What are the specifics and features of Russian culture. Features of the formation of Russian culture
primary sources
1. Nietzsche F. Human, too human. Twilight of the idols. Antichrist // Works: in 2 volumes - M., 1990.
2. Psychoanalysis and human sciences. - M., 1996.
3. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy. - M.: Academic Project, 2000.
4. Sartre J.P. Existentialism is humanism // Twilight of the Gods. - M., 1989.
5. Frankl V. Man in search of meaning. – M.: Progress, 1997.
6. Freud Z. Introduction to psychoanalysis. Lectures. - M., 1989.
7. Fromm E. "To have or to be." - M., 1990.
8. Heidegger M. Time of the picture of the world // Time and being. -
M., 1993.
9. Schopenhauer A. World as will and representation. – Minsk, 1998.
10. Schopenhauer A. Freedom of will and morality. - M., 1992.
11. Jung K.G. Archetype and symbol. - M., 1991.
12. Jung K.G. Psychology of the unconscious. - M., 1994.
CHAPTER VIII. RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
When it comes to Russia, one can hear a wide variety of opinions about its culture, features and characteristics of the Russian people, but there is one thing that almost everyone agrees on - this is the mystery and inexplicability of the Russian soul, which is well reflected in Tyutchev's lines: “Russia cannot be understood with the mind , cannot be measured with a common arshin: she has a special become - one can only believe in Russia.
Russian culture, in contrast to Western European culture, was formed in different cultural and geographical conditions, where vast Eurasian steppe and forest spaces played a special role, and where Slavic farmers actively interacted with nomadic pastoralists and Finno-Ugric tribes of hunters and fishermen. This has shaped Russia as a kind of multinational and multicultural world, lying on the border between East and West, but distinguished by distinctive facial features. A huge role in the history of Russia was played by the adoption of Orthodox Christianity, as well as the Tatar-Mongol conquest. With all the negative features of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which held back the original development of Russia, we owe it the principles of manning and building the army, the organization of postal and customs services. The invasion of the Tatar-Mongols was a severe historical test and moral lesson. He developed tragic and at the same time heroic feelings of patriotism and sacrifice for the sake of the common good, which permeate the folklore, literature and art of the Russian people.
The formation and development of national culture covers a significant historical period. The main milestones of its development coincide with the stages of socio-economic and historical history countries (Table 5).
The East European Plain - the location of the ancient Russian state - occupied a middle position between the West and the East and was influenced by various civilizational factors: ancient culture (with the dominance of Greek, through Byzantium) and the culture of the steppes coming from the East.
Among other features of the national culture, it should be noted:
The vastness of the territory, which affected the Russian mentality with its categories of "space" and "breadth of the soul";
Absence of slavery: the country entered the period of feudalism from the communal-tribal system, bypassing the slaveholding;
Repeated foreign invasions;
Cultural backwardness of Russia in the Middle Ages;
Isolation of the country, its “closedness” to other countries, etc.
Table 5
The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox version in the X century. had a very importance for the further development of Russian statehood and culture. It provided:
1) the speed of the transition to a feudal state and the independence of the Russian church from outside influence;
2) attached the country to the array of knowledge accumulated by Byzantium;
3) included Rus' in a large cultural community of peoples
(which included the Greeks and South Slavic peoples who professed Orthodoxy);
4) stopped the advance of the Muslim religion on Europe;
5) strengthened versatile (economic, political, etc.) ties with other Christian powers;
6) contributed to the formation of an urban culture in a predominantly agrarian country;
7) special traditions of church building came from Byzantium to Rus' - the cross-domed form of the temple and its decoration with icons, frescoes, mosaics; new forms of church singing (znamenny chant). Monasteries became large cultural centers where the education system began to take shape; annalistic codes were created, correspondence and translations of books were carried out;
8) Orthodoxy rendered big impact on the spiritual life of society, fighting the remnants of pagan life, speaking out against the rudeness and cruelty of morals and turning to humanity, mercy and piety, calling a person to self-improvement, approaching Christian ideals;
9) already from the moment of the development of the Muscovite state, Russia's economic and, in a number of spheres, cultural lag behind the countries of Western Europe began to grow. There were several reasons for this. Despite the progressive role of Christianity, which influenced all aspects of the life of the Russian state, the church, due to its organizational features, begins to slow down its development, seeking to isolate the country from the influence of Catholicism, preventing the establishment of cultural ties and the assimilation of the achievements of the countries of the West and East;
10) the reforms of Peter I contributed to the exit of Russia from a state of stagnation. At the cost of great effort, in fact, over a century, the country has achieved significant success. Europeanization affected all areas of the life of the state. As a result of intensive economic development, a significant economic base was created for a new type of culture, the main features of which were secularism (“secularization”) and cultural dialogue with other powers, primarily with Western countries;
11) the previously united national culture as a result of the reforms was divided into two different ways: “soil” and “civilization” (according to the definition of the famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky);
12) the people remained committed to the old traditions of pre-Petrine culture (ritualism, "soil"). “Civilization”, however, associated with the culture of the Western model, took the form of a secular, “enlightened” culture, spread among the representatives of the ruling class and the cultural elite. At the same time, the one-sided orientation of the ruling class towards cultural borrowing from the West led it to break away from the common people.
