arrange common socially significant affairs, and only then this single whole will begin to work for all members of the community. Collectivism, the need to exist together with their society is one of the brightest features of the Russian people. .

Another basic Russian national value- This justice, because without its clear understanding and implementation, life in a team is not possible. The essence of the Russian understanding of justice lies in the social equality of people who make up the Russian community. The roots of this approach lie in the ancient Russian economic equality of men in relation to the land: initially, members of the Russian community were endowed with equal agricultural shares from what the "world" owned. That is why, internally, Russians strive for such an implementation concepts of justice.

In the Russian people, the dispute in the categories of truth-truth and truth-justice will always be won by justice. Russian is not as important as it once was and how it is on this moment, much more important what and how should be in the future. The actions and thoughts of individuals have always been evaluated through the prism of eternal truths supporting the postulate of justice. The inner desire for them is much more important than the benefits of a particular result.

The actions and thoughts of individuals have always been evaluated through the prism of justice.

Russian individualism is very difficult to implement. This is due to the fact that from time immemorial, in agricultural communities, people were given equal allotments, land was periodically redistributed, that is, a person was not the owner of the land, did not have the right to sell his piece of land or change the culture of cultivation on it. In such a situation it was unrealistic to show individual skill, which was not highly valued in Rus'.

The almost complete lack of personal freedom has shaped the habit of Russians in rush work, as an effective way of collective activity during the agricultural season. During such periods phenomenal combination of work and holiday, which made it possible, to a certain extent, to compensate for the great physical and emotional stress, as well as to give up excellent freedom in economic activity.

A society based on the ideas of equality and justice could not establish wealth as a value: to an unlimited increase in wealth. In the same time live prosperously to a certain extent was quite revered - in the Russian village, especially in the northern regions, simple people merchants who artificially slowed down their trade turnover were respected.

Just by becoming rich, you cannot earn the respect of the Russian community.

A feat among Russians is not personal heroism - it should always be directed "to the outside of a person": death for one's Fatherland and Motherland, a feat for one's friends, and death is red for the world. Immortal glory was given to people who sacrificed themselves for the sake of others and in front of their community. At the heart of the Russian feat of arms, the dedication of the Russian soldier has always been contempt for death and only then - hatred for the enemy. This contempt for the possibility of dying for the sake of something very important is rooted in a willingness to endure and suffer.

At the heart of the Russian feat of arms, the selflessness of the Russian soldier lies contempt for death.

The well-known habit of Russians to suffer is not masochism. Through personal suffering, a Russian person self-actualizes, gains personal inner freedom. In the Russian sense- the world exists steadily and continuously moves forward only through sacrifice, patience and self-restraint. This is the reason for Russian long-suffering: if the real one knows why it is needed...

List of Russian values
statehood
catholicity
justice
patience
non-aggression
readiness to suffer
compliance
non-possessiveness
dedication
unpretentiousness

Plan

Introduction 2

1. Russian culture as an object of study 3

2. Sociodynamics of Russian culture 6

3. People and intelligentsia 11

Conclusion 14

References 15

Introduction

History of Russian culture, its values, role and place in world culture in the early 90s. 20th century aroused great interest both as a subject of scientific study and as training course. A lot of scientific and educational literature appeared, covering our history and culture. Its comprehension was mainly based on the works of the thinkers of the Russian "Spiritual Renaissance" late XIX- the first quarter of the XX century. However, by the end of the 90s. this interest began to wane. Partly because the sense of novelty of previously forbidden ideas has been exhausted, and a modern, original reading of our cultural history has not yet appeared.

The purpose of the abstract is to analyze the values of Russian culture.

Study the literature on the topic;

Expand the basic concepts;

Consider the main stages in the development of Russian culture;

1. Russian culture as an object of study

The concepts of "Russian culture", "Russian national culture", "culture of Russia" can be considered as synonyms, or as independent phenomena. They reflect different states and components of our culture. It seems that when studying Russian culture, the focus should be on the culture itself, cultural traditions Eastern Slavs as a union of tribes, Russians, Russians. Culture of other peoples in this case is of interest as a result and process of mutual influence, borrowing, dialogue of cultures. In this case, the concept of "Russian culture" is synonymous with the concept of "Russian national culture". The concept of "culture of Russia" is broader, as it includes the history of the formation and development of the culture of the Old Russian state, individual principalities, multinational state associations - the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, Russian Federation. In this context, Russian culture acts as the main backbone element of the culture of a multinational state. The multinational culture of Russia can be typified on various grounds: confessional (Orthodox, Protestants, Muslims, Buddhists, etc.); according to the economic structure (agricultural culture, cattle breeding, hunting), etc. It is very unproductive to ignore the multinational nature of the culture of our state, as well as the role of Russian culture in this state. Interest in the peculiarities of the culture of different peoples of Russia in more ethnographers and, to a lesser extent, culturologists show. Simultaneous existence different cultures, mixed marriages, multidirectional traditions within the same family, village, city require careful attention of researchers. The good relations in the country, the successful solution of the tasks of developing the culture of Russia largely depend on the harmonization of these relations, mutual knowledge.

The study of national culture is not only an educational task. It is closely connected with another - no less important - to grow bearers of Russian culture, followers of its traditions, which will contribute to its preservation as a part of world culture, expanding the boundaries of Russian culture, and the dialogue of cultures.

“Oh, bright and beautifully decorated Russian land! You are glorified by many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, locally revered rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clear fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious decrees, monastery gardens, God's temples and formidable princes, boyars honest, many nobles. You are full of everything, Russian land, O orthodox Christian faith! Literature of Ancient Rus'. Reader. M., 1990. S. 175. .

These lines, infused deep love to their land, can be considered an epigraph to this text. They form the beginning of the ancient literary monument "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land." Unfortunately, only an excerpt has been preserved, which was found as part of another work - The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky. The time of writing the "Word" - 1237 - the beginning of 1246.

Each national culture is a form of self-expression of the people. It reveals the features of the national character, worldview, mentality. Any culture is unique and goes through its own, inimitable way of development. This fully applies to Russian culture. It can be compared with the cultures of the East and West only to the extent that they interact with it, influence its genesis and evolution, and are connected with Russian culture by a common destiny.

Attempts to understand the national culture, to determine its place and role in the circle of other cultures are associated with certain difficulties. They can be subdivided into the following: a strong gravitation of researchers towards a comparative approach, a constant attempt comparative analysis our culture and the culture of Western Europe and almost always not in favor of the former; ideologization of specific cultural and historical material and its interpretation from various positions, during which some facts are brought to the fore, and those that do not fit into the author's concept are ignored.

When considering the cultural-historical process in Russia, three main approaches are clearly traced.

The first approach is represented by supporters of the unilinear model of world history. According to this concept, all the problems of Russia can be solved by overcoming the civilizational, cultural lag or modernization.

Supporters of the second proceed from the concept of multilinear historical development, according to which the history of mankind consists of the history of a number of original civilizations, one of which includes the Russian (Slavic - N.Ya. Danilevsky or Orthodox Christian - A. Toynbee) civilization. Moreover, the main features or "soul" of each civilization cannot be perceived or deeply understood by representatives of another civilization or culture, i.e. is unknowable and not reproducible.

The third group of authors tries to reconcile both approaches. These include the well-known researcher of Russian culture, the author of the multi-volume work “Essays on the History of Russian Culture” P.N. Milyukov, who defined his position as a synthesis of two opposing constructions of Russian history, “of which one put forward the similarity of the Russian process with the European one, bringing this similarity to identity, and the other proved Russian originality to complete incomparability and exclusivity. Milyukov occupied a conciliatory position and built a Russian historical process on the synthesis of both features, similarity and originality, emphasizing the features of originality "somewhat more sharply than the similarities" Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture: In 3 vols. M., 1993. T. 1. S. 61. . It should be noted that identified by Milyukov at the beginning of the 20th century. approaches to the study of the cultural-historical process of Russia retained, with some modifications, their main features until the end of our century.

Most authors, who differ in their assessments and prospects of the cultural and historical development of Russia, nonetheless distinguish a number of common factors (conditions, causes) that determine the features (backwardness, delay, originality, originality) of Russian history and culture. Among them: natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional, ethnic, features of social and state organization Russian society.

2. Sociodynamics of Russian culture

The sociocultural history of Russia is distinguished, according to many researchers, by a discrete (discontinuous) character. Outstanding philosopher of the 20th century. ON THE. Berdyaev wrote that "an organic unity cannot be found" in Russian history. He counted "five different Russias: Russia of Kyiv, Russia of the Tatar period, Russia of Moscow, Russia of Petrine or Imperial and, finally, the new Soviet Russia» Berdyaev N.A. History and meaning of Russian communism. M., 1990. S. 7. .

Each of the five periods really differed sharply from the previous one and from the next one and was characterized by socio-cultural originality and internal unity. And in each case, the transition from one self-contained socio-cultural stage to the next was carried out not by a gradual, evolutionary path, but as a result of a rather sharp, sudden “breaking” of an integral and unified socio-cultural system (the term “paradigm” is adopted today to designate it). In the history of Russian culture, there are quite a few such "breaks" of the cultural-historical paradigm:

1 - Baptism of Rus',

2 - the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion,

3 - the creation of the Moscow kingdom and the establishment of the Russian autocracy,

4 - religious schism and the beginning of Peter's reforms,

5 - implementation of the peasant reform (abolition of serfdom),

7 - "The Great Break" (the beginning of Soviet totalitarianism),

August 8, 1991 - the beginning of democratic, liberal reforms in Russia. All of them were destructive in nature and had far-reaching cultural and historical consequences: the rejection of the old cultural tradition, the replacement of the everyday (ordinary) culture that had developed over a number of years and was passed down from generation to generation, i.e. everything that is the basis of the stability of society, gives people a sense of confidence and the possibility of evolutionary, progressive development.

And yet, Berdyaev's "five different Russias" or any other division of our thousand-year history does not contradict its perception as a well-defined unity of Russian civilization, a unique national identity. It is likely that this originality and cultural and historical continuity are based on the mentality of the people, which, despite some changes, has retained its fundamental qualities, formed over many centuries. The concept of "mentality" in scientific communication refers to a certain characteristic of people. historical era the ability to think, act, feel and perceive the world in a certain way. The mentality expresses itself in mythology, in ideas about the world and man, folklore, theology, various theories and teachings, art, literature, traditional ways of behavior and mutual understanding, customs of arranging personal and public life. From the unity of all components, a unique image of national culture arises. Perhaps, it is at the level of mentality that the national culture is fixed and remains faithful to its own path of development, close to the western, but eastern.

Two opposing trends - Western and Eastern - very significantly influenced the formation of the Russian national character, national culture.

The culture of Russia is an original, unique phenomenon within the larger European community. Its medieval culture is self-sufficient, marked by major achievements with a pronounced national origin: in painting, architecture, in the patriotism of prose and poetic literature, in a special theological and mystical direction of philosophy, which had a peculiar outlet in the rise of philosophical thought in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which had profound influence on Western philosophy of the 20th century. In modern times, Russia was able not only to absorb the ideas of the Western European Enlightenment, but to rethink and rework them on a national basis, which resulted in the classical Russian culture XIX century, and then - at the turn of the century - the Silver Age. Paying tribute positive impact dialogue of cultures, many domestic scientists of the early XX century. believed that the assimilated and processed by someone else cultural experience included in their own national tradition.

Along with the noted originality of Russian culture, of course, there are trends common with Western Europe in the development of the literary process, similar forms and parallels of economic, political and cultural life. Love for the national culture should be combined and lead to respectful attitude to other cultures. Only on this basis is a dialogue of cultures possible. Warning against nationalism and the "superstition of patriotism", L.N. Tolstoy wrote: “It is stupid when one person considers himself better than other people; but it’s even more stupid when a whole people considers itself better than other peoples” Tolstoy L.N. The path of life. M., 1993. S. 157. .

