Russian culture in the XIII – XVII centuries. Russian culture XIII-XVII centuries
In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. Two stages are clearly visible. Internal frontier in development cultures XIII-XV centuries The Battle of Kulikovo appeared (1380).
Oral folk art . During the period of struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, an appeal to the epics and legends of the Kyiv cycle, in which bright colors battles with the enemies of Ancient Rus' were described and the military feat of the people was glorified, giving the Russian people new strength.
Chronicle. Thanks to economic growth, business records are becoming increasingly necessary. Since the 14th century the use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growing need for records and the advent of paper led to the acceleration of writing. The “charter”, when square letters were written out with geometric precision and solemnity, is being replaced by semi-charter, a more free and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. cursive writing appears, close to modern writing.
In 1408, an all-Russian chronicle was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which was destroyed in the Moscow fire of 1812, and the creation of the Moscow chronicle dates back to 1479. They are based on the idea of all-Russian unity, historical role Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands, continuity of the traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir.
Interest in world history and the desire to determine one’s place among the peoples of the world gave rise to the appearance of chronographs of works on world history. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.
During the period of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pachomius Logothetes and Epiphapius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church figures of Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, founder of the Troipe-Sergius Monastery, who supported the Grand Duke of Moscow in the fight against the Horde.
Architecture. Stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov earlier than in other lands. Using previous traditions, Novgorod and Pskov residents built dozens of small-sized temples. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of that time as the churches of Fyodor Stratelates on Ruche (1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) in Novgorod, and the Church of Vasily on Gorka (1410) in Pskov.
The first stone buildings in the Moscow Principality date back to the XIV-XV centuries. The churches that have come down to us in Zvenigorod, the Assumption Cathedral (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), and the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow to create a mighty Moscow Kremlin, full of greatness, dignity and strength.
The first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian craftsmen, who then occupied a leading place in Europe, culminated in the creation at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day. In 1475-1479. The main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Assumption Cathedral, was built.
Painting. Merge of local art schools in all-Russian times it was also observed in painting. This was a long process, its traces were noted in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the XIV century. worked in Novgorod and Moscow wonderful artist Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium. Feofan the Greek knew how to create emotional tension that reached tragedy with strong, long strokes of his brush and sharp “gaps.” Russian people came specifically to observe the work of Theophanes the Greek. The audience was amazed that Great master wrote his works without using iconographic samples.
The rise of Russian icon painting is associated with the work of Theophanes the Greek’s contemporary, the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information has been preserved about the life of the outstanding master.
The famous "Trinity" (kept in Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodies the main features and principles of Andrei Rublev’s painting style. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of the unity of the world and humanity.
The brushes of A. Rublev also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir that have come down to us, and the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (stored in the Tretyakov Gallery). Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad.
The beginning of book printing. The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated book, “The Apostle.” However, there are seven books without exact date publications These are the so-called anonymous books published before 1564. Typographic work that began in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building for the printing house was built. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets in 1574 in Lvov published the first Russian ABC book. For the entire 16th century. In Russia, only 20 books were published by printing. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
Architecture. One of the outstanding manifestations of the heyday of Russian architecture was the construction of tent-roofed churches. Most famous monuments This style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, and the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.
Another direction in the architecture of the 16th century. there was the construction of large five-domed monastery churches modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.
Another direction in the architecture of the 16th century. there was the construction of small stone or wooden settlement churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a specific patron saint of a given craft.
Education. In the second half of the 17th century. Several public schools were established. There was a school for training employees for central institutions, for the Printing House. Pharmacy order, etc. Printing press made it possible to publish uniform manuals for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) during one day of V.F.’s Primer. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. Meletius Smotripky's "Grammar" (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.
In 1687, the first higher education institution was founded in Moscow educational institution- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where they taught “from grammar, rhetoric, literature, dialectics, philosophy... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sophronius and Ioannikiy Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. also studied at this academy. Lomonosov.
Painting. The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The largest artist XVII century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, Novgorod art was the most advanced. Novgorod suffered the least from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, retaining the old foundations of centuries-old folk culture and its connections with Western Europe. Therefore, it was in Novgorod that wonderful works of architecture and painting were created during this period. The churches built in Novgorod in the 14th century were distinguished by their simplicity, almost square shape on the outside, but inside large spaces of smooth walls were covered from top to bottom with frescoes
Novgorod frescoes of the second half of the 14th century (the Church of the Transfiguration, in Bolotov, etc.) speak of the artists’ interest in living nature and people, Best artist In the 14th century there was Theophanes the Greek, who worked first in Novgorod and then in Moscow. The fame of Novgorod painters spread abroad, where they were invited to work.