There was a gap between the old and new culture, between the culture of the people and the nobility. In the 19th century widespread in the ruling circles was the admiration for the achievements of European science and culture, especially French and German. This subsequently became one of the reasons for the collapse of the tsarist autocracy in 1917.
The harsh life of a Russian person brought up in him a deep respect for a strong will, perseverance in achieving a goal. Selflessness, respect for spiritual quest, condemnation of the tendency to hoarding has always met with recognition in Russian culture, therefore, the historical and literary heroes of Russia are distinguished by sacrifice, asceticism and "burning of the spirit." The vast expanses of Russia, the large number of its population, natural resources made it possible to carry out in Russia what was impossible in other states.
At the beginning of the XVIII century. in architecture and sculpture, Russian classicism began to develop, a remarkable and original phenomenon. This trend in literature and art strives to express sublime heroic and moral ideals. Tragedies and odes are examples of high examples of classicism in literature.
M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin. In sculpture, the monument to K. Minin and D. Pozharsky in Moscow (sculptor I. Martos) is classified as classicism. The strength of classicism is in the ensemble, in the organization of space, its main values were concentrated in St. Petersburg. This style in architecture includes: the building of the Academy of Arts (architect J. B. M. Vallin-Delamot); Arch of the General Staff Building, Mikhailovsky Palace (now the State Russian Museum), Winter Palace, Alexandria Theatre, architectural complex Senate square(architect K.I. Rossi). famous monument in St. Petersburg is a monument to Peter I (sculptor E. Falcone). The beauty of Petersburg is legendary. Its magnificent monuments, royal squares and embankments, its white nights have become the same symbols of Russia as the towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the royal palaces in Izmailovo and Kolomenskoye.
The 19th century was an intensive and successful period of cultural development in Russia. It was at this time that she acquired world significance, creating classical works in the field of literature and art. Its rise was so powerful and fast that it gave grounds to call this era the golden age of Russian culture.
Russian art of the XIX century. - this is a penetrating understanding of a person, which was expressed in a style called Russian romanticism. A.S. began their journey with romantic works. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol. Art became a means of moral education. In the 40-50s of the XIX century. a new generation of writers came to Russian literature: I.A. Goncharov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.N. Ostrovsky, poets N.A. Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev,
A.A. Fet and others who also followed this ideal.
The artists who stood at the origins of Russian art of the 19th century were O.A. Kiprensky (portrait of A.S. Pushkin and others) and A.G. Venetsianov (“On the arable land. Spring”, “On the harvest. Summer”, etc.). In the 30s, romanticism acquired a new character - more conflicting, sometimes prophetic (A.A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People"), historical
(K. Bryullov "The Last Day of Pompeii").
In the second half of the XIX century. the realistic principle of reflecting life (realism) was developed. A new generation of writers and realist artists introduced new themes and genres (social novel and short stories). The greatest achievements here belong to the writers: I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy; artists: V.G. Perov ("Troika"), I.N. Kramskoy, V.I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyar Morozