Ancient world. Greece
The phrase "Spartan education" is world famous. A well-thought-out and well-established system, not so much of raising children, as of building a whole society, glorified a small ancient Greek state for centuries.
But few people know that strict principles, the purpose of which was to create a people capable of fighting and ready for any hardships, led to the impoverishment of the culture and spirituality of Sparta.
According to many scientists, it was the "Spartan education" that caused the decline and disappearance of this state.
Spartan children
The system of raising boys in ancient Sparta (VIII - IV centuries BC) was called "agogge", which meant "carrying away".
The cultivation of boys in a military-heroic spirit was considered a privilege, therefore, it extended only to the children of full-fledged citizens of Sparta - the Dorians.
For all other "non-Spartan" children, passing through this system opened up prospects for obtaining citizenship, so, whenever possible, parents gave their son "for upbringing". However, “education” is not quite the right term.
It was a state program designed to form a strong army capable of enduring the hardships and hardships of long campaigns of conquest. The life of a Spartan man from birth to old age was subordinated to these goals.
Plutarch in his work "Biography of Lycurgus" wrote that fathers brought newborn boys to the council of elders. They examined the child, and if he turned out to be healthy, they gave him back to his father to feed him. Together with the child, the father was entitled to a land plot.
Weak, sick and ugly children, according to Plutarch, were thrown into the abyss of Apothetes. Nowadays, scientists have proven that the ancient Greek thinker exaggerated.
During research at the bottom of the gorge in the Taygetus mountains, no children's remains were found. The Spartans sometimes threw captives or criminals off the cliff, but never children.
Babies in Sparta grew up in hard wooden cradles. The boys did not wear warm clothes. From an early age, they were forced to do physical exercises - running, jumping.
At the age of 7, boys were taken from home to foster homes. Here their childhood ended.
In the heat and on the coldest winter days, they exercised in the open air: they mastered military skills, learned to handle weapons, and throw a spear.
They were shaved bald, they never covered their heads, warm clothes were also not supposed to.
The young Spartans slept on hay or reeds, which they themselves had to bring. Often the pupils also had to get food on their own - robbing neighboring areas. At the same time, getting caught stealing was a disgrace.
For any offense, prank, oversight, the boys were severely punished - beaten with whips.
So the Spartans were brought up fortitude and stamina. It was believed that the stricter the upbringing, the better for young men and the state as a whole.
Education in Sparta was not valued. A warrior should not be smart, but cunning. Must be quirky, adapted to life and hardships.
The Spartans were taught to speak little and briefly - "succinctly." Education of feelings, imagination, teaching the arts - all this was considered a waste of time and a distraction of a warrior from his destiny.
At the age of 18, the young man left the orphanage. From that moment on, he did not have to cut his hair or shave his beard, but continued to engage in military exercises. At the age of 20, a Spartan was transferred to a detachment of hierens (youths).
And although he was already an adult, until the age of 30 he was still under the supervision of educators and improved his skills in military skills.
Interestingly, at this age, the Spartans could marry, create their own families, but still did not completely belong to themselves.
One of the principles of the Spartan education of young men was mentoring. It was believed that an experienced husband and warrior is able to teach a young citizen more than official science. Therefore, every Spartan of mature age kept a boy or youth with him, helping him to develop his civil and military prowess.
Spartan girls
The upbringing of Spartan girls, as Plutarch wrote, was similar to the upbringing of boys, with the only difference being that they did physical exercises without leaving their parental home.
The development of the body and fortitude of the spirit was important for girls. But at the same time, the girls were the personification of purity in Sparta, the attitude of boys and men towards them was respectful, respectful, almost chivalrous.
For the attention of beauties, young men fought in gymnastic competitions. From their youth, the girls felt like full-fledged members of society, citizens, took an active part in the affairs of society. Women were respected by men because they shared their enthusiasm for military affairs, their patriotism and political views.
But with all the social activity, the Spartan women at all times were famous throughout Greece for their homeliness, the ability to manage the household and maintain a home.
Sparta and its model of educating young people left a big mark on world military affairs. It is believed that Alexander the Great used the principles of discipline of the Spartan army when creating his army. Yes, and modern infantry originates precisely from Sparta.
In contrast to democratic Athens, Sparta was a kind of aristocratic republic. In the XII-XI centuries BC. Doric tribes invaded a small area on the Peloponnese peninsula - Laconica. This area was already occupied by the Achaeans. After a fierce struggle, both tribes entered into an alliance, formed a joint community. It was headed by two kings - Dorian and Achaean.
