Vbulletin post on architecture. All architectural styles from a to z, list with photos

Architecture

Architecture is the art of building, the ability to design and create cities, residential buildings, public and industrial buildings, squares and streets, gardens and parks. In many cities of our country you will find ancient kremlins and churches, palaces and mansions, modern buildings of theaters, libraries, youth palaces, in front of which you will want to stop and take a closer look at them.

You would also be standing in a museum in front of an interesting painting or sculpture. This is because buildings and streets, squares and parks, rooms and halls, with their beauty, can also excite the imagination and feelings of a person, like other works of art. Masterpieces of architecture are remembered as symbols of peoples and countries. The whole world knows the Kremlin and Red Square in Moscow, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, the ancient Acropolis in Athens. However, unlike other arts, people not only contemplate works of architecture, but also constantly use them. Architecture surrounds us and forms a spatial environment for the life and activities of people. Here are the houses where you live; schools, technical schools, institutes where you study; in theaters, circuses and cinema - have fun; in gardens, parks and yards - relax. Your parents work in factories and institutions; shops, canteens, stations, metro are constantly filled with visitors. It is hard to even imagine how you can do without these and many other structures.

The diversity of architecture depends not only on the creative imagination of the architect (the so-called architect in Rus'), but also on the conditions of construction: warm or cold climate, flat or mountainous terrain, the capabilities of construction equipment, wooden, stone or metal structures, the aesthetic tastes of residents and much more. . In construction, the labor of people of many professions is used - masons, designers, scientists and artists. All of them work under the guidance of an architect. (Architect in Greek means "master builder".) A person of this profession must have great technical and artistic knowledge. Admiring the Gothic cathedral, the Moscow Kremlin or the cycle track in Krylatskoe, we admire not only the peculiar beauty of these structures, but also the work and skill of the builders.

Even in ancient times, the tasks of architecture were determined by three qualities - usefulness, strength, beauty. Each building should be useful, meet its intended purpose. This is manifested both in its external appearance and in the character of its interior. A residential building, a theater and an educational institution are three different types of structures. Each of them has its own purpose, and each building should be convenient: in one case - for housing, in the other - for showing performances, in the third - for study. It is also important that each of them be durable, strong. After all, buildings are created not for one year, but for a long time. But architecture would not have become art if the third important requirement, beauty, had been ignored.

The well-known human desire for beauty inspires the creative imagination of the architect to search for ever new unusual architectural forms, the uniqueness of the appearance and the brightness of the artistic image of the structure. So we see a variety of buildings, both among the ancient and among the modern. Take, for example, multi-storey residential buildings: one is high, like a tower, the other is in the form of a long straight plate, the third is bent in a circle. They have the same purpose and similar designs, they are designed for the same climate, they stand in the same city, but the architect's imagination for each of them has found its own form, its own color scheme. This is how structures arise with their own individual features, by which we recognize them. And each building makes its own impression: one has a solemn, festive look, the other is strict, the third is lyrical. Architectural monuments belonging to different eras and countries differ from each other in appearance or style, just as the living conditions and artistic tastes of people of those times differed. Look at the pictures and you will see for yourself.

A bright period in the history of Russian architecture is the middle of the 18th century. This is the time of rapid construction of palaces, large temples, the heyday of the Baroque style. V. V. Rastrelli (1700-1771) was the largest architect, who largely determined the style of buildings of that time. The facades of its buildings, painted in white, blue and gilding, are unusually elegant. The enfilades of halls, richly decorated with molding, and wooden mosaic floors of rare beauty are magnificent. The best buildings of V. V. Rastrelli are the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo (now the city of Pushkin), the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof. On the island of Kizhi in Lake Onega, the wooden Church of the Transfiguration (1714), the bell tower (1874) and the Church of the Intercession (1764), built without a single nail, have been preserved. Eiffel Tower in Paris. It was designed in the middle of the 19th century. engineer Gustave Eiffel. Originality, bold design and architectural form made the tower famous.

Topic: Architecture and its features

1. History of the origin of the term

2. Types and features of architecture

3. Characteristics of three outstanding monuments of architecture of the era of classicism

Literature

1. History of the origin of the term

Architecture translated from Latin - build, build - architecture, the art of designing and building.

Architecture can express in artistic images a person's ideas about the world, time, greatness, joy, triumph, loneliness and many other feelings. This is probably why they say that architecture is frozen music.

There are three main types of architecture: three-dimensional structures (cult, public, industrial, residential and other buildings); landscape architecture (arbors, bridges, fountains and stairs for squares, boulevards, parks); urban planning - the creation of new cities, the reconstruction of old ones. Complexes of buildings and open spaces make up architectural ensembles. The architect must take care of the beauty, usefulness and strength of the structures being created, in other words, the aesthetic, constructive and functional qualities in architecture are interconnected.

In different historical periods, a variety of building materials and technologies were used, which significantly affect the creation of architectural structures. The modern level of development of technology, the use of reinforced concrete, glass, plastics and other new materials make it possible to create unusual forms of buildings in the form of a ball, spiral, flower, shell, ear, etc.

Architectural structures reflect the artistic style of the era, like works of any other art form. Architecture differs from simple construction in its artistic and figurative side.

2. Types and features of architecture

1. ANTIQUITY (from Latin - ancient) - the art of the ancient era; the art of ancient Greece, as well as those countries and peoples of the ancient world, whose culture developed under the decisive influence of the ancient Greek cultural tradition: the art of the Hellenistic states, Rome and the Etruscans.

The concept of "ancient art" appeared in the Renaissance, when the beautiful creations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome were considered to be exemplary, classic for all European culture.

Ancient Greek architects made an invaluable contribution to world art. They created a strict and majestic type of a rectangular temple, surrounded on all sides by columns (peripter), and a strict, logically based system of relationships between the bearing and borne parts of the building (order)

Monuments of ancient Greek art give us aesthetic pleasure and a vivid idea of the unity, the synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

2. BAROQUE (from Italian - whimsical) - an artistic style that prevailed from the end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th centuries. in European art. This style originated in Italy and spread to other countries after the Renaissance. The main features of the Baroque are splendor, solemnity, splendor, dynamism, life-affirming character. Baroque art is characterized by bold contrasts of scale, light and shadow, color, a combination of reality and fantasy. It is especially necessary to note in the Baroque style the fusion of various arts in a single ensemble, a large degree of interpenetration of architecture, sculpture, painting and decorative art. This desire for a synthesis of the arts is a fundamental feature of the Baroque.

Baroque architecture is distinguished by its spatial scope, the fluidity of curvilinear forms, the merging of volumes into a dynamic mass, rich sculptural decoration, and connection with the surrounding space.

In Russia, the reforms of Peter the Great contributed to the spread and flourishing of the Baroque style, but the Russian Baroque chose the traditions of classicism of the 17th century and the features of Rococo, so it was distinguished by a great originality of forms, whimsical elegance of decor, special splendor and solemnity (B. Rastrelli. Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Grand Palace in Tsarskoye Selo).

3. GOTHIC - an artistic style that arose in the middle of the 12th century in France and spread in Western, Central and partly in Eastern Europe. It appealed to the highest divine powers, eternity, the Christian worldview.

The leading place in Gothic art was occupied by the cathedral, around which the life of the townspeople was concentrated. The constructive basis of the cathedral was a frame of pillars and lancet arches resting on them. Aspiration to the sky is emphasized by giant openwork towers, high lancet arches, portals and windows, numerous elongated statues, and rich decorative details.

The Gothic style combined artistic household items, furniture, clothing, jewelry and architecture into a single ensemble. In the 15-16 centuries. Gothic is replaced by the Renaissance.

The Renaissance covers the 14th-16th centuries. in Italy, 15th-16th centuries. in other European countries. This period in the development of culture received its name - revival (or Renaissance) in connection with the revival of interest in ancient art.

Gothic Cathedral of Notre Dame. Paris.

4. CLASSICISM (from Latin - exemplary) - the artistic style of European art of the 17-19 centuries. , one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance.

The architecture of classicism is characterized by an order system inspired by antique samples, clarity and geometric correctness of volumes and layout, porticos, columns, statues, and reliefs that stand out on the surface of the walls.

An outstanding masterpiece of architecture, combining classicism and baroque into a single solemn style, was the palace and park ensemble in Versailles - the residence of the French kings (second half of the 17th century)

Russian classicism in the second half of the 18th-19th centuries. embodied a new flourishing of culture, unprecedented in scope, national pathos and ideal fullness: architectural ensembles and buildings of V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov, A. Zakharov, K. Rossi.

5. MODERN (from French - modern) - an artistic style in European and American art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (another name for ar t n u v o).

The Art Nouveau style should be distinguished both from the general sense of the word "modern" and from the concept of modernism. The main feature of the Art Nouveau style is decorativeness, the main motive is a climbing plant, the main principle is the likening of a man-made form to a natural one and vice versa. This was reflected in architecture, in the details of buildings, in the ornament, which received an extraordinary development.

The lines of the ornament carried the intensity of the spiritual, emotional and symbolic meaning.

Art Nouveau architecture showed an organic fusion of structural and decorative elements. The most complete examples of the synthesis of arts are mansions, pavilions, public buildings of the Art Nouveau era. As a rule, they are built as if "from the inside out".

3. Characteristics of three outstanding monuments of architecture of the era of classicism

St. Isaac's Cathedral is the most outstanding monument of the era of late Russian classicism. Its majestic, monumental forms, richly developed plastic facades, richness of the interior with various types of fine arts, and above all painting and sculpture, invariably attract attention.