It should be noted that the need to take into account cultural development Western Europe and Russia was also expressed by P.N. Milyukov in 1930. Comparing the path traveled by Russia and the West, he proceeded from the fact that most of the processes are comparable or similar, but in each country they have acquired a “special” character. To find out this character for Russia is the task of the historian of Russian culture. Milyukov noted that, exploring the features of Russian culture, one should not forget that " we are talking about the national peculiarity of the universal process, and not at all about something exceptional and specific, constituting some kind of belittling of the national process in comparison with other “civilized” peoples. To recognize the Russian people as capable of “culture” means to recognize them as capable of “civilization”” Milyukov P.N. Essays ... M., 1994. Vol. 2, part 2. S. 467-468. .

The culture of the Old Russian state can be conditionally divided into two periods of unequal time: antiquity itself (the formation of statehood during the period of paganism) and the Middle Ages, the initial moment of which can be attributed, in comparison with Western Europe, to the moment of the adoption of Christianity. This division was introduced in order to be able to compare the influence of the three main generally accepted components of the initial formation and development of the culture of the European Middle Ages on the example of the West and the Old Russian state. These are: 1 - ancient heritage; 2 - the culture of barbarian, pagan tribes - Germans, Eastern Slavs, etc., i.e. indigenous, original, native culture; 3 - Christianity.

Ancient Rus' formed its own criteria for good and evil, these virtues were combined with their Christian understanding. They are very clearly expressed in the description of the Ryazan princes who died in the battle with the Mongols in the “Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”: “They were Christ-loving by birth, brotherly-loving, beautiful in face, bright in eyes, menacing in gaze, brave beyond measure, light in heart, affectionate to the boyars , they are friendly to visitors, diligent to churches, quick to feast, eager for sovereign fun, skillful in military affairs, and majestic before their brethren and before ambassadors. They had a courageous mind, abode in truth-truth, kept spiritual and bodily purity ... And they often fought with the filthy Polovtsians for the holy churches and the Orthodox faith. And they guarded their homeland from enemies without laziness ”Literature of Ancient Rus'. pp. 190-191. . In this sublime and poetic glorification of the heroes, one can trace the hierarchy of moral values, and a tribute to the fallen and an indication that Orthodoxy by the 13th century. becomes an important component of Russian spirituality. Perhaps not all of them corresponded to this description, but they died for their Motherland and should remain bright and beautiful in the memory of their descendants.

The phenomenon of Russian religiosity, a special type of folk spirituality, which was also called “dual faith”, “ritualism”, etc., has always been in the sphere of attention of scientists. Indeed, popular religiosity is contradictory: on the one hand, Orthodoxy for the peasants clearly constituted a rather high spiritual value, on the other hand, there was little interest in and knowledge of church dogmas, liturgical texts, etc. and strict adherence to the ritual side of the dogma. Let us turn to the peculiarities of the organization of the spiritual life of the people at the level of its primary link - the parish. There, the church structure was introduced into the primary peasant worlds. A peculiar socio-ideological cell was formed - the "secular church", in which the functions of civil and religious, adaptation to the urgent needs and interests of socio-economic, legal, family and everyday life were combined. The materials collected by researchers (N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky, A.I. Kopanev, A.I. Klibanov and others) speak of the closest connection between “worldly” and spiritual life in peasant environment. Considering Russian religiosity and "unculturedness" in the context of the Western European mentality, F.A. Stepun noted that the Russian people, thanks to faith, preserved the integrity of their worldview. Lack of education delayed the process of "de-churching and dechurching of the people's consciousness", characteristic of Western "enlightened rationalism", therefore "the darkness of the Russian common man as a phenomenon of intra-church life is rather culture than lack of culture" Stepun F.A. . Thoughts about Russia // New World. 1991. No. 6. S. 223. .