Little Lakonika (300 km ") turned out to be cramped for the new community. A war began for the possession of neighboring Messenia. It lasted a whole century and ended with the victory of Sparta.
The lands of Messinia became the common property of the winners. Its population was turned into slaves - helots. Unlike Athens, Sparta remained throughout its history an agricultural community. Crafts and trade were the work of non-full perieks. Both of these professions were strictly forbidden to a free Spartiate. Their occupation is military service. Free time was devoted to "round dances, feasts, festivities," hunting, gymnastics.
The land in Sparta was divided into 10 thousand equal plots - according to the number of full citizens. This number was supposed to remain unchanged. There was no plot - there was no citizenship.
Helots cultivated the land. They had families, were endowed with a yard and a plot of land. Their duties were limited to a certain tax.
The whole community and each of its members separately existed on this tax. The laws of Sparta prescribed simplicity of life and moderation in food. Citizens had the same clothes and weapons. Social equality was emphasized by daily collective meals, for the arrangement of which the Spartiate deducted part of his income.
Lycurgus was considered the founder of the Spartan order. He was credited with publishing a retr - this is how some of its basic laws were called in Sparta. One of the retros, directed against luxury, demanded that in each house the roof should be made only with an ax, and the doors only with a saw. The legislator expected that no one would wish to decorate this simple dwelling with beds on silver legs or luxurious bedspreads.
Money was prescribed to be minted in the form of large and heavy iron coins in order to prevent their accumulation and make circulation difficult. Gold and silver coins were banned.
An essential part of the activity of the state was the education of young people: it developed courage, discipline, and unquestioning obedience in young people.
From the age of seven until the age of 20, boys and young men lived outside their families, eating and sleeping together, doing physical exercises and military affairs together. They were given coarse clothes, forced to walk barefoot in winter and summer, and assigned to difficult tasks. They were badly fed to excite their intelligence, and they were severely punished for discovered theft. The slightest discontent was severely suppressed. Every mistake was punished. It came to real torture, disguised as a religious ceremony. To speak briefly, and more to be silent, was considered an indispensable virtue.
They tried to instill in the young men admiration for the Spartan order, to develop in them an arrogant contempt for the helots.
The helots gave their masters half of the harvest. The rest was their property. In this they differ from slaves in the strict sense of this concept and approach serfs. Helots were considered the property of the state in the same way as land.
Every year Sparta declared war on the Helots. This was followed by cryptia: young Spartans, armed with daggers, killed every helot that came across on the road, in the forest, in the field.
Unlike other slaves of Greece, the helots were the indigenous population of their country. The land they cultivated was once their land, they lived in their houses, in their ancient villages. Managed by their people.
There were about 200 thousand helots in Sparta, several times more than the number of Spartans. But each time they raised an uprising failed. Nevertheless, Sparta constantly felt the danger threatening her.
"In its state system, Sparta was an aristocratic republic.
The people's assembly, the council of elders and, as already mentioned, two kings survived here from the primitive communal era.
The first of these bodies - the people's assembly - retained the ancient democratic structure, but over time lost real power.
Voting in the assembly was primitive: the citizens dispersed in different directions, after which the majority was determined by eye. The election of officials was carried out by shouting: for whom they shouted louder, he was considered elected.
Gerousia considered and prepared bills, carried out a criminal court.
The kings were members of the Gerousia. As such, they had to obey her decisions. The functions of the kings were limited to military, religious and some court cases. Over time, a collegium of ephors appeared in Sparta and acquired a decisive influence on the affairs of the state, consisting of five people elected by the popular assembly for a year.
The ephors convened a national assembly, a council of elders, and offered them questions for discussion. They directed all domestic and foreign policy. They monitored the steady implementation of laws. They could bring to justice not only citizens, but also officials. Litigation in civil cases was their direct competence.
Question #25
Gods of Ancient Greece.
The religion of ancient Greece has two main characteristics:
Polytheism (polytheism). With all the many Greek gods, 12 main ones can be distinguished. The pantheon of common Greek gods developed in the era of the classics.
Each deity in the Greek pantheon performed strictly defined functions:
Zeus - the main god, the ruler of the sky, the thunderer, personified strength and power
Hera is the wife of Zeus, the goddess of marriage, the patroness of the family. The image of Hera grew out of the image of the cow goddess, the patroness of Mycenae
Poseidon is the brother of Zeus. Poseidon was an ancient sea deity of the Pelaponnese. The cult of Poseidon, having absorbed a number of local cults, became the god of the sea and the patron of horses.
Athena is the goddess of wisdom, just war. Athena is an ancient deity - the patroness of cities and city fortifications. Her other name - Pallas - is also an epithet, meaning "Spear Shaker". According to classical mythology, Athena acts as a warrior goddess, she was depicted in full armor
Aphrodite - the idealized personification of femininity, the goddess of love and beauty, born from sea foam
Ares - god of war
Artemis - In classical mythology, Artemis appears as a virgin hunting goddess, usually with her companion - a deer
Apollo in the Pelaponesse was considered a shepherd deity. Around Thebes, Apollo Ismenius was revered: this epithet is the name of a local river, which was once deified by the inhabitants. Apollo later became one of the most popular gods of Greece. He is considered the embodiment of the national spirit. The main functions of Apollo: divination of the future, patronage of the sciences and arts, healing, cleansing from all filth, the deity of light, the correct, orderly world order
Hermes - the god of eloquence, trade and theft, the messenger of the gods, the guide of the souls of the dead to the kingdom of Hades - the god of the underworld
Hephaestus - the god of fire, the patron of artisans and especially blacksmiths
Demeter - goddess of fertility, patroness of agriculture
Hestia - goddess of the hearth
The ancient Greek gods lived on the snowy Mount Olympus. In addition to the gods, there was a cult of heroes - semi-deities born from the marriage of gods and mortals. Hermes, Theseus, Jason, Orpheus are the heroes of many ancient Greek poems and myths.
The second feature of the ancient Greek religion is anthropomorphism - the human likeness of the gods.
Question #26
Confucius and his teachings.
Confucius- an ancient thinker and philosopher of China. His teachings had a profound impact on the life of China and East Asia, becoming the basis of the philosophical system known as Confucianism. Teaching. Confucianism is often called a religion, it does not have the institution of the church, and theological issues are not important for it. Confucian ethics is not religious. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every person has his own function. Confucius formulated the golden rule of ethics: "Do not do to a person what you do not want for yourself."
The glory of Sparta - the Peloponnesian city in Laconia - is very loud in historical chronicles and in the world. It was one of the most famous policies of ancient Greece, which did not know unrest and civil upheavals, and its army never retreated from enemies.
Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, who reigned in Laconia one and a half thousand years before the birth of Christ and named the city after his wife. In the first centuries of the existence of the city, there were no walls around it: they were erected only under the tyrant Naviz. True, they were later destroyed, but Appius Claudius soon erected new ones.
The ancient Greeks considered the legislator Lycurgus to be the creator of the Spartan state, whose life time falls approximately in the first half of the 7th century BC. e. The population of ancient Sparta in its composition was divided in those days into three groups: Spartans, perieks and helots. The Spartans lived in Sparta itself and enjoyed all the rights of citizenship of their city-state: they had to fulfill all the requirements of the law and they were admitted to all honorary public positions. The occupation of agriculture and handicrafts, although it was not forbidden to this class, did not correspond to the image of the upbringing of the Spartans and therefore was despised by them.
Most of the lands of Laconia were at their disposal and cultivated for them by the helots. In order to own a plot of land, a Spartan had to fulfill two requirements: to follow all the rules of discipline exactly and to provide a certain part of the income for a sissitium - a public table: barley flour, wine, cheese, etc.
Game was obtained by hunting in state forests; moreover, everyone who sacrificed to the gods sent a part of the carcass of the sacrificial animal to the sissitium. Violation or failure to comply with these rules (for any reason) led to the loss of citizenship rights. All full citizens of ancient Sparta, young and old, had to participate in these dinners, while no one had any advantages and privileges.
The circle of perieks was also made up of free people, but they were not full citizens of Sparta. Perieki inhabited all the cities of Laconia, except for Sparta, which belonged exclusively to the Spartans. They did not constitute a politically whole city-state, since they received control in their cities only from Sparta. The periaeci of the various cities were independent of each other, and at the same time each of them was dependent on Sparta.
Helots made up the rural population of Laconia: they were slaves of those lands that were cultivated in favor of the Spartans and perieks. Helots also lived in cities, but urban life was not typical for helots. They were allowed to have a house, a wife and a family, it was forbidden to sell the helot outside the possessions. Some scholars believe that the sale of helots was generally impossible, since they were the property of the state, and not of individuals. Some information has come down to our times about the cruel treatment of the Helots by the Spartans, although again some of the scientists believe that contempt was more visible in this respect.