In terms of its grandiose dimensions (its height is 101.5 meters), St. Isaac's Cathedral is one of the largest domed structures in Europe. It is second only to the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome and is almost equal to the size of the Cathedral of St. Paul in London.

Located in the very center of the city, St. Isaac's Cathedral dominates the ensembles of its two main squares - Dekabristov (former Senate Square) and St. Isaac's. In addition, it largely determines the silhouette of the city and is clearly visible in the perspectives of numerous streets, avenues, squares and embankments.

The creation of the existing St. Isaac's Cathedral was preceded by a long history of the construction of St. Isaac's Church, dating back to the first years of the existence of St. Petersburg and associated with the name of its founder - Peter the Great.

In 1710, in honor of the then Tsar Peter I, who was born on May 30, 1672, on St. Isaac of Dalmatia, St. Isaac's Church was built on the Admiralty meadow, opposite the Admiralty tower. It was located on the very spot where the fountain was built much later. The church was wooden, one-story, with a single-tier bell tower topped with a spire and a small dome on a drum marking the location of the altar. The church was rebuilt from the admiralty drawing room, which occupied a separate building.

In 1712, Peter I got married in this church, and five years later, in 1717, the stone St. Isaac's Church was laid, but in a new place, and closer to the Neva River. This place is now marked by a monument to Peter the Great - the famous Bronze Horseman.

The church was built ten years, but did not last long. Located near the river, it suffered from the Neva waters, which eroded the foundation during periods of frequent floods. Cracks appeared in the structures of the cathedral, and after a fire that happened in 1735, it was decided to dismantle it.

In the middle of the 18th century, during the reign of Catherine II, instead of the dismantled St. Isaac's Church, they began to build St. Isaac's Cathedral - much further from the Neva, on the current St. Isaac's Square. The author of the project of the new building, architect Antonio Rinaldi, designed it with five domes, with a multi-tiered bell tower from the western facade. The facades of the cathedral were supposed to be faced with multi-colored marble. Founded in 1768, by the end of the XVIII century. it was rebuilt only up to the eaves. Paul I, who replaced Catherine II on the throne, ordered the court architect Vincenzo Brenna to complete the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral with the minimum possible means. Therefore, the cathedral was completed with one dome, with a bell tower shortened by half and remained only half lined with marble. In such an unsightly form, the cathedral was consecrated in 1802.

In subsequent years, the question of changing the appearance of St. Isaac's Cathedral was repeatedly raised. In 1809 and 1813 competitions were announced for the project of its restructuring. But none of them gave positive results.

In 1816, Alexander I turned to General Betancourt with a request to recommend an architect who could rebuild St. Isaac's Cathedral. The choice of Betancourt settled on the young Montferrand. During 1816-1817. the architect developed a number of versions of the cathedral, one of which was taken as the basis for further work. The first project to receive approval was completed in 1818.

Simultaneously with the approval of the Montferrand project, a special Commission for the restructuring of St. Isaac's Cathedral was created from high-ranking statesmen. Thus, from the first days of construction, the cathedral was given great importance. Since the spring of 1818, preparatory work has been underway to rebuild St. Isaac's Cathedral. The restructuring began with the procurement of materials, earthworks, pile driving and the construction of an additional foundation. Work continued uninterrupted even in winter. In particular, according to the invoice presented to the Commission by the contractor, the peasant Yevdokim Farafontiev, from January 1 to March 15, 1819, 4,245 people were employed in pile driving alone.

In the second year of construction, the official laying of the cathedral was planned. To this end, Montferrand proposed to put a silver board with a text composed by him, as well as medals, gold and silver coins, at the base of the new foundation. But Alexander I ordered the medal not to be stamped with any ceremony when laying it, instead of a silver mortgage plate, put a copper one. The laying of St. Isaac's Cathedral according to the project of Montferrand took place on July 26, 1819.

For more successful construction work, in 1818, in accordance with the drawings of Montferrand and under his direct supervision, they began to manufacture a large detachable model of the cathedral. Basically, the model was supposed to be carved from linden, and the cornice and columns from pear wood. If the bas-reliefs were made of plaster, then the round sculpture, capitals and ornaments were made of bronze. The domes were made of gilded bronze.

The carpenter I. Gerber, the sculptors P. I. Brullo, P. V. Svintsov, the painter F. P. Brullo and others took part in the work on the manufacture of the model. Started in 1818, the model was completed in 1821. Later, as the project was improved, appropriate changes were made to the model, which, however, did not affect its main structures. The model was in one of the premises of the nearby Lobanov-Rostovsky house, built according to the Montferrand project. Currently, it is stored in the Research Museum of the Academy of Arts.

Simultaneously with the manufacture of the model in 1820, Montferrand released an album of engraved drawings of St. Isaac's Cathedral. This provided an opportunity for a broad discussion of the project. A member of the Committee for Buildings and Hydraulic Works, Montferrand's compatriot architect A. Maudui, who arrived in St. Petersburg as early as 1808, sharply criticized the project of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

At the Academy of Arts, headed by President A. N. Olenin, a commission was created to consider the Montferrand project. The architect had to prove that the construction of the solid foundation he proposed was quite reliable, that it was quite possible to link the old and new masonry together. However, he acknowledged that the constructive solution of the dome on the drum, based on pillars built at different times, was not very successful. But here the inexorable will of the emperor to preserve the old parts of the Rinaldi Cathedral affected.

The meetings of the commission at the Academy of Arts, whose task was to correct the project of St. Isaac's Cathedral, ended with a competition. Montferrand also took part in it on equal terms with everyone. Numerous projects were submitted to the competition, including architects V.P. Stasov, A.A. Mikhailov 2nd, A.I. Melnikov. But the new project of Montferrand turned out to be the best and was approved on April 3, 1825. Construction work interrupted for several years was resumed according to the newly approved project.

Montferrand paid special attention to the foundations of the cathedral. The architect came to the conclusion that when building on the marshy soil of St. Petersburg for such a massive structure as St. Isaac's Cathedral, a solid foundation is needed, which evenly transfers various loads of support pillars, walls and porticos to the ground.

The foundation design was developed by Montferrand together with the engineer Betancourt. It was a new word in the construction practice of that time.

First, a deep pit was dug, from which water was continuously pumped out. At the same time, pine piles impregnated with resin, more than six meters long and at least a quarter of a meter in diameter, were driven into the soil with cast-iron women. The piles were driven at the same distance between them, equal to their diameter, until they ceased to enter the ground. At the same time, the earth between the piles was compacted to the hardness of stone. Then the piles had to be cut to the same level as the old ones. To this end, Montferrand proposed to stop pumping out the water constantly arriving in the pit, and when it reached the desired level, it was pumped out again and new piles were cut evenly according to the mark received. After filling the gaps between the piles with compacted charcoal, instead of wooden beams, usually used in such cases to evenly distribute the pressure on the piles, stone slabs carefully fitted to each other on lime mortar were laid in two rows. With this design of the foundation, the old and new parts were firmly connected to each other. In total, the construction of foundations took more than five years.

At the same time, granite monoliths for the columns of four porticos and marble for facing the facades and interior of the cathedral were prepared. The Tivdi and Ruskol marble quarries were placed at the disposal of the Commission for the Reconstruction of St. Isaac's Cathedral. The first were located in the Petrozavodsk district of the Olonetsk province, and the second - in the Serdobolsk district of the Vyborg province. Light and dark red marble was mined at the Tivdiya quarries, and light gray with bluish veins was mined at the Ruskolsky quarries.

Montferrand developed a project for transporting monoliths, with the help of Betancourt. In particular, Betancourt proposed the design of special gates (capstans).

After the delivery of the monoliths, they were rolled into specially built sheds, where they were finally processed before installation.

For the sake of convenience of conducting work, albeit contrary to established traditions, Montferrand proposed to install columns of porticos before the walls were erected. Separate scaffolding was made for each of the four porticos, on top of which blocks were fixed with ropes thrown over them. The same capstans served as lifting mechanisms.

Of particular interest was the raising and installation of the first column, located on the east corner of the north portico. An unprecedented spectacle took place on March 20, 1828 in the presence of the imperial family. To commemorate this event, a platinum medal with a profile image of Alexander I was placed under the column. With the help of sixteen capstans, the column was installed in forty-five minutes.

Over the following months, the remaining fifteen columns of the northern portico were installed. All work on the installation of columns was completed in 1830.

The masonry walls were made of bricks with lime mortar. Brickwork for greater reliability alternated with stone layers. Marble cladding was attached to the main masonry outside and inside with metal brackets. Construction was carried out simultaneously around the entire perimeter of the building. The erection of walls to the level of the columns of the porticos was completed in 1836. The crucial moment of the construction of the ceilings had come. According to the original project, the middle parts of the porticos were supposed to be covered with box vaults, and the side parts were left flat with caissons, as in the Roman Pantheon. The proportions of the porticoes were also kept in accordance with the outstanding monument of antiquity. Such borrowing of the best examples of the past in the era of classicism was considered a manifestation of good taste. However, Montferrand did not blindly copy these patterns.

On the basis of the most advanced achievements of the construction technology of that time, he managed to create his own design, different from the previous ones. He replaced traditional brick vaults with prefabricated cast iron trusses, tying them with lightweight metal rods to rafters that supported the roof. At the same time, they were securely fastened to the main brickwork and marble cladding. Thanks to light metal structures, Montferrand eliminated lateral thrust and reduced the load on load-bearing columns and walls.

The architect made all the structural changes to the porticos in a new, third highest approved project, dated February 14, 1835.