In the 15th century, a grandiose work was underway in Moscow to rebuild and create the Kremlin with its cathedrals, palaces and chambers. Masters from various Russian regions - Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - are taking part in this work.
The work of the brilliant Russian painter Andrei Rublev dates back to the beginning of the 15th century.
His work, like the painting of the Novgorodians of the 16th century, reflects the same interest in man, in his spiritual life, in nature. According to Rublev, he surpasses the Novgorodians in his mastery of execution. He paints faces (for example, the Trinity icon) of a distinctly Russian type.
In the field of architecture, it was in the 16th century that a unique Moscow style emerged. Without breaking ties with antiquity, the construction of the 16th century intensively developed the so-called hipped architecture (the roof is a tent), which transferred to stone architecture the type of wooden buildings characteristic of folk construction art.
One of the first remarkable monuments of such stone tented buildings is the church built in 1532 in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow.
It is a huge tower (about 62 m) topped with a tent. In the architecture of the building, the builders tried to convey the uncontrollable desire to rise. This was typical for the growing and strengthening Moscow state.
Even more striking in beauty and picturesque creation of the Russian architecture XVI century is St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555 - 1660) - the construction of Russian masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma The cathedral was built by order of Ivan the Terrible in memory of the conquest of Kazan. Like the church in the village of Kolomenskoye, this cathedral is a majestic monument of that time, seeking to convey the power and strength of the Russian state. These were wonderful works of Russian folk art.
Interest in political topics manifests itself in Painting. For example, the icon “Church Militant” depicted the return of Ivan the Terrible to Moscow at the head of the Moscow army from a victorious campaign against Kazan.
For art XVII century is characterized by a desire for decorativeness. Colored tiles, white stone, and shaped bricks are widely used in architecture. The walls of the buildings are decorated with various patterns that give a play of colors.
The same variegation, a tendency towards splendor, towards the race-like finishing of details can be observed in painting. The main genre in painting becomes the portrait, the “parsuna”, as they said then.
The greatest master of painting in the 17th century was Simon Ushakov (1626-1686). Ushakov painted icons and portraits, drew up drawings to decorate wooden benches for coins, painted the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin, drew maps, etc. He was especially skilled at painting faces. When drawing a face, Ushakov tried to truthfully convey a person’s state of mind, Ushakov said that in painting , like in a mirror, life should be reflected
As we see, art (architecture, painting) is becoming closer to life.
Effective preparation for the Unified State Exam (all subjects) -
The content and direction of its development in the 13th – 15th centuries was determined by the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the creation of a unified state. Cultural historical process ser. XIII – mid. XIV centuries characterized by decline and stagnation, which were caused by the Mongol invasion. Its results: the death and captivity of thousands of people; destruction of cities, architectural structures; the disappearance of many crafts; cessation of stone construction for half a century; death literary monuments, interruption of chronicle writing.
Cultural-historical process 2nd half. XIV–XV centuries - this is the rise of Russian culture, due to the success of economic development, the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, and the leading role of Moscow. Golden age ancient Russian culture- this is the rise of culture in the 15th century. The “Golden Age” of Russian icon painting is the heyday of icon painting at the end of the 14th–15th centuries, associated with the work of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Dionysius. Andrei Rublev owns the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank - “Savior”, “Archangel Michael”, “Apostle Paul”. For the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad, Andrei Rublev created the famous Trinity icon, which embodies the truth of the Christian understanding of the One God in three persons.
Russian culture of the 16th century. is still defined by the Christian worldview. Big role The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 played a role in this. He approved the patterns to be followed. In icon painting it was the work of Andrei Rublev, in architecture - the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius. The ideology “Moscow is the third Rome” is being formed. She represents the historical process as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the “eternal city” - perished due to heresy, the second Rome - Constantinople - due to the conclusion of a union with Catholics, the third Rome - Moscow - the true custodian of Christianity. These ideas were embodied in the paintings of the Smolensk Cathedral of the Moscow Novodevichy Convent (c. 1530).
In the 16th century The formation of the Great Russian nation is completed. Secular elements in culture are more noticeable. Russian culture XVII V. ends the medieval period of history, elements of modern culture emerge, which is characterized by a process of comprehensive “secularization.”