Plutarch reports that every year (by virtue of the decrees of Lycurgus) the ephors solemnly declared war against the helots. Young Spartans, armed with daggers, went all over Laconia and exterminated the unfortunate helots. But over time, scientists found that this method of exterminating the helots was not legalized during Lycurgus, but only after the First Messenian War, when the helots became dangerous for the state.
Plutarch, the author of biographies of prominent Greeks and Romans, starting his story about the life and laws of Lycurgus, warned the reader that nothing reliable could be reported about them. And yet he had no doubt that this politician was a historical figure.
Most modern scholars consider Lycurgus to be a legendary person: one of the first to doubt his historical existence back in the 1820s was the well-known German historian of antiquity K.O. Muller. He suggested that the so-called "laws of Lycurgus" are much older than their legislator, since these are not so much laws as ancient folk customs, rooted in the distant past of the Dorians and all other Hellenes.
Many of the scientists (W. Wilamowitz, E. Meyer and others) consider the biography of the Spartan legislator, preserved in several versions, as a late revision of the myth of the ancient Laconian deity Lycurgus. Adherents of this trend questioned the very existence of "legislation" in ancient Sparta. E. Meyer classified the customs and rules that regulated the daily life of the Spartans as “the way of life of the Dorian tribal community”, from which classical Sparta grew almost without any changes.
But the results of archaeological excavations, which were carried out in 1906-1910 by the English archaeological expedition in Sparta, served as a pretext for the partial rehabilitation of the ancient legend about the legislation of Lycurgus. The British explored the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, one of the most ancient temples of Sparta, and discovered many works of art of local production: wonderful examples of painted ceramics, unique terracotta masks (not found anywhere else), objects made of bronze, gold, amber and ivory.
For the most part, these finds somehow did not fit in with the ideas of the harsh and ascetic life of the Spartans, of the almost complete isolation of their city from the rest of the world. And then scientists suggested that the laws of Lycurgus in the 7th century BC. e. were not yet put into action and the economic and cultural development of Sparta proceeded in the same way as the development of other Greek states. Only towards the end of the 6th century BC. e. Sparta closes in on itself and turns into the city-state as ancient writers knew it.
Because of the threats of a rebellion by the helots, the situation was then restless, and therefore the “initiators of reforms” could resort (as was often the case in ancient times) to the authority of some hero or deity. In Sparta, Lycurgus was chosen for this role, who gradually began to turn from a deity into a historical legislator, although ideas about his divine origin persisted until the time of Herodotus.
Lycurgus had a chance to put in order a cruel and outrageous people, therefore it was necessary to teach him to resist the onslaught of other states, and for this to make everyone skillful warriors. One of the first reforms of Lycurgus was the organization of the management of the Spartan community. Ancient writers claimed that he created the Council of Elders (gerousia) of 28 people. The elders (geronts) were elected by the apella - the people's assembly; The Gerousia also included two kings, one of whose main duties was to command the army during the war.
From the descriptions of Pausanias we know that the period of the most intensive building activity in the history of Sparta was the 6th century BC. e. At that time, the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya on the acropolis, the portico of Skiada, the so-called "throne of Apollo" and other buildings were erected in the city. But on Thucydides, who saw Sparta in the last quarter of the 5th century BC. e., the city made the most bleak impression.
Against the backdrop of the luxury and grandeur of Athenian architecture from the time of Pericles, Sparta already seemed a nondescript provincial town. The Spartans themselves, not being afraid to be considered old-fashioned, did not stop worshiping archaic stone and wooden idols at a time when Phidias, Myron, Praxiteles and other outstanding sculptors of Ancient Greece created their masterpieces in other Hellenic cities.
In the second half of the VI century BC. e. there was a noticeable cooling of the Spartans for the Olympic Games. Prior to that, they took an active part in them and accounted for more than half of the winners, and in all major types of competitions. Subsequently, for all the time from 548 to 480 BC. e., only one representative of Sparta, King Demarat, won the victory, and only in one type of competition - horse racing at the hippodrome.
In order to achieve harmony and peace in Sparta, Lycurgus decided to permanently eradicate wealth and poverty in his state. He forbade the use of gold and silver coins, which were used throughout Greece, and instead introduced iron money in the form of obols. They bought only what was produced in Sparta itself; in addition, they were so heavy that even a small amount had to be transported on a wagon.