By the end of 1837, when the base of the drum of the dome was erected, the installation of the upper colonnade began. To do this, Montferrand was forced to develop another unusual design of scaffolding, designed to rise to a considerable height of twenty-four columns, each of which weighed sixty-four tons. The whole process of lifting and installing one column on the base of the drum lasted two hours, despite the fact that about three hundred people were employed in the work. However, if the first column was put in place at the beginning of November 1837, then the last one only two months later.

Now it was possible to begin the construction of the most important and complex part of the cathedral - the dome on the drum. But before proceeding to the detailed development of the dome completion, Montferrand again turned to the rich experience of his predecessors. He thoroughly, with a pencil in hand, studied the designs of the domes of the famous buildings of Florence and Rome, London and Paris, as well as St. Petersburg. As a result, instead of the usual brick vaults that took place in previous projects, the architect proposed his own design of three interconnected prefabricated metal shells, thereby significantly outstripping not only his predecessors, but also his contemporaries. If the older contemporary of the architect, the architect A. N. Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, for the first time in St. Petersburg created a metal outer dome while maintaining two internal brick vaults, then Montferrand is the author of the first all-metal spatial structure of interconnected vaults.

The main significance of Montferrand's invention was that the metal structures of the dome turned out to be several times lighter than solid brick vaults. In addition, in the explanatory note attached to the working drawings for construction work in 1838-1840, the architect indicated that the construction of the dome according to the new project would save two million rubles - an astronomical amount at that time.

Alexander Nevsky Lavra

A historical and artistic monument, founded by Peter I as the "Monastery of the Life-Giving Trinity and the Holy Blessed Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky" in honor of the victory over the Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, and in 1724 they were moved to the newly built Annunciation - Alexander - Nevsky Church (architect D. Trezzini) from Vladimir the remains of Yaroslav Yaroslavovich. In terms of its significance, the monastery was placed by Peter I above all Orthodox monasteries in Russia and trained clergy for high places in the church hierarchy. The theological academy, opened at the monastery, still operates today. In 1797, the monastery was transformed into a lavra, it contains a large historical archive and library. In 1932, a museum was founded in the Lavra - the Necropolis, which includes the Lazarevskoye and Tikhvinskoye cemeteries, where the graves of many prominent people of Russia and the Annunciation Church - a tomb are located. The museum presents the richest collection of authentic author's models and projects of monuments, artistic tombstones made by outstanding sculptors and architects of the 18th - 19th centuries.

Beloselsky-Belozersky Palace

The Beloselsky-Belozersky Palace is an architectural monument of the 18th - 19th centuries. Until 1846, there was a small house in its place (1800s, architect F.I. Demertsov), the first owner of which was Senator Myatlev. The Myatlev House changed hands more than once until it was in the possession of the Beloselsky-Belozersky family, by order of which it was rebuilt into an eclectic style palace using forms of Russian baroque architecture of the 18th century. (architect A.I. Stackenschneider, sculptor I.E. Jensen). Since 1884, the palace belonged to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich and was called Sergievsky. After the revolution, the building housed the Kuibyshev RK CPSU. The palace, with its porticos of columns and pilasters and arched pediments, is a unique property of Nevsky Prospekt. Sculptural ornaments and figures of Atlanteans give the building a special palatial splendor and splendor. The interiors of the palace are made in the Rococo style. The palace has a small, luxuriously decorated concert hall, where concerts of Russian and foreign music are regularly held.

List of usesmy literature

1. http://kanikuly.spb.ru/tour_muzei.htm

2. http://www.nwhotels.ru/services/excursions/foreign...

3. http://povschola.edurm.ru/nov.htm

30.01.2019

Ferrari World- the largest closed thematic object in the world. Its length reaches 700 m, the total area is 176 thousand sq.m. Located in Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates).

Burj Dubai is the world's tallest building designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. Based in Dubai (UAE). At the official opening ceremony, it was renamed the Burj Khalifa in honor of the Sheikh and at the same time the President of the United Arab Emirates, Khalifa bin Zayed al-Nahyan.

- In his best! The project is presented by the bureau Kobi Karp. Construction is planned on Watson Island (USA, Miami). The announcement of the project says that this tower, which has a height of 975 meters, will be able to easily remove the crown from Dubai. According to official figures, the 160-storey eco-city of Miapolis will be more than 183 meters taller than the famous Dubai giant Burj Khalifa. The building will include countless entertainment and living spaces.

The Cleveland Clinic is the Low Ruvo Center for Brain Health. Original name - . An unusual building is located in Las Vegas (USA). The author of the project is Frank Gehry. The project consists of two blocks and is estimated at $100 million. One wing houses the research center and the other wing houses the patient rooms.

- a skyscraper-waterfall, the tower "Sun City". It is being built for the 2016 Olympics, which will be held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). The project was developed by the eminent Swiss bureau RAFAA Architecture and Design. He pledges to become "the eighth wonder of the world." The function of the tower is to provide clean electricity to the nearby Olympic Village along with the city of millions. Moreover, at a height of 105 meters in the Solar City Tower there will be cafes and shops. An observation deck will be equipped on the roof, where you can admire the panorama of Rio de Janeiro along with the prostrate bottomless ocean. For lovers of extreme recreation, a platform for bungee jumping is provided.

- a house designed by the bureau Senosiain Arquitectos. Located in Mexico. Built in the style of biorchitectura at the request of a young couple. The house has, thanks to which young people with two children now live in a fabulous "underwater kingdom".

- one of the most luxurious hotels in the world, which is built in Singapore (Southeast Asia). The hotel houses the largest casino in the world, worth about eight billion dollars. Marina Bay Sands consists of three vertical towers, which in turn are connected by an amusement park in the form of a ship. The park-ship stretches for 340 meters in length and can accommodate 3900 guests. The project is implemented by Las Vegas Sands.

- National Museum, located in Abu Dhabi (UAE). The museum project was created by the Foster + Partners bureau and is dedicated to the President of the United Arab Emirates, as a historical monument dedicated to the socio-economic changes initiated by Zayed bin Sultan Al Naiyan himself - a sheikh and the President of the United Arab Emirates in one person.

- the most extreme observation deck in the world, which is located on Mount Osterfelderkopf (Alpspitz, Germany). The view from the AlpspiX site is breathtaking. Kilometer height, two mutually intersecting steel beams, the feeling of free flight over the abyss...

Although the observation deck was built not so long ago - in October 2010, nevertheless, over the past few years, tourists have fallen in love with it and even become a kind of Mecca for lovers of extreme sensations.

located in Dubai (UAE). Meydan City is a development project of Meydan Group LLC, covering an area of 18.6 million square meters. The project is a complex for horse racing, a hotel and a number of premises for entertainment events.

Unusual modern architecture, designed by SAMOO design studio, is an eco-project of the South Korean National Institute of Ecology. The territorial area is 33 thousand square meters. The architectural structure honorably bears the title of the think tank of the country.

Chicago Spire- project of the famous architect Santiago Calatrava (Chicago, USA). The height of the skyscraper reaches 609 meters (150 floors). The Chicago spire is shaped like a drill and includes 1,193 apartments, which feature three-meter ceilings and full-wall windows.

Eco roof project for a market located in Seoul (South Korea). Developers: Samoo Architects & Engineers. The goal of the project is to eliminate unpleasant odors and the constant noise created by cars scurrying past.

- underground station (London, UK).

- TV tower, which is located in the city of Guangzhou (PRC). The height of Canton is 610 meters. To date, this is a record height among television towers. The record-breaking tower has broken the record until recently of the tallest CN tower (Toronto, Canada).

- energy passage, made in the best traditions of modern world architecture. The project, which is located in the Italian city of Perugia, was developed by Coop Himmelb(l)au. Before you is not just a bizarre roof that sets off the famous pedestrian street of the city, but also an energy turbine that functions due to the sun and wind.

is the center of contemporary art. This gigantic building was designed by a famous architect, a woman whose work is revered in all countries of the world. Place of deployment: Cagliari, Italian region of Sardinia.

- an architectural project of the Dynamic Architecture team, presented in the form of a rotating tower (Dubai, UAE).

The head office of the eminent giant car manufacturing company bmw located in Munich (Germany). The authors of the project are the team of the bureau Coop Himmelb(l)au.

- a gallery that is located in the administrative center of Edmonton (Canada). Designed by Randall Stout Architects.

Bella Sky Hotel is a design hotel embodying original modern architecture. Based in Copenhagen (Denmark). The slope of the towers of the largest hotel in Scandinavia is 15 degrees. Note: just imagine, the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa leaned 3.97 degrees.

- Hamburg Philharmonic (Germany), project by Herzog & de Meuron. The building, built on the banks of the Elbe, includes 3 concert halls, a hotel, 45 apartments and a public area called the Plaza. The latter is located at a 37-meter height above the water. 360° panoramic view.

From year to year, leading architectural bureaus delight us with such bright and multifaceted projects. I think such modern world-class architecture brings you only positive emotions, but not vice versa. Of course, there is something to envy, peering into these unusual architectural masterpieces of our time and the near future. Be that as it may, the team of the project bureau wishes you inspired architectural and design ideas and, of course, their implementation!

The architecture of a modern city develops in tune with the constant development of urban culture, industry, and the growth of society. Social and technological progress accelerate and stimulate the further development of old cities and the emergence of new ones.

Architecture of the city: some general information

Urban construction is designed to expand the infrastructure and living space of a person, to create new architectural complexes. Its other, no less important role is to preserve the historical appearance of the city, maintaining its original atmosphere.