3. People and intelligentsia

Russian culture during the period of the Muscovite state developed as an original national culture. It was a Christian, Orthodox, traditional culture, which, like other similar cultures, was in unity with faith. In the 17th century in Russian culture began the process of secularization. characteristic feature New time was a gap between traditional and new culture, the secularization of culture, the "gap" of the intelligentsia, which was the creator of a new, secular culture, and the people, remaining for some time faithful to the old, traditional culture-faith. The secularization of Russian culture was also a historical necessity. However, in each country this process in modern times took place in different ways. Let us turn once again to the opinion of P.N. Milyukov. He believed that secularization in Russia, the "break" of the intelligentsia and the people, occurred on the basis of faith. A clear manifestation of this was the Nikon reform under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, as a result of which part of the population went into a "schism" and became Old Believers. Unlike Catholicism, the Orthodox Church in Russia was weaker and could not assimilate the culture of the environment in which it found itself, as the Western Church did. Orthodoxy could not eradicate the old Russian paganism, hence the increased importance of the ritual side in the Russian Church, the degeneration of religiosity into ritualism, while the ideological side of religion remained unknown to the people. In addition, Russian Orthodoxy was conservative and did not want to change in accordance with the spirit of the times. It closely connected itself with the state even in the period of the Muscovite state, and as a result of the Synodal reform, this dependence was even more strengthened. As a result, Russian Orthodoxy ceased to exist for the Russian intelligentsia. Secularization gave rise to religious indifference in Russia. The "gap" between the people and the intelligentsia in Russia boils down to the fact that while the people remained with their "everyday" faith, the intelligentsia was left without any religion whatsoever. The secularization of Russian culture was, so far as the Russian intelligentsia is concerned, purely negative, so to speak. Since the church was not able to impose its own ideas, the liberation (emancipation) from the church was not accompanied by the development of any positive ideal.

Milyukov writes about the "intelligentsia" and about the "people" as a whole. However, among the Russian intelligentsia there were people who were distinguished by unusual intensity and depth of religious quest. Some return to the "traditional" faith, to its origins, while others follow the path of god-building. Russian philosophy of the early XX century. gave brilliant examples of the search for truth on the path of religious understanding of the world (S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Berdyaev, P.A. Florensky). But these ideas remained unaccepted by the people and the intelligentsia, and the idea of a revolutionary, and not spiritual, transformation of Russia was established.

As a result of the transformations and reforms of the XVIII century. in Russia there was a secularization of culture, a single culture-faith was divided into secular, civic culture and spiritual. This phenomenon is natural for all countries. traditional culture goes into the past. But in other countries, one culture eventually formed. And with all the differences between educated people, for example, Voltaire and the average person (philistine), "man from the street", both, each in their own way, are representatives of the same culture. It is as if Russia has not one culture, but two. This conclusion was made a long time ago. It is shared by many researchers of Russian culture. However, this feature of our culture, which has Negative influence on our history and culture, dividing rather than uniting the nation, sometimes even in the most difficult periods (revolutions), still requires a very serious analysis and, no less important, specific proposals to overcome this gap, examples of which can be found in modern culture.

Conclusion

Russian culture is certainly great European culture. It is an independent and original national culture, the custodian of national traditions, values, a reflection of the peculiarities of the national character. Russian culture in the process of its formation and development has experienced the influence of many cultures, absorbed some elements of these cultures, reworked and rethought them, they became part of our culture as its organic component.

Russian culture is neither the culture of the East nor the culture of the West. We can say that it is an independent type of culture. As a result of various reasons, Russian culture has not fully realized its possibilities, its potential.

Unfortunately, the experience of various transformations in Russia is complicated by the fact that any changes were made by force or by a sharp breakdown, replacement, denial, rejection of the existing cultural tradition. cultural history countries have repeatedly confirmed in practice the disastrous nature of such an approach, which caused not only the destruction of the previous culture, but also led to a conflict of generations, a conflict of supporters of "novelties" and antiquities. Another important task is to overcome the inferiority complex that is formed in part of our society in relation to their country and culture. It also doesn't help you move forward. The response to it are manifestations of nationalism and a sharp rejection of any borrowings.

Bibliography

Berdyaev N.A. History and meaning of Russian communism. - M., 1990.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Cit.: In 9 volumes - M., 1987. V.1.

Literature of Ancient Rus'. Reader. - M., 1990.

Lossky N.O. Conditions of absolute goodness. - M., 1991.

Lotman Yu.M. The problem of Byzantine influence on Russian culture in typological coverage / Byzantium and Rus. - M., 1989.

Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture: In 3 volumes - M., 1993. V.1.

Stepun F.A. Thoughts about Russia // New World. 1991. No. 6.

Sergei Andreevich Vishnyakov Russian culture in historical perspective: architecture, literature, painting, music, theatrical art, cinematography, modern cultural space. Russian culture

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