16. Transformations in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century: contents, results, consequences.
In the 17th century, as a result of the activities of the first Romanovs, the socio-economic and political crisis of the Time of Troubles was overcome. At the end of the century, trends towards Europeanization of the country emerged. Russia has been active foreign policy and trade in Europe and Asia, the economy began a transition from small-scale handicraft production to manufactories, Western European culture actively penetrated into Russian culture. For the further effective development of the country it was necessary to provide access to the seas. The solution to this problem required the presence strong personality in power, reorganization and rearmament of the army, development of the economy for waging a long war. Due to the absence of the bourgeoisie, these problems had to be solved by the autocratic government at the expense of the forces and resources of the entire society. He became such a reformer Peter I Alekseevich (1682–1725).
Peter's activities can be divided into two periods: 1695–1715 and 1715–1725.
Important feature first period is to solve the problems of internal reconstruction of the country due to Seven Years' War. Reforms were carried out mainly by force and were accompanied by gross government intervention in the economy (regulation of trade, industry, taxes). The reforms did not have a clear plan and were carried out as a response to the demands of the current moment; the appropriate people were not trained to carry out the reforms; there was a struggle with the old administrative personnel. Therefore, many reforms were unsuccessful and not completed.
In second period reforms have become more systematic. The results of the reforms began to show, experienced people(chicks of Petrov's nest).
In general, Peter's reforms were subordinated to the interests of the entire society. All of Peter’s activities were based on this, although they were of a violent nature. Concerning pace of reforms, then they depended on the urgency of solving a specific problem. At the same time, some reforms led to a radical breakdown public relations and restructuring of structures and institutions.
At the forefront of all reforms was the creation of a combat-ready army of the European standard; all other reforms were subordinated to this main concern of Peter. On the initiative of Peter, it was created regular army And Navy , military educational institutions were opened (navigation, engineering and artillery schools), military legislation was adopted, and governing bodies of the army and navy were created. The army was recruited on the basis of regular recruitment kits
and was for life. In foreign trade policy was actively pursued mercantilism (encouraging development own production and exports, high taxes on imports). Industry was protected from foreign competition by high import duties ().
protectionist policy But first of all, Peter took care of those industries that worked to supply the army. Peter allowed the owners of manufactories to buy peasants to work in factories ().
possessional peasants Reform the country was carried out according to Western, mainly Protestant models. As a result of administrative reforms, a centralized bureaucratic apparatus emerged, which generally survived until 1917. This apparatus was headed by the tsar himself, who had full legislative, executive and judicial power. Thus Russia entered period of absolutism. In 1711, the completely degraded Boyar Duma was replaced Senate, whose members are appointed by the king. The function of the Senate was to issue decrees; it exercised executive and judicial power. Oversaw the activities of the Senate since 1722 prosecutor general with the right of personal reporting to the tsar and the prosecutor's office subordinate to him. In 1717–1718, Peter replaced the old system of orders with sectoral ones collegium. Cities are subordinate magistrates, the patriarchate was abolished in the church and created Synod. Thus the church became part of the state apparatus. In 1708–1710 it took place regional reform: The country is divided into 8 provinces headed by governors who had administrative, judicial and military powers. Governorates were divided into provinces, provinces into counties.
In 1718–1724, a population census was carried out and capitation tax(tax on men). This led to a doubling of taxes and the extension of serfdom to previously free sections of the population. As a result of the census, peasants were divided into public and private. The urban population is divided into regular(merchants, industrialists, traders, large artisans) and irregular(small artisans and urban poor). This division made it possible to increase the economic activity of merchants and artisans by freeing regular people from many government duties.
The privileged classes remained aristocracy and nobility. However, their land ownership was made dependent on government service. Thus, the aristocracy and nobility were finally equalized in rights. Advancement up the social ladder was facilitated by the introduction Table of ranks, which made it possible to expand the layer of nobility. Promotion up the career ladder was determined professional qualities person.
“Military ranks who rise to the rank of chief officer ( VIII class) not from the nobles, then when someone receives the rank described above, he is a nobleman, and his children who will be born in the chief officership, and if there are no children at that time, but there are before, and the father will beat his forehead, then the nobility will be given and to that one son only, for whom the father will ask.”
Only at the end of the 13th century. Stone churches began to be built again. Of these, only the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna near Novgorod has survived to this day.
Literature XIII - early XVI V.
The first monument of fiction after the invasion can be considered “The Lay of the Death of the Russian Land.” A call for self-sacrifice in the fight against a terrible enemy “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Tale of Mercury of Smolensk”, etc. How the prominent writer Vladimir Bishop Serapion assessed the invasion as punishment for sins. His messages expressed faith: if the Russian people are able to overcome their sins, then liberation from the yoke is inevitable. Only after the victory on the Kulikovo Field did other sentiments appear in literature. The first response to the battle was the poem “Zadonshchina,” written under the influence of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign. At the beginning of the 15th century. "The Tale of Mamaev's massacre" It became the most popular work about the Battle of Kulikovo. One of the most famous and prominent literary works XV century is “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin.
Architecture and art of the 14th - 15th centuries
In the XIV century. Stone construction began in Russian cities. The architecture of Novgorod the Great was distinguished by great originality. In the 15th century Novgorodians turned their attention to antiquity and erected temples modeled on ancient buildings. The largest center of architecture by the middle of the 14th century. became Moscow. Under Ivan Kalita, the largest stone churches of that period were erected, and under Dmitry Donskoy - the first North-Eastern Russian walls made of white stone, mined in quarries near Moscow. By the end of the 15th century. The white stone Kremlin has become very dilapidated. Ivan III decided to build an unusual Kremlin. Under the leadership of Italian masters, the Kremlin wall with eighteen towers was created. The main temple of Rus', the Assumption Cathedral, was created by the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The most elegant building in the Kremlin was the Archangel Cathedral, built by the Italian master Aleviz Fryazin Novy. Architects from Pskov erected the elegant Annunciation Cathedral. The “Golden Age” of Russian icon painting was the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries..,
The most famous creation of Andrei Rublev was the Trinity icon. In the image of three angels, symbolizing the unity of the three persons of God - the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, the ideal of peace, harmony and divine beauty. Rublev's work reflected the era of national upsurge caused by the Kulikovo victory. At the end of the 15th century. The famous master of icon painting was the monk Dionysius, who came from a noble family.
Development of culture in the 16th century. The formation and development of a unified Russian state gave rise to an extensive journalistic literature. Its main topic was the question of ways to further develop the country. They opposed the teaching Orthodox Church on many issues.
The heyday of Russian social thought in the first quarter of the 17th century. associated with the appearance of books about the Time of Troubles. The most famous of them are “The Tale” of Abraham Palitsyn, “Vremennik” by clerk Ivan Timofeev, “Words” of Prince Ivan Khvorostinin, etc. A prominent representative of official journalism was the monk Simeon of Polotsk.
The result of the development of architecture XVII. One can consider the appearance of buildings in the “Naryshkin Baroque” style. The most outstanding painter of the mid-17th century. was Simon Ushakov. He led an icon-painting workshop, painted icons and parsuns (portraits), miniatures and frescoes. Under his leadership, the Archangel and Assumption Cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber in the Moscow Kremlin were painted.
Signs of the secularization of culture are also found in education. Appeared secular schools for children. The first printed primer, compiled by Vasily Burtsev, was published in 1634.
In 1666, a school was opened at the Zaikonospassky Monastery to train clerks for orders. In 1680, a school appeared at the Printing Yard.
In 1687, the first higher educational institution opened in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy
Only gradually did Russian culture recover from the consequences of the Mongol invasion, which caused terrible damage to it. Interest in the structure of the Earth and the universe led to the appearance of special works. Interest in medicine is growing. Many diseases and epidemics were described in chronicles, information about medicinal plants began to be systematized, and “Healing Books” appeared. In 1581, the first pharmacy opened in Moscow. The development of trade and money circulation created a need to improve knowledge in arithmetic. Interest in the structure of the world also grew.
The main monument of socio-political and historical thought, as well as literature, were chronicles. Chronicle writing reflected those processes of social and political life, which went to Rus'. In connection with the creation of the new large Assumption Cathedral, the Moscow chronicle code of 1480 arose - one of the most significant works Russian chronicles. In the 16th century, the official nature of Moscow chronicles intensified, and various official documents were widely used. It should be noted that in the field of historical knowledge, already in the 16th century, changes emerged that indicate, if not the extinction of the chronicle genre, then the end of its dominance. So on new form The presentation was compiled in the third quarter of the 16th century, “The Book of the Powerful Royal Genealogy.” Here the presentation was conducted not by year, but by “degrees” or “facets,” that is, the historical material was grouped according to the directions of princes and metropolitans. With the formation of a unified state, the desire to comprehend the history of Russia in connection with world history. This is why chronographs have become more widespread. The most famous is the chronograph of the 1512 edition, which describes the events of Byzantine, South Slavic and Russian history. The basis of literature ancient Rus' there was historical knowledge, historical facts, and these works themselves are most often stories that were part of the chronicles. In the second half of the 13th-15th centuries, the central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against the conquerors. One of the significant works was “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu,” which is in a collection of the 16th century. A whole series of works arises under the influence of the Battle of Kulikovo. Literature at the turn of the century is associated with socio-political thought. In Sylvester's messages, thoughts were developed about the high responsibility of the king before God, the idea was expressed about the need to limit monastic land ownership, about the “wise ascetics of the king.”