The architecture of the modern city includes landscaping. Its goal is to create and improve living conditions for citizens, to preserve natural resources within a certain territory.

Many post-Soviet cities were built according to standard designs and therefore are still largely similar to each other. Monotonous Soviet buildings can be found in every CIS country, be it Kazakhstan, Armenia or Russia. But there is one city, with whose most unique appearance thousands and thousands of people all over the world dream to get acquainted - this is Moscow.

Architecture of the city of Moscow

Moscow is the "center of the world", attracting many thousands of tourists every year. Moscow architecture can be called a kind of historical chronicle that captures victories and defeats, sorrows and joys throughout the long life of the capital.

Metropolitan architecture is characterized by trends and images that have been taking place over the centuries. All the events taking place on the historical stage of the country, one way or another reflected in the appearance of our city. The 15th century imprinted itself for a long time with the stone architecture of the Assumption Cathedral and the Kremlin. The reign of Catherine the Great was remembered for the birth of classicism - the Senate, the Bolshoi Theater, the Pashkov House and the Tsaritsyno Travel Palace.

After the Patriotic War of 1812, the capital was rebuilt. Historical Museum, have become a monument of those times. In the 20th century, Art Nouveau appeared, its examples are the National, Metropol, Yaroslavl Station hotels. The 21st century has given birth to cutting-edge architecture, with its skyscrapers, shopping malls, and high-rise offices, which in their own way decorate and complement the multifaceted

Modern architecture as art

The architecture of the modern city is engaged in the formation of the external living space of people through the construction of new and the maintenance of old buildings. This art includes three main aspects:

Urban planning - the creation and reconstruction of buildings.
Volumetric architecture - design of residential and industrial enterprises.
Landscape architecture - arrangement of squares, park areas, public gardens.

In addition, the architectural environment has a strong emotional impact on the inhabitants. Along with other factors, it contributes to the development of patriotic feelings.

Directions of modern architecture

In different countries, the architecture of a modern city is called differently. We call it “modern”, in Germany “art nouveau”, in France “art nouveau”. Art Nouveau, as an architectural trend, was formed in the late 19th - early 20th century. It is characterized by a protest against the established, archaic appearance of buildings. During the construction in this style, steel, concrete, glass, and later plastic and other technological materials began to be used for the first time. This style is distinguished not only by external aesthetics and thoughtful functionality. The next after modernity, in the 20s of the 20th century, constructivism was formed, which absorbed the "soul" of the victorious proletariat. Its main task is to serve the new production. During the construction, reinforced concrete was mainly used. According to the designs of the constructivists, not only plants and factories were created, but also residential buildings, schools, hospitals, and clubs.

The end of the 1940s was marked by the emergence of a minimalist trend in architecture, which reached its peak by the 1960s. The creed of the minimalists is "Nothing more!". The buildings of this time are laconic, they do not have decor and other excesses. The main idea of minimalist designers is the search for the ideal proportion, a combination of comfort and functionality, in the understanding of that time. The development of modern architecture did not stop there. Minimalism soon became obsolete, and it was replaced by the modern hi-tech style, which for many years was entrenched in urban architecture.

Hi-tech - modern city architecture

The formation of this idea was influenced by new technologies that accompany Metal, glass, cutting-edge materials and structures, monolithic forms, power and strength embodied in buildings - this is the high-tech style. It includes three sub-directions: industrial, bionic and geometric high-tech.

The industrial direction is characterized by a peculiar frankness of design. It flaunts all communications, connections, overlaps, creating decorative and functional structures on their basis.

Geometric hi-tech is a variety of geometric shapes, a combination and interweaving of the most unexpected and unusual configurations.

Bionic hi-tech is characterized by imitation of the appearance of wildlife, harmonization of the appearance of buildings and dwellings with the help of smooth transitions and lines characteristic of those common in nature.

The architectural style reflects common features in the design of building facades, plans, forms, structures. Architectural styles were formed under certain conditions of the economic and social development of society under the influence of religion, state structure, ideology, traditions of architecture and national characteristics, climatic conditions, and landscape. The emergence of a new kind of architectural style has always been associated with technological progress, changes in ideology and geopolitical structures of society. Consider some types of architectural styles that served as the basis for various trends in architecture in different periods of time.

archaic architecture

Buildings erected before the 5th century BC are usually referred to as archaic architecture. Stylistically, the buildings of Mesopotamia and Assyria (the states of Western Asia) are related to the buildings of Ancient Egypt. They are related by simplicity, monumentality, geometric forms, the desire for large sizes. There were also differences: symmetry is characteristic of Egyptian buildings, asymmetry is present in the architecture of Mesopotamia. The Egyptian temple consisted of a suite of rooms and was stretched horizontally; in the Mesopotamian temple, the rooms seem to be attached to each other randomly. In addition, one of the parts of the temple had a vertical orientation (ziggurat (sigguratu - peak) - a temple tower, a characteristic feature of the temples of the Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations).

antique style

Antiquity, as a type of architectural style, refers to Ancient Greece. Greek buildings were built in the likeness of a residential building "megaron" of the Cretan-Mycenaean era. In the Greek temple, the walls were made thick, massive, without windows; a hole was made in the roof for light. The construction was based on a modular system, rhythm and symmetry.

Megaron - means in translation "great hall" - a house of a rectangular plan with a hearth in the middle (beginning 4 thousand BC)

The ancient architectural style became the basis for the development of the order system. There were directions in the order system: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The Doric order appeared in the 6th century BC, it was distinguished by its severity and massiveness. The Ionic order, lighter and more elegant, appeared later, and was popular in Asia Minor. The Corinthian order appeared in the 5th century. BC. Colonnades became a sign of this type of architectural style. The architectural style, the photo of which is located below, is defined as the antique, Doric order.

The Romans, who conquered Greece, adopted the architectural style, enriched it with decor and introduced the order system into the construction of not only temples, but also palaces.

Roman style

View of the architectural style of the 10th-12th centuries. - received its name "Romanesque" only in the 19th century. thanks to art critics. Structures were created as a construction of simple geometric shapes: cylinders, parallelepipeds, cubes. Castles, temples and monasteries were built in this style with powerful stone walls with battlements. In the 12th century towers with loopholes and galleries appeared near castle-fortresses.

The main buildings of that era are a temple - a fortress and a castle. The buildings of this era were simple geometric figures: cubes, prisms, cylinders, during their construction vaulted structures were created, the vaults themselves were made cylindrical, cross-rib, cross. In the early Romanesque architectural style, the walls were painted, and by the end of the 11th century. volumetric stone reliefs appeared on the facades.

Architecture

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.5.km.ru/

archaic architecture

antique style

Megaron - means in translation "great hall" - a house of a rectangular plan with a hearth in the middle (beginning 4 thousand BC)

The Romans, who conquered Greece, adopted the architectural style, enriched it with decor and introduced the order system into the construction of not only temples, but also palaces.

Roman style

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Field V. M. Twentieth century. Visual arts and architecture of countries and peoples of the world. M.: "Soviet artist", 1989.

Maklakova T. G. Architecture of the twentieth century. Lecture notes. M., 1995.

The twentieth century was marked by intensive urbanization due to industrialization, a sharp increase in the urban population at the expense of people with low incomes, which necessitated the construction of tenement buildings with cheap rental apartments. The communication system is developing and the mobility of the population is growing. There is a need to form new types of buildings (department stores, banks, high-rise offices, indoor sports facilities and markets, exhibition pavilions, industrial facilities). In the twentieth century, there was a certain devaluation of classical traditions, which led to a revision of the criterion of "beauty" in architecture. Accordingly, the compositions of spaces and volumes began to be built not from external symmetrical schemes of facades, but from the functionally expedient construction of internal spaces, which were reflected in the construction of the external volumes of the building.

The priority in the reassessment of the tectonic factor in modern architecture belongs to the French school and, first of all, to the outstanding scientist of the middle of the 19th century, architect and restorer of architectural monuments of medieval France, Viola Le Duc, his student, architectural historian Auguste Choisy and the latter’s student, Auguste Perret, a practicing architect of the 1910s and 1950s 20th century

In the architecture of the XX century. the following main directions and styles are distinguished:

functionalism;

Expressionism;

Organic architecture and regionalism;

Structuralism;

historicism;

Postmodernism;

Symbolism;
Deconstructivism.

Functionalism.

Auguste Perret wrote: “If a building truly fulfills its purpose, then its external forms should speak of its inherent functions. This is the character of the building. If you can give a building character at a minimal cost, the building will have style.” G. Mayer noted: “All things on earth are the product of multiplying a function by economy. All things, therefore, are not works of art. Any work of art is an essay and thus not expedient. Architecture is a biological process. Architecture is not a process of aesthetic order. The new residential building being created will not only be a “machine for living”, but a biological device to satisfy spiritual and physical needs.”

Functionalism emerged in the early 1920s. and embraced not only architecture, but also widely and everywhere spread to the entire objective world - furniture, clothing, book graphics, theatrical scenery and costumes, etc., laying the theoretical and practical basis for design.

New designs and materials.

O Perret actively used reinforced concrete. In 1903, he built the first entirely reinforced concrete house in Paris.

There is a search for the expressiveness of new structures (mesh metal structures of V. G. Shukhov in Russia). German architect M. Berg in 1911-1913 in Poland, he is building the Centenary Hall with open ribs of a reinforced concrete vault.