Lycurgus also prescribed the way of home life: all Spartans, from a simple citizen to a king, had to live in exactly the same conditions. A special order indicated what houses could be built, what clothes to wear: it had to be so simple that there was no place for any luxury. Even the food had to be the same for everyone.
Thus, in Sparta, wealth gradually lost all meaning, since it was impossible to use it: citizens began to think less about their own good, and more about the state. Nowhere in Sparta did poverty coexist with wealth, and as a result, there was no envy, rivalry, and other greedy passions that exhausted a person. There was also no greed that opposes private benefit to the public good and arms one citizen against another.
One of the Spartan youths, who bought land for nothing, was put on trial. The accusation said that he was still very young, and was already tempted by profit, while self-interest is the enemy of every inhabitant of Sparta.
The upbringing of children was considered in Sparta one of the main duties of a citizen. The Spartan, who had three sons, was exempted from guard duty, and the father of five from all existing duties.
From the age of 7, the Spartan no longer belonged to his family: the children were separated from their parents and began social life. From that moment on, they were brought up in special detachments (agels), where they were supervised not only by fellow citizens, but also by specially assigned censors. Children were taught to read and write, they were taught to be silent for a long time, and to speak concisely - briefly and clearly.
Gymnastic and sports exercises were supposed to develop dexterity and strength in them; so that there was harmony in the movements, the young men were obliged to participate in choral dances; hunting in the forests of Laconia developed patience for hard trials. They fed the children rather poorly, therefore they made up for the lack of food not only by hunting, but also by theft, since they were also taught to steal; however, if someone came across, they beat them mercilessly - not for theft, but for awkwardness.
Young men who reached the age of 16 were subjected to a very severe test at the altar of the goddess Artemis: they were cruelly flogged, but they had to be silent. Even the smallest cry or groan contributed to the continuation of the punishment: some did not stand the test and died.
In Sparta, there was a law according to which no one was supposed to be more complete than necessary. According to this law, all young men who had not yet achieved civil rights were shown to the ephors - members of the election commission. If the young men were strong and strong, then they were honored with praise; young men, whose body was considered too flabby and loose, were beaten with sticks, as their appearance dishonored Sparta and its laws.
Plutarch and Xenophon wrote that Lycurgus legitimized that women also perform the same exercises as men, and through that they became strong and could give birth to strong and healthy offspring. Thus, Spartan women were worthy of their husbands, as they were also subject to a harsh upbringing.
The women of ancient Sparta, whose sons died, went to the battlefield and looked where they were wounded. If in the chest, then the women proudly looked at those around them and honorably buried their children in their father's tombs. If they saw wounds on their backs, then, weeping with shame, they hurried to hide, leaving others to bury the dead.
Marriage in Sparta was also subject to the law: personal feelings did not matter, because it was all a matter of state. Boys and girls could enter into marriage, whose physiological development corresponded to each other and from whom healthy children could be expected: marriage between persons of unequal builds was not allowed.
But Aristotle speaks of the position of Spartan women in a completely different way: while the Spartans led a strict, almost ascetic life, their wives indulged in extraordinary luxury in their home. This circumstance forced men to get money often in dishonest ways, because direct funds were forbidden to them. Aristotle wrote that Lycurgus tried to subject Spartan women to the same strict discipline, but met with a decisive rebuff from their side.
Left to themselves, women became self-willed, indulged in luxury and licentiousness, they even began to interfere in state affairs, which eventually led to a real gynecocracy in Sparta. “And what difference does it make,” Aristotle asks bitterly, “whether the women themselves rule or whether the ruling persons are under their power?” The blame for the Spartans was that they behaved boldly and impudently and allowed themselves luxury, which challenged the strict norms of state discipline and morality.
To protect his legislation from foreign influence, Lycurgus limited Sparta's ties with foreigners. Without permission, which was given only in cases of special importance, the Spartan could not leave the cities and travel abroad. Foreigners were also forbidden from entering Sparta. The inhospitality of Sparta was the most famous phenomenon in the ancient world.
The citizens of ancient Sparta were something like a military garrison, constantly exercising and always ready for war either with the helots or with an external enemy. The legislation of Lycurgus took on an exclusively military character also because those were times when there was no public and personal security, there were no general principles on which state tranquility is based. In addition, the Dorians in a very small number settled in the country of the helots they conquered and were surrounded by half-subdued or not subdued Achaeans at all, therefore they could hold on only by battles and victories.