Architecture. The first city in North-Eastern Rus' where stone construction began again after the invasion was Tver. Here in 1285-1290 the main temple of the Transfiguration of the Savior was built. The largest center of architectural development in the 14th and 15th centuries was Veliky Novgorod. Here already in 1292 one of the most interesting monuments Novgorod architecture - St. Nicholas Church on Lipna. The peculiarity of the architecture is masonry, the use of boulders and partially bricks. This created an uneven, wavy surface and enhanced the impression of raw strength and power. Now the monumental buildings of the 11th-12th centuries have been replaced by small structures. In the first half of the 14th century. Worked out a new style Novgorod architecture, which flourished in the second half of the century. One of the classical monuments is the Church of Theodore Stratilates on the trading side. The example of this church shows the desire for elegant, decorative decoration of the building, which distinguishes these buildings from the more severe and austere buildings of the previous time. Soon, Novgorodians begin to avoid decorativeness and return to the old strict forms. In the second quarter of 14, stone construction began in Moscow. In 1367 the Kremlin was built in Moscow. The largest building of the century was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna. Ancient cathedrals were erected in Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, and Rostov. The architecture was dominated by the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. These are cross-domed single-domed churches with three apses. The decoration is modest, but appreciable. new motifs – arches in portals. From the images of a single state - the rise in the second half of the 15th century. The scope of construction has increased, and old buildings have been restored. Traditional white stone construction is being replaced by brickwork. A powerful impetus for the formation of a new style was given by the restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin and the Assumption Cathedral. Now everything is taking on an elegant look: frescoes, patterns. In 1516, the construction of new Kremlin walls was completed, and the internal layout was formed. The city itself grew and took shape. Military installations, loopholes, watchtowers began to be strengthened, and powerful fortifications were built. Further development architecture in the first half of the 16th century was gradually eliminated local peculiarities in architecture. Purely secular elements penetrated into religious buildings. The desire for some decorativeness. Monumental buildings were erected either under the influence of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (Dmitrov Cathedral) or in the spirit of early Moscow traditions of the 14th century (Pokrovsky Monastery in Suzdal). In the 16th century The tent style began to develop in Russian architecture. These were stone tented churches without interiors. Pillars and a single internal space – the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow (“St. Basil’s Cathedral”). The cathedral unites nine small churches, symbolizing the unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.
Painting. In Novgorod in the 14th century. As in architecture, a new style emerged in painting. In the frescoes, heavy, squat figures were replaced by narrow, elongated images of people, multi-layered compositions, and the color scheme was enriched. The largest artist of the late 14th century. There was Theophanes the Greek who came from Byzantium. He worked in Novgorod and Moscow. Novgorod icon painting gradually freed itself from following the patterns of Russian fresco painting, and already at the end of the 14th century. It has developed into an independent art direction. Novgorod icons are dedicated to popular saints. The saints were depicted standing in a row, hagiographic icons were made in the form of a large image of the saint in the center, surrounded on all sides by individual episodes from the life of the saint. Moscow painting of the first half of the 14th century also developed within the framework of archaic traditions. Moscow began to attract the best masters pictorial art. In addition to the “Feofanovsky” direction in Moscow painting there are also a number of works from Byzantine and Young Slavic artistic traditions. The pinnacle of Russian painting of this time was the work of Andrei Rublev. (Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, in Zenigorod). His painting is distinguished by softness and deep humanity. His most famous work is the “Trinity” icon for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. From the end of the 15th century, the Moscow school took a leading position in painting. The largest artist was Dionysius (the paintings of the Ferapontov Monastery); Dionysius was characterized by the richness and festivity of decorative decoration. Further, the state begins to exert more and more weight and influence on the development of painting. Artists had to work under the control of ecclesiastical and secular authorities. Painting became more closely associated with biblical stories. Monument of the first half of the 16th century. – frescoes of the Moscow Annunciation Cathedral, executed under the direction of Theodosius, son of Dionysius. Here, Byzantine emperors and Russian princes are depicted on the walls and pillars. State tendencies began to manifest themselves especially strongly during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. By the end of the 16th century. A peculiar artistic direction focusing mainly on painting technique. This direction is named after famous industrialists and merchants “Stroganov school”. Major masters of the school: Procopius Chitin, Nikephoros, Istoma, Nazarius. Along with the Stroganov school, the Godunov school also became widespread, striving to return to the monumental forms characteristic of the late 15th century.