After the Second World War, new spatial reinforced concrete structures appeared that use curved lines (parabolas, hyperbolas, ellipses). The qualities of prestressed concrete make it possible to increase the spans of floors. This affects the construction of bridges. The combination of logical and artistic thinking is manifested in the projects of interchanges, multi-storey garages.

Bridges by Robert Mayer (1872-1940). Reinforced concrete structures acquire the qualities of aesthetic expressiveness. In 1908, experiments began with mushroom-shaped beamless ceilings (mushroom-shaped capitals of load-bearing columns). In 1933, the Schwandbach road bridge (Bern canton) with a sickle-shaped segment was built. From the very beginning of his activity around 1910 until the construction of his most recent bridges, Meyer developed the principles of the three-hinged arch, consisting of box sections. He gave this structure a flexibility that only steel bridges had previously enjoyed. In the pavilion of the Swiss company Portland Cement Company at the Swiss National Exhibition in 1939 in Zurich, Mayer demonstrated how picturesque and elegant reinforced concrete structures were. The master often made the first sketches of the bridges he conceived in the form of a single curved line drawn on a piece of paper during a trip from Zurich to Bern, where his office was located. Simple engineering calculations are not enough to pave the way for new solutions. This is an area where invention, in the full sense of the word, plays a more important role than calculation. Mayer's bridges respond to the aesthetic sense with their poetic expressiveness, a subtle sense of balance.

The patio, the inner courtyard, the intimate part of the house, was widespread in Mesopotamia by 200 BC. e. Roman country houses have a series of courtyards, each dedicated to a specific purpose. In 1949, José Luis Sert, in planning the workers' camps in Chembot (South America), reintroduced the patio.

Peter Behrens (1868-1940). He began his activity in Germany as an architect at the beginning of the 20th century. Behrens' workshop was the most famous in Germany. Mies van der Rohe, Gropius and even Le Corbuier (5 months) worked in it. He gained fame for his approach to industrial construction as a problem of architectural creativity. In 1907, the Werkbund (industrial union) was organized in Munich. His mission is to "make the craft more refined and improve the quality of the products." The artist, worker and industrialist had to cooperate in the production of things of artistic value.

Walter Gropius(1883-1969) began his career in Germany during the heyday of the Werkbund. After graduation, he worked in the workshop of Peter Behrens. This lasted from 1907 to 1910, when Behrens was designing a turbine plant for the General Electric Company (AEG) in Berlin. At the same time, Gropius participated in discussions in the newly organized Werkbund, which helped to crystallize his ideas about the nature of architecture.

After opening his own office, Gropius receives an order from the Fagust company for the project of a shoe last factory (1911). This factory was designed taking into account not the individual needs of a person, but the impersonal processes that take place in the building. After 1934 Gropius worked in England.

Post-war Germany and Bauhaus (1919-1928). Expressionism touched the work of almost every artist in Germany, but it could not have a healthy effect on architecture. Gropius was aware of the inconsistency of expressionism with the requirements of the era and the need to move away from it. When Gropius merged the School of Fine Arts and the Academy of Applied Arts in Weimar to form the Bauhaus, he tried to find teachers who had not previously worked in the field of applied arts. He entrusted the introductory course to the young artist Johann Itten. From the very beginning, the sculptor Gerhart Marx and the expressionist Lionel Feininger, who was interested in the problems of space, worked at the Bauhaus.

The second stage of development began in 1921, when the artist Paul Klee joined the Bauhaus group. After that, more and more people came from abstractionist groups: first Oskar Schlemmer in 1921, then in 1922 Wassily Kandinsky, and in 1923 Mogoly-Nagy (Hungarian). Mogoly-Nagy, publisher of books produced by the Bauhaus, helped to overcome the remnants of romantic mysticism.

The third stage of the Bauhaus is characterized by closer contact with industry. It came about at the time when this school moved from Wermar to Dessau (before 1928). Walter Gropius completes the Bauhaus building in Dessau in 1926

Bauhaus is the highest architectural and art-industrial school. The theoretical basis of Bauhaes was functionalism - "what looks good, what works well." The leaders of the Bauhaus sought to create a non-national democratic architecture.

In the 1920s achieved great success dutch amsterdam school headed by I.-P. Audi. He designed several workers' settlements and cheap houses.

CIAM-International congresses of contemporary architects - discuss the problems of modern architecture. The first congress took place in 1928 in La Sarrou.

Especially brightly functionalism manifested itself in Soviet architecture 1920-30s The problem of the formation of a new architecture for a new society in the 1920s. especially attracted architects of the young and middle generation, united in several creative associations. The attitudes of these associations differed, but the orientation towards a complete rejection of the traditional language of architectural forms was common.

Established in 1923, headed by N. Ladovsky and V. Krinsky, the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA), who called themselves rationalists, pursued mainly an aesthetic goal - the development of a fundamentally new syntax of architectural form, based on the psycho-physiological laws of perception of the main constituent elements of an architectural composition - volume, plane, rhythm, etc. In 1925, K. Melnikov, the author of the first six clubs in Moscow, joined ASNOVA.

In 1925, the Association of Modern Architects (OSA) arose, headed by A. and V. Vesnin and M. Ginsburg. OSA also set as its goal the formation of types of buildings that meet modern social conditions. However, the OCA approach to design was more pragmatic. In the layout of the building, they considered the fundamental functional and constructive organization of space as a source of its harmonization. This approach was formulated by the OCA masters as "a function of the constructed material shell and the space hidden behind it." This trend was called constructivism in the USSR.

In the first half of the 1920s. in the USSR, the concept of decent mass housing construction for workers is taking shape. The unimproved manor buildings of the working outskirts of large industrial cities were supposed to be replaced by a comfortable 2-4-storey complex building with sectional houses, schools, and shops. The community center of the complex was a working club. So since 1923, the Sokol settlement (architect N. Markovnikov), the complex at the AMO plant in Moscow (architect I. Zhiltovsky), residential complexes named after. Razin, them. Kirov, them. Artem, im. Shaumyan in Baku (architects A. Samoilov, A. Ivanitsky), in Kharkov, Leningrad, Tbilisi and other cities.

A few years later, these ideas were implemented in the practice of construction in Western countries, primarily in Germany (architects V. Gropius, E. May, B. Taut, G. Mayer).

The unification of the appearance and the geometrism of factory products were regarded by the masters of new architecture as an aesthetic means of harmonizing and ensuring the artistic unity of the khastroyka, replacing classical architectural forms. Le Corbusier wrote in 1923: "It is necessary to create a spirit of seriality - the desire to live in serial houses, to design houses as a series." A colossal influence on the formation of compositional techniques in the architecture of the Modern Movement was the five principles of building design published by Le Corbusier (villa in Garches, Villa Savoy in Poissy) in his book The Radiant City:

on open pillars that separate the building from ground dampness;

with a combined flat reinforced concrete roof-garden, providing residents of the house with additional recreational territory;

with a free layout of internal spaces, which is ensured by the replacement of internal load-bearing walls with a frame;

with ribbon windows that increase the illumination of the premises;

with a free composition of facades, which is ensured by replacing the load-bearing structure of the outer walls with a non-bearing one when switching to a frame structural system.

A paradoxical situation has arisen: denying in principle the normativity of classical architectural forms, in the actual practice of designing functionalism has come to a fairly monotonous prescription form. The deliberate limitation of expressive means could eventually lead the aesthetics of this school to depreciation. But its development was interrupted by totalitarian regimes that supported the traditional pathos of classical architecture. Functionalism gained a second wind after the Second World War, when it was necessary to quickly and economically rebuild the destroyed cities. In the 1940-1950s. functionalism is becoming more widespread than in the 1920s.

The architectural theme of the glass façade was realized by Le Corbusier in the early 1930s. in the buildings of the overnight shelter of the Salvation Army in Paris and in the building of the Tsentrosoyuz in Moscow. However, the idea of a skyscraper with glass outer walls belongs to another major master of the modern movement - Mies van der Rohe. He developed it from 1919 in various projects, but realized it only a few decades later in the USA. First in a complex of two glass high-rise single-section residential buildings on Lake Shock Drive in Chicago, and then in the office of the Seagram Building in New York. In contrast to the functionalism of the 1920s, which formally cultivated a new constructive form, but practically imitated it, performing it from traditional materials, American functionalism of the 1950s. relied on a highly developed construction industry. The high quality of new materials and products used for these objects partly atoned for the elementary nature of their three-dimensional forms. The theme of a high-rise glass tower for an office or a hotel has been embraced by architects and clients around the world. Functionalism in the 1950s called "international style".

During the period of especially large-scale development of mass construction in the USSR in the 1950s-1970s. a situation developed that objectively contributed to the decline of the aesthetic properties of residential development. Unprecedented volumes of construction coincided with the period of the formation of the house-building industry, which required a minimum variety of industrial products. The free development of residential areas has destroyed the usual ideas about the urban environment, causing new settlers to feel nostalgic for the traditional urban space.

The aesthetic and ethical evaluation of functionalism has remained unstable over the past decades. During a period of particularly acute disappointment in modernism in the 1960s. built in 1927 according to the project of Le Corbusier, the Pussac residential complex was completely transformed by its residents during the reconstruction (flat roofs were replaced by pitched ones, ribbon windows were closed, the walls were painted and covered with decor). After 10-15 years in Germany, the residential complexes of V. Gropius and B Taut - Simmensstadt, Zehlendorf, Neuokeln in Berlin were lovingly and carefully restored.

Expressionism.