Such a harsh upbringing, at first glance, could make the life of ancient Sparta very boring, and the people themselves unhappy. But from the writings of ancient Greek authors it is clear that such unusual laws made the Spartans the most prosperous people in the ancient world, because everywhere only rivalry in the acquisition of virtues dominated.
There was a prediction according to which Sparta would remain a strong and powerful state as long as it followed the laws of Lycurgus and remained indifferent to gold and silver. After the war with Athens, the Spartans brought money to their city, which seduced the inhabitants of Sparta and forced them to retreat from the laws of Lycurgus. And from that moment on, their prowess began to gradually fade away ...
Aristotle, on the other hand, believes that it was the abnormal position of women in Spartan society that led to the fact that Sparta in the second half of the 4th century BC. e. terribly depopulated and lost its former military power.
Ancient Sparta
Sparta is the main city of the region of Laconia (the southeastern part of the Peloponnese), the most Doric of all the states of Ancient Greece. Ancient Sparta was located on the western bank of the Eurotas River and extended north from the modern city of Sparta. Laconia is the abbreviated name of the area, which was fully called Lacedaemon, therefore the inhabitants of this area were often called “Lacedaemonians”, which is almost equivalent to the words “Spartan” or “Spartiate”.
Sparta, whose name may mean "scattered" (other interpretations are also suggested), consisted of estates and estates scattered over the area, the center of which was a low hill, which later became the acropolis. Initially, the city did not have walls and remained true to this principle until the 2nd century BC. BC. During the excavations of the British School of Athens (carried out in 1906-1910 and 1924-1929), the remains of several buildings were discovered, including the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya and the theater. The theater was built of white marble and, according to Pausanias, who described the buildings of Sparta c. 160 AD, was a “landmark”, but this stone building dates back to the era of Roman rule. From the low acropolis, a magnificent view of the Evrota Valley and the majestic Mount Taygetus, rising steeply to a height of 2406 m and forming the western border of Sparta, opened.
Many historians believe that Sparta arose relatively late, after the “Dorian invasion”, which supposedly took place between 1150 and 1100 BC. Initially, the invaders settled in or near the cities they conquered, and often destroyed, but a century later they created their own "capital" near the river Evrota. Since Sparta had not yet emerged during the period to which most historians attribute the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC), the myth of the abduction of Helen, the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus, by Paris, was probably attributed to Sparta. In neighboring Therapnae, where there was a large city of the Mycenaean era, there was a sanctuary of Menelaion, and the cult of Menelaus and Helen went up to the classical period.
Population growth and the associated economic and social problems inspired the Spartans to expand outwardly. Excluding the one founded in Italy in the 8th century. BC. the colony of Tarentum Sparta expanded only at the expense of Greece itself. During the 1st and 2nd Messenian Wars (between 725 and 600 BC), Messenia was conquered to the west of Sparta, and the Messenians were turned into helots, i.e. state slaves. Evidence of Spartan activity is the legend of how the inhabitants of Elis, with the support of Sparta, managed to win control of the Olympic Games from their rivals, the inhabitants of Pisa. The first recorded victory of the Spartans in Olympia is the victory of Akanthos in running at the 15th Olympiad (720 BC). For more than a century, Spartan athletes have dominated the Olympic Games, achieving 46 victories out of 81 recorded in the annals.
Having won another part of the territory from Argos and Arcadia, Sparta moved from a policy of conquest to building up its power through the conclusion of agreements with various states. As the head of the Peloponnesian Union (began to emerge c. 550 BC, took shape c. 510–500 BC), Sparta actually dominated the entire Peloponnese, with the exception of Argos and Achaia on the northern coast, and .e. became the most powerful military power in Greece. Thus, a force was created that became a counterweight to the impending invasion of the Persians, the combined efforts of the Peloponnesian League and Athens with their allies led to a decisive victory over the Persians at Salamis and Plataea in 480 and 479 BC.
The conflict between the two greatest states of Greece, Doric Sparta and Ionian Athens, land and sea power, was inevitable, and in 431 BC. The Peloponnesian War broke out. Ultimately, in 404 BC. Sparta prevailed, and the Athenian power perished. Dissatisfaction with Spartan dominance in Greece led to a new war. The Thebans and their allies, led by Epaminondas, inflicted a heavy defeat on the Spartans at Leuctra (371 BC) and at Mantinea (362 BC), after which, if we forget about short bursts of activity and random periods of takeoff, Sparta became lose its former power.