Expressionism in architecture is a branch of the general expressionist trend in art, which united literature (F. Kafka), music (A. Scriabin), cinema (R. Wiene), painting (V. Kandinsky, P. Klee). In architecture, the first striking manifestations of expressionism date back to 1919-1922. Then expressionist works appear with varying frequency in the 1950s and 1970s. (lower works by Le Corbusier, E. Saarinen, J. Utson, O. Niemeyer, G. Sharun).

Expressionism in architecture is characterized by an emphasized emotional expressiveness of the composition, often achieved through sharpness, grotesqueness, deliberate deformation or generalization of familiar forms. The standard of expressionism in the 1920s. was the building of the astrophysical laboratory "Einstein Tower" in Potsdam (1921), designed by E. Mendelssohn as a free building-sculpture in monolithic reinforced concrete with plastic, streamlined formani, almost excluding orthogonal conjugations.

In the 1950s with the prefix "neo" expressionism again enters the stage of world architecture. The most famous work of neo-expressionism is the chapel in Ronchamp (France), built according to the project of Le Corbusier in 1950-1955. Its composition is inspired by the images of the first prayer houses of Christianity.

G. Sharun, carrying out his work in Germany (the opera house in Berlin), found an expressionistic way even to solve such a normatively determined architectural form as an apartment building. In his residential complex in Stuttgart "Romeo and Juliet" (1956-1960), he created a non-trivial three-dimensional form of buildings. The building "Juliet" has a horseshoe-shaped plan and cascading height (5, 8 12 floors), and the one-section 20-storey building "Romeo" has a plan of a complex polygonal shape. Balconies and loggias of various oblique shapes give additional unexpected articulations to the volumes of buildings. G. Sharun created interesting individual interior spaces in modest-sized apartments, stimulating residents to be creative when arranging interiors.

Neo-expressionism, relying to a certain extent on the achievements of functionalism, introduced into it a humanizing emotional and individual principle, skillfully using the possibilities of modern structures and materials.

Organic architecture and regionalism.

Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: “Organic architecture is ... architecture in which integrity is the ideal ... in a philosophical sense, where the whole is related to the part as part is to the whole, and where the nature of materials, the nature of purpose, the nature of everything that is carried out becomes clear, speaking as a necessity. From this nature it follows what character, under given concrete conditions, a true artist can give to a building.

Aesthetic purism and the emotional limitations of functionalism stimulated the development of a number of directions that compensate for these shortcomings. One of them organic, the second is regional. The first is mainly associated with the name of an outstanding American architect F. L. Wright. Sharing the rational principles of functionalism, he considered the aesthetics of the spaces and volumes created to be just as essential. Its basis was the organic connection of the building with the surrounding landscape, and its equipment, furniture, utensils - with the composition of the internal environment of the building. For almost 70 years of creative life, F. L. Wright built many outstanding structures for various purposes: multi-storey offices, laboratories, museums, private houses. The principles of organic architecture dictated to Wright the use of traditional materials (stone, brick, wood) and the coincidence of textures of structures on the facade and in the interior (for example, unplastered masonry). The Guggenheim Museum in New York built according to his project was very widely known; Johnson's 15-story laboratory building in Racine; various mansions - “prairie houses”, “House over a waterfall”, etc. However, it is obvious that the full implementation of the ideas of organic architecture is achievable only when working with a wealthy customer. Wright divides the space of mansions, as a rule, into zones - common and intimate, and he designs the space of the common zone as “flowing” - without rigid partitions between the hall, the common room and the dining room.

The development of regionalism falls on the end of the 1930s, and its heyday - in the 1950s-1980s. First of all, it was formed in the countries of Northern Europe, and then began to actively develop in Latin America and Japan. In practice, the experience of designing national pavilions for numerous international and world exhibitions contributed to the identification (sometimes exaggerated) of regional features of architecture. This practice began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In the XX century. the Scandinavian countries are embarking on the path of consistent regionalism. They refuse functionalism, as many of its principles become unacceptable in a cold harsh climate. Here, roofs with pitched roofs reappear, warm cellars or undergrounds are arranged, curvilinear houses are built that repeat the slopes of mountain ranges, closed light apertures are designed, traditional materials are used (brick, stone, wood, including glued wood).

Regionalism in Japan is developing in three directions - imitation, illustrative traditionalism and the organic refraction of traditions. Imitation of a traditional wooden frame in reinforced concrete is used in the projects of religious buildings of various concessions, but it can also be found in the architecture of secular buildings - the Japan Pavilion at Expo-67 in Montreal (architect Yoshinobo Ashihara), the building of the National Theater in Tokyo (architect Hiroiki Iwamoto). Illustrative traditionalism is characterized by the method of introducing into the building, arranged in the forms of functionalism, individual details - "reminders" of traditional architectural forms. Such, for example, is the coronation of the building of international conferences in the city of Kyoto (architects Otani and Ochi), as the historical prototype of which the coronation of a temple of the 3rd century BC was chosen. n. e. in the city of Ise. The composition of the building of the Festival Hall in Tokyo (architect K. Maekawa, 1960) can be attributed to a truly organic direction in the perception and use of traditions. A massive roof with a large offset is used here. The complex forms of coatings echo the traditional architecture of the Olympic Sports Complex in YoYogi Park in Tokyo (architect K. Tange).

Structuralism.

In the history of architecture of the XX century. structuralism, based on the aestheticization of the constructive form, occupies an intermediate position between the constructivism of the 1920s and the high-tech of the 1980s. The classical functionalism of the 1920s did not allow the subordination of volumetric form to purely compositional requirements (function was always the determining factor). Structuralism relied on the expressive possibilities of new, but already well-studied constructions. It is based on the choice of design options when designing not only the best in terms of technical indicators, but with an expressive form-building potential. Structuralism manifested itself most clearly from the late 1940s to the 1960s. The most interesting works of structuralism are found in the work of P.-L. Nervi (Italy), R. Sarger (France), l. Kahn (USA). For the first two masters, the design was the initial in the shaping of the architectural image, for the third - the function.

Nervi and Sarger (the first by basic education is an engineer, the second is an architect) in their creative activity created the most interesting structures, arranged using large-span spatial coatings from thin-walled shells. Although such structures in construction began to be used from the 1920s, they received the greatest expressiveness not only as a constructive, but also as an architectural form in the work of these masters. Their activity is associated with the creation of images of modern sports, exhibition, trade, transport facilities, arranged on the basis of a harmonized spatial constructive form of a large-span coating. The most perfect in this series are such buildings as the Small Olympic Palace of Sports (Palazzetto della Sport) in Rome, the UNESCO conference halls in Paris and the exhibition pavilions in Turin in the work of Nervi and the covered markets in Nanterre and Royan in the work of Sarger. Even the widely replicated image of a spectacular and sports facility in the form of a lentil or a “flying saucer” (circus buildings in Sochi, Kazan and other cities), in which the lower shell is a bowl that carries the stands of spectator seats, and the upper one is a sloping dome of the cover, are repelled by creativity these masters.

The structuring of the form of a building, its volumes and spaces in the works of L. Kahn proceeds from the functional purpose of the latter and the illumination required in them. He groups the main and auxiliary premises into independent three-dimensional elements, believing that “architecture is a reasonable way of organizing space ... The structure of service premises should complement the structure of those served. Onda is rough, brutal, the other is openwork, full of light. Harmonizing the form and rhythm of alternation of volumes, L. Kahn found the initial structural basis for individual compositions of such complex objects for an architect as multi-storey buildings of scientific research institutes and laboratories. The peculiarity of L. Kahn's creativity, therefore, is harmonious structuring.

Historicism.

National romance in architecture. In the 1910s in the small and northern countries of Europe, appeal to national roots and cultural traditions has acquired particular importance. It was reflected in all types of buildings (city hall in Stockholm, architect R. Ostberg, 1911-1923). A. Shchusev (Russia), D. Scott (England), E. Nachig (Serbia), L. Sonk (Finland) work this way in temple architecture. These are buildings of cultural and social purpose Momchilov P. (Bulgaria), M. Nielsen (Iceland); office buildings by M. Paulson (Norway), V. A. Pokrovsky (Russia); California style villas in the USA.

A. Shchusev said: “Classical architecture is a language that at all times of the cultural periods of mankind was understandable to all peoples. It is the only architecture that has gained an international position.”

in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. (and in the USSR until the mid-1950s) historicism became the basis for large ensembles. A distinctive feature of the use of ancient classical architectural forms during this period is their deliberate simplification and coarsening due to the erroneous idea that these measures contribute to the monumentalization of the image. The columns lose their intasis, their proportions become heavier, and the compositions as a whole acquire articulations of an exaggeratedly large scale. The extreme manifestations of such coarsened neoclassicism were the compositions of a number of government facilities erected in Italy and Germany under totalitarian regimes. This is how the triumphal structures (the triumphal arch in Genius and the Victory Monument in Balzano) by the architect M. Piacentini and the Olympic sports facilities in Rome (architect L. Moretti and E. del Debio) were solved. The building of the Palace of Civilizations (architect architect M. Piacentini) in the new public center of Rome - the EUR complex has become a kind of symbol of this trend in architecture. The composition of the Palace is a simplified composition of the Roman Colosseum.

In Germany of the “Third Reich”, such coarsened falsely monumental neoclassicism was embodied with the constructions of the Imperial National Socialist Congress Complex in Nuremberg, the Olympic Complex and the building of the new Imperial Chancellery (architect A. Speer) in Berlin.

In the USSR, historicism in the architecture of the first half of the 20th century. left a number of indisputably aesthetically significant structures based on a combination of classical compositional techniques with stylized elements of national architecture. The best example of such a composition is the Government House in Yerevan (architect A. Tamanyan). In neoclassicism, such examples are the building of the Council of Ministers in Kiev (architect I. Fomin and p. Abrosimov), the interiors of the Moscow metro stations Krasnye Vorota and Kurskaya Radialnaya (architects I. Fomin, L. Polyakov), the interiors of the Oktyabyskaya metro station "(architect L. Polyakov) and "Kurskaya-ring" (architect G. Zakharov).

If in Europe after the Second World War functionalism becomes more widespread, then in the USSR the architectural language of the Empire was perceived as the only worthy means of reflecting the triumph of victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. According to the laws of the Empire, the centers of cities destroyed during the war were restored (the ensemble of Moscow State University on the Lenin Hills in Moscow, architects L. Rudnev, E. Chernyshev, P. Ambrosimov, A. Khryakov, engineer V. Nasonov). The consistent development of historicism in the USSR was interrupted in a directive by the resolution of the Central Committee of the Central Committee of the Central Council of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of November 4, 1954 “On the elimination of excesses in design and construction.” This circumstance returned domestic design practice to the pan-European channel of functionalism.

Departure from functionalism in Western countries in the late 1950s and early 1960s. determined by a number of social and economic reasons. But a purely emotional assessment of this was given by the American architect F. VK. Johnson. As a student and co-author of Mies van der Rohe in the design of the Seagram Building in New York - this symbol of "international style", Johnson in the late 1950s. breaks with him and writes: “Mies based his art on three things: economy, science, technology. Of course he was right. But this is what makes me bored. We are all bored."

Additional incentives for the development of historicism were such typical for the 1960-1970s. social phenomena, such as the development of the tourism industry and the practice of organizing international and world exhibitions (EXPO). The architectural composition of exhibition pavilions was usually based on the originality of national architectural forms. As a result, since the 1970s a new period in the development of historicism in architecture begins. This direction is diverse, but received the general name of postmodernism.

Postmodernism.

C. Jenke said: “Postmodernism is a populist-pluralistic art of direct communication”.

P. Weil and A. Geis note: “Postmodernism is the art of an era that has survived the collapse of all the big ideas of mankind. The artist no longer builds utopias, does not rebuild, but settles in the world, trying to settle in it with maximum comfort. For postmodernism, the law is not written, it lives by eclecticism, boldly kneading its art on fragments of other people's words and ideas. The culture of the past for him is a junk shop, from where he takes everything that comes into play, abundantly seasoning the resulting product with the author's words ... Any scene here is a quote, this, by the way, expresses the spirit of postmodernism, which has made quotation marks its main tool, and its main symbol.

Postmodernism is a broad social phenomenon that has spread in many areas of culture - philosophy. Literature, music, fine arts, architecture.

The ideological basis of postmodernism was a deep disappointment in the ideology of historical progress formulated by the French enlighteners of the 18th century. and based on the idea of a rational reorganization of society and man. Philosophers of postmodernism (M. Foucault, J. Derrida) argue that what was promised by the enlighteners of the 18th century. the realization of a social utopia turned into nightmares of revolutions and totalitarianism because it oriented the individual and society towards an unshakable hierarchy of values, towards a certain spiritual center, a moral absolute. The philosophy of postmodernism proceeds from the premise that it is the orientation towards the absolute that constantly reproduces total structures and total consciousness. The only alternative to it can be pluralism. In this regard, postmodernism is generally interpreted as pluralism and orientation towards a fragment instead of the whole.

In architecture, postmodernism was formed by the end of the 1970s. and unites today different masters in terms of creative principles and style.

The postmodernists subjected to the greatest criticism such fundamental provisions of modernism as the functional zoning of cities, the asceticism of architectural forms, the rejection of the entire creative heritage, regionalism and the environmental approach to design.

In the field of architectural forms, postmodernism is characterized by a revival (often eclictic) of historical architectural systems and decor of all kinds (decorative masonry, tiling, painting, order compositions), an appeal to the expressive features of a wall mass with the failure of tape windows that destroy it, a revival of the active silhouette of the building completion (tongs , pediments, attics) in case of refusal of flat roofs. The principles of compositional construction are being revived - symmetry, proportionality. The development of blank walls is very diverse, on which textures, color, niches, etc. are combined.

One of the largest buildings of this style, the ATT skyscraper in New York (1978), designed by the ex-functionalist, and now the master of postmodernism, F.K. Johnson, became a program in the development of postmodernism.

The Plate Glass skyscraper in Ptsburgh (architects F. Johnson and K. Burgee) was designed as a complex of a 44-storey central volume surrounded by much more prismatic volumes (6-10 floors). All volumes are lined with bronze mirror glass and have expressive silhouettes of completions. The authors sought to fit the building into its surrounding context.

In the works of theorists and practitioners of postmodernism (R. Venturi, M. Culot, L. Krier, A. Rossi, A. Gryumbako), its main principles are formulated:

"imitation" of historical monuments and "models";

work in "styles" (historical and architectural);

"reverse archeology" - bringing the designed object in line with the old building tradition;

"everyday life of realism and antiquity", carried out by the well-known "belittling" or simplifying the applied classical architectural forms.

Seeing the viewer as an accomplice and an interested consumer (rather than an average city dweller) predetermined the playful, theatrical nature of postmodernism, and sometimes even pronounced features of kitsch and props.

In Europe, the ensemble of the Picasso Arena residential complex for 540 apartments in the Paris suburb of Marne-le-Vallee (1985), designed by M. Nunez, can be attributed to the most famous postmodern urban planning compositions. M. Nunez, a young Spanish worker, passionate about the theater, joined the Tallier de Arquitecture workshop and worked in it from the time of its inception. He did not receive a professional education, but over the years of work in the workshop he acquired the necessary skills in practice. Since 1978, he has broken away from the workshop and has been working independently. Competing with the Tallière de Arcitecture, he designed the Arena Picasso complex in the same suburb of Paris where the well-known workshop designed the Abraxas Palace complex. Both projects were carried out almost simultaneously.

The composition of the Picasso Arena complex is strictly symmetrical. In the center there are two 17-storey houses in the form of flat round disks (“alarm clocks” or “beehives”), supported on a flat base from extended 4-storey houses, as well as extended 7-10-storey houses, forming the side wings of the ensemble. The space of the complex is united by high (four floors) passages located along the axis of the complex and "alarm clocks". The architectural forms of the complex are extremely eclectic: they combine Gothic flying buttresses with classical elements, constructivist details and decorative sculpture inspired by Baroque images. The whole composition is dominated by the spirit of theatricality, shocking kitsch and deliberate non-functionality (especially in residential discs).

In accordance with the content of the order, the use of architectural heritage in postmodern works develops very differently: ironic caricature, fragmentary use of details, documentary accurate citation. An example of the latter is the building of the museum of the art collection of the multimillionaire P. Getty. The building was designed by R. Langdon and E. Wilson and is a recreation of the ancient "Villa of the Papyri" in the 1st century AD. n. e. during the eruption of Vesuvius Herculaneum.

Postmodern is customer-oriented. Hence its advantages and disadvantages.

High tech.

High-tech is an aesthetic trend in architecture that developed in the 1970s and is a modern modification of technism, which professes a radical renewal of the language of architecture under the influence of technological progress. To a certain extent, hi-tech is the last stage in the development of the aesthetic development of technical forms, begun by constructivism in the 1920s and continued by structuralism in the 1950s and 1960s.

High-tech is distinguished from the previous stages only by its inherent demonstrative super-technism, in which the functional use of building structures and engineering systems and equipment develops into a decorative and theatrical one with elements of exaggeration and irony, which is also inherent in other modern trends in art, primarily postmodernism. Unlike constructivism and structuralism, which operate mainly with reinforced concrete and glass, high-tech is focused on mastering the aesthetic potential of metal structures in combination with glass. In addition, high-tech actively includes elements of their engineering equipment in the composition of buildings and structures - air ducts, ventilation shafts, pipelines. Based on the purely technological practice of industrial enterprises to mark pipelines of various engineering systems with different colors, high-tech uses this technique in public buildings already as a compositional tool.

The ideological forerunner of high-tech is rightly considered the architect Y. Chernikhov. He left in his many architectural fantasies of the 1930s. compositions of buildings and structures, in the appearance of which rod steel structures are harmoniously combined with ascetic planes of enclosing and elements of engineering systems. The priority of J. Chenikhov is also reflected in the most extensive monograph on high-tech, by the American architectural historian D. Colin, translated into most European languages.

In practical terms, the forerunners of high-tech in the XIX century. considered the "Crystal Palace" by architect D. Paxton, and in the XX century. - the work of Mies van der Rohe. This outstanding architect, who began as a functionalist, became a principled anti-functionalist in his late period of creativity (50-60s). Proceeding from the position that the function is short-lived and strict adherence to it leads to obsolescence of capital buildings, he sought to form structures with a universal interior space, easily adaptable to changing functions. Mies van der Rohe used large-span frames (the building of the architectural department of the University of Illinois, 1955), columns and trusses (the project of the theater in Mannheim, 1953), columns and a steel structure of the roof (the building of the New National Gallery in Berlin) as remote support systems. , 1962-1968).

The priority of including brightly colored pipelines in the composition belongs to the architect E Saarinen (Technology Center of General Motors in Detroit). In hi-tech, combined frames of rigid and cable elements are used; there is a tendency to exaggerate the dimensions of the supporting structures.

High-tech naturally and purposefully captures in its orbit not only the appearance and interiors of the building, but also the environment - landscaping elements and decorative sculptures made of the same material as the facades. In front of the Congress-Halle building (architects R. Schuller and W. Schuller-Witte, 1973-1979), on a low pedestal, there is a sculpture – “a bunch of aluminum sausages”, ironically contrasting with its fluid forms with the emphasized geometrism of the building.

The most famous high-tech building was the building of the Center for the Arts. J. Pompidou on the Beaubourg plateau in Paris (architects M. Piano and R. Rogers). Based on the task of creating a free exposition space, the authors went the way of Mies van der Rohe, but brought it to the point of absurdity. In a building 50 m wide, each of the six ground floors is covered with steel trusses supported on external steel lattice supports. A span of 50 m for displaying books and paintings is clearly excessive, and the high height of the trusses corresponding to such a span leads to the fact that almost half of the volume of the building is occupied by inter-farm interfloor spaces. In this regard, it was necessary to build additional internal walls to organize the exposition. Engineering communications were placed on the facade here, an escalator located in a transparent plastic pipe was placed diagonally along the main facade.

More widely, but in moderate forms, high-tech principles are applied in the composition of the interiors of office buildings, hotels, department stores, multifunctional atrium-type buildings. The huge (to the entire height of the building) space of atriums is covered at the upper level by a translucent metal structure. This constructive system is complemented by silent elevators with transparent cabins, pipelines and air ducts.

In the 1980s The largest and most famous high-tech civil building was the high-rise office of the Hong Kong-Shanghai Banking Corporation, built in Hong Kong in 1986 according to the project of the Norman Foster Architectural Corporation. The structural system of the building is barrel-bridge (or barrel-grillage). Eight barrel supports are located at the ends of the building. Each support consists of four columns of tubular section, united by floor-by-story rigid lintels into a hollow spatial rod-trunk. The shafts are united by single-span trusses (38.4 m). In the direction perpendicular to the trusses, the trunk supports are united by a rigid grillage of diagonal braces (which is found on the facade).

Hi-tech coloring is based on a combination of achromatic shades with bright colors.

Hi-tech continues to develop, using modern technologies and materials.

Symbolism.

A symbol in art is an image with the maximum degree of generalization and expression, expressing an idea.

The development of various directions in the evolution of architecture of the 20th century is constantly accompanied, without mixing with them, by the creation of buildings and structures that carry symbolic functions - buildings-symbols or containing symbolic elements. Usually they are called upon (explicitly or veiledly) to symbolize some ideological, state, religious idea or other program that does not follow directly from the function of a building or structure.

The Sydney Opera House should be attributed to the symbolic buildings, and the advantage of its composition is the ambiguity of symbolism: some critics see in it the image of a sailing ship, others - talking nuns in starched caps. Until today, the most expressive of the symbolic buildings remains the terminal at the airport. J. Kennedy in New York. The terminal building was designed by E. Saarinen in 1958. It is made in monolithic reinforced concrete with a coating composed of four thin-walled shells of positive Gaussian curvature, creating a symbolic image of a bird taking off. E Saarinen managed to achieve an extraordinary harmony of the structure, finding the proper measure of generalization of the image within the boundaries between naturalism and the scheme.

Along with pictorial symbolism, proceeding with a greater or lesser degree of generalization from visually perceived images, speculative symbolism has also developed, which is called architecture “for angels and aviators”. It is characterized by the subordination of the planning decision of the building to a symbolic image, which under normal conditions is not visually perceived. An example of this is the building of the Catholic Cathedral of St. Mary in Tokyo (architect K. Tange, 1964). The rhombic volume of the Catholic Cathedral along the main mutually perpendicular axes is completed with longitudinal light lanterns, which makes it possible to observe these intersecting lanterns from a height at night, like a luminous Latin cross.

Deconstructivism.

Interest in modernism revived in the 1970s, and in the 1980s. he again enters the arena of world architecture under the name of neomodernism. While preserving the advantages of functionalism, neomodernism is freed from a number of shortcomings. This is no longer a white ascetic architecture, but an architecture that actively uses color. The works of neomodernism organically fit into the context of development.

Crucial for the formation of neomodernism was played by the beginning of the 1970s. the penetration to the West of information about the architecture of the Soviet avant-garde of the 1920s, which led to the 1980s. to a serious fascination with her images and ideas.

The branch of enomodernism, based not on direct borrowing of the ideas of the past, but on their certain transformation, was called deconstructivism (“decon”).

In general (with all the diversity of individual creative manners and creeds), based on the compositional principles of constructivism, the masters of "decon" resort to some deformation of constructivism techniques ("distortion of abstraction"), which give the composition dynamism and sharpness. As sources, different authors of deconstructivism choose different periods and different authors of the Russian avant-garde. For example, R. Koolhas and Z. Hadid in their work are focused on the late avant-garde and especially on the “anti-gravity architecture” of I. Leonidov (see his project of the Lenin Institute, 1927). R. Koolhaas included in the composition of his dance theater in The Hague (1984-1987) the volume of an overturned "golden" cone, in which he placed a restaurant, and Z. Hadid - a suspended volume with club premises in the competition project "Peak Club" for Hong Kong (1983 G.).

The worldview platform of the deconstructivists is the position of the modern French philosopher Jacques Derrida, who criticizes the metaphysical nature of all forms of modern European consciousness, which, in his opinion, consists in the principle of “being as presence”, which absolutizes the present. J. Derrida sees a way out of this metaphysicality in finding its historical origins through the analytical division (“deconstruction”) of the most diverse texts of humanitarian culture in order to identify in them basic concepts and layers of metaphors that capture the traces of subsequent eras. Although the main provisions of J. Derrida's worldview are based on his work with language and writing, he applies the provisions of his theory to the architecture of deconstructivism.

In this regard, his assessment of the project of the master plan for the Parc de la Villette in Paris by the architect Bernard Tschumi, who won the international competition, is interesting. In the project of B. Chumi, the park is saturated with a scattering of light, predominantly one-story pavilions - "foley" (metallic brightly colored structures based on a combination of images and techniques of Russian constructivism). J. Derrida writes that “the folies introduce a sense of shift or displacement into the overall composition, involving in this process everything that until now seemed to give meaning to architecture ... The folies deconstruct, first of all, the semantics of architecture. They destabilize the meaning, the meaning of the meaning. Won't this lead back to the desert of "anti-architecture", to the zero mark of the architectural language, in which it loses itself, its aesthetic aura, its basis, its hierarchical principles?... Undoubtedly not. The Foleys … approve, maintain, update and “rewrite” the architecture. Perhaps they revive the energy that was frozen, walled up, buried in a common grave of nostalgia ”(Jenks Ch. Deconstruction. The Pleasures of Absence. // Architectural Deconstructivism. - M., 1991, p. 14).

Thus, the bright works of deconstructivism are based on the aesthetics of isolating the individual details of the building. Sometimes the authors create the feeling of a preliminary analysis of the building into its component parts and a subsequent attempt to assemble a new structure from the component parts. In this case, the parts are “out of place” or “not fully assembled”. An imitation of a shell hitting a part of the building and its partial destruction is created. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao looks like a huge pile of mangled metal left in the center of the city.

New city models.

At the end of the XIX century. Ebenezer Howard the idea of a garden city was put forward. Patrick Jeds considered the organism of the city from the point of view of a biologist in the book "Cities in Evolution" (1915, "Cities in Evolution"). He writes: “The plans of the proud are not bare schemes, but a system of hieroglyphs, through which a person has drawn the history of civilization ... Our task is to decipher the hieroglyphs and fill them with life.”

"Industrial city" Tony Garnier(1901-1904) - a model of the city, in which the author sought to comprehensively solve the problems of the city. Garnier calls reinforced concrete the main building material. In the "Industrial City" you can move around without using the transport streets. Garnier houses with terraces and roof gardens are a good combination of construction and old classical tradition. This layout was partly implemented in Lyon.

Le Corbusier in 1922 in Paris he presented the project "Modern city for 3 million inhabitants".

Z. Gidion describes the concept of "Spacetime" in city planning. The town planner studies the composition of various social strata of the population, their age groups, and the structure of families. There is a gradual departure from the concepts of a linear layout of streets and "axes", a transition to the criteria of population density. In Amsterdam, there are 110 to 550 inhabitants per hectare. A city planner should not create a rigid and complete system.

Parkway (parkway) Henry Goodson erected in 1934-1937. in NYC. Parkways do not have traffic intersections at the same level and are surrounded by greenery.

Around 1960, plate houses became common throughout the world. The walls of the RCA building rise as a solid mass to a height of 259 m.

Recently, the transition from planar city planning to volumetric planning has begun. Already Utzon emphasized the existence of links between horizontal "layers" under the ground and above the ground. Modern urban planning is building in layers or levels. “The individual building loses its importance compared to the collective overall form,” said Japanese architect Fumihiko Maki.

Otto Wagner(1841-1918) realized that the city's housing problem could not be solved by the garden city model. He was the first to indicate that the planning of the city should take into account the needs of various social strata of the population and create healthy conditions "for the average resident." These needs change over time.

At the CIAM congress in Athens in 1933, demands were put forward: “that each city should create a master plan for development and orders to ensure its implementation,” as Wagner had spoken 30 years earlier. As stated in " Charter of Athens» «Sun, greenery, space are the three main elements of urban development». The implementation of the principles of the "Athenian Charter" led to the regulation of landscaping of residential areas, the rejection of closed block development with courtyards-wells, the transition to open freely aerated development with good insolation of dwellings due to the predominantly meridional placement of buildings. This circumstance, in turn, determined the use of a predominantly line building system.