Under the tyrant Nabid c. 200 BC or soon after Sparta was surrounded by a wall, at the same time a stone theater appeared. During the period of Roman rule, which began in 146 BC, Sparta turned into a large and prosperous provincial city, defensive and other structures were erected here. Sparta flourished until 350 AD. In 396 the city was destroyed by Alaric.
Of particular importance in world history is the influence exerted on later state systems by the political and social structure of Sparta. At the head of the Spartan state were two kings, one from the Agids clan, the other from the Eurypontides clan, which was probably originally associated with the union of the two tribes. The two kings held meetings together with the gerousia, i.e. Council of Elders, to which 28 people over 60 were elected for life. All Spartans who had reached the age of 30 and had enough funds to perform what was considered necessary for a citizen (in particular, contribute their share to participate in joint meals, fiditiya) participated in the national assembly (apella). Later, the institution of ephors arose, five officials who were elected by the assembly, one from each region of Sparta. The five ephors acquired power that surpassed that of the kings (perhaps after the exercise of this office by Chilo c. 555 BC). To prevent uprisings of the helots who had a numerical superiority and to maintain the combat readiness of their own citizens, secret sorties (they were called cryptia) were constantly arranged to kill the helots.
Surprisingly, the type of civilization that is now called Spartan is not typical of early Sparta. The excavations carried out by the British confirmed the theory put forward by historians on the basis of written monuments that before 600 BC. Spartan culture generally coincided with the way of life of the then Athens and other Greek states. Fragments of sculptures, fine ceramics, figurines of ivory, bronze, lead and terracotta found in this area testify to the high level of Spartan culture, just like the poetry of Tyrtaeus and Alcman (7th century BC). However, shortly after 600 BC. there was a sudden change. Art and poetry disappear, the names of Spartan athletes no longer appear on the lists of Olympic winners. Before these changes made themselves felt, the Spartan Gitiades built the “copper house of Athena” (the temple of Athena Poliuhos); 50 years later, on the contrary, foreign craftsmen Theodore of Samos and Batikl from Magnesia had to be invited to build, respectively, the Skiada (probably a meeting room) in Sparta and the temple of Apollo Hyacinthius in Amikla. Sparta suddenly became a military camp, and from then on, the militarized state produced only soldiers. The introduction of this way of life is usually attributed to Lycurgus, although it is not clear whether Lycurgus was a god, a mythical hero, or a historical figure.
The Spartan state consisted of three classes: the Spartans, or Spartans; perieki (lit. “living nearby”), inhabitants of the allied cities surrounding Lacedaemon; helots. Only Spartans could vote and enter the governing bodies. They were forbidden to engage in trade and, in order to discourage them from making a profit, use gold and silver coins. The land plots of the Spartans, cultivated by helots, were supposed to give their owners sufficient income to purchase military equipment and meet daily needs. Trade and production were carried out by the perieks. They did not participate in the political life of Sparta, but they had certain rights, as well as the privilege of serving in the army. Thanks to the labor of numerous helots, the Spartans could devote all their time to physical exercises and military affairs.
It is estimated that by 600 BC. there were approx. 25 thousand citizens, 100 thousand perieks and 250 thousand helots. Later, the number of helots exceeded the number of citizens by 15 times. Wars and economic hardships reduced the number of Spartans. During the Greco-Persian Wars (480 BC), Sparta fielded ca. 5000 Spartans, but a century later at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC) only 2000 fought. It is mentioned that in the 3rd century. Sparta had only 700 citizens.
To maintain their position in the state, the Spartans felt the need for a large regular army. The state controlled the life of citizens from birth to death. At the birth of a child, the state determined whether a healthy citizen would grow out of him or whether he should be taken to Mount Taygetos. The boy spent the first years of his life at home. From the age of 7, education was taken over by the state, and almost all the time the children devoted to physical exercises and military drill. At the age of 20, a young Spartiate joined phiditia, i.e. company of companions of fifteen people, continuing his military training with them. He had the right to marry, but he could only visit his wife in secret. At the age of 30, a Spartiate became a full citizen and could participate in the people's assembly, but he spent the lion's share of his time in the gymnasium, forestry (something like a club) and fidity. On the gravestone of a Spartan, only his name was carved; if he died in battle, the words “in war” were added.
Spartan girls also received athletic training that included running, jumping, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing. It is reported that Lycurgus introduced such training for girls in order that they would grow up strong and courageous, capable of producing strong and healthy children.
The Spartans deliberately introduced a despotism that deprived the individual of freedom and initiative and destroyed the influence of the family. However, the Spartan way of life was very appealing to Plato, who included in his ideal state many of its militaristic, totalitarian and communist features.
Ancient Sparta very popular today. The Spartans are considered great warriors who could bring even the most powerful enemy to their knees. At the same time, they were smart and gave Greece a large number of philosophers and scientists. But, were they as severe and stoic as the myths about Sparta are imposed on us? Today we will figure it all out and know what it was Ancient Sparta.
Ancient Sparta "uncut"
In general, the name Sparta is not original. It was invented and spread by the ancient Romans. The Spartans themselves called themselves the Lacedaemonians, and their country Lacedaemon. But it so happened that the original name did not take root in historical documents, but the name Ancient Sparta has come down to our days.
Ancient Sparta, like most states of its time, was distinguished by a rather complex social structure. All the inhabitants of Sparta were divided into three groups:
- Full citizens;
- Incompetent citizens;
- Dependents.
At the same time, each of the groups was divided into subgroups. So, for example, helots were slaves, but in the unique understanding of the Spartans. They had their families, their villages, and even received monetary rewards for their work. But, they were always tied to their land plot, they pledged to fight on the side Ancient Sparta and belonged, interestingly, not to anyone alone, but to all full-fledged citizens of Sparta at once. In addition to the helots, in the Spartan state there were hypomeions - handicapped children of full-fledged citizens of Sparta. They were considered incomplete citizens of the state, but at the same time they were significantly higher in the social ladder of all other segments of the population, such as helots or dependents.
Note that the presence in the social structure of Ancient Sparta of such a class as hypomeions quite strongly hits the most famous legend about the Spartans, according to which they threw all handicapped children into the abyss immediately after birth.
The myth of cast children was first mentioned by Plutarch. He wrote that weak children at the behest of the government Ancient Sparta were thrown into one of the gorges of the Taygetov mountains. At the moment, scientists are more and more inclined to believe that this is just a legend that played the role of a “horror story” among contemporaries, but did not have a serious substantiated basis. Among other things, the Spartans themselves, who loved a separate way of life, could spread such myths about their people.
Ancient Sparta and the army
Popular legend has it that the Spartan army was virtually invincible. It should be noted that at that time Ancient Sparta could really put the best warriors of Greece on the battlefield, but, as we all know very well, they were often defeated. Moreover, due to the isolation policy, the Spartan army was in many ways inferior to the armies of other states. The Spartans were considered excellent foot soldiers, capable of defeating any enemy in the field or steppe, as well as mountain gorges, with the help of tough discipline, training and a dense phalanx. On the other side, Ancient Sparta she was practically not interested in engineering, and therefore was simply not capable of waging effective wars of conquest, since it was not possible to besiege large cities of opponents. Trouble came to the Spartans along with the Romans. Although the ancient Romans admired in many ways the army of Sparta, the mobile and flexible maniples in the ranks quickly dealt with the linear phalanx of Sparta, which ultimately led to the complete conquest of the Greek state by the Romans.
Each Spartan man considered it his duty to be disciplined in battle, courageous and show his valor. Modesty was highly valued, but feasts and orgies, including homosexual ones, were also very loved by the Spartans. In the late period at the decline of the state Ancient Sparta was already associated with completely different qualities - deceit and treachery.
Ancient Sparta and Society
Ancient Sparta had the same political system as most of the policies of ancient Greece - democracy. Of course, the democracy of Sparta was different from that of Athens. For example, if most decisions were nevertheless decided by a general meeting of citizens, then especially important issues were discussed and considered by the Areopagus, the supreme authority consisting of elders.
The home life of the Spartans was the same as that of everyone else. Products traditional for the ancient Greeks were grown, and the Spartans bred sheep. Agricultural work was assigned to helots, dependent and incomplete citizens Ancient Sparta.
Sparta did not particularly like to strain their brains, but there were still thinkers and poets. Particularly outstanding were Terpander and Alkman, who, however, were also excellent athletes. Tisamen of Elea, who predicts the future, was also famous among his contemporaries as a discus thrower, and not as a priest-soothsayer. So, the physical data of a Spartan man was more valued than mental abilities.
Breakfast and dinner at Ancient Sparta only at group meetings. There is an opinion that despite the high position, even the Areopagus was forced to eat with the rest. This equalized the citizens and prevented the influential Spartans from forgetting that they were also part of the people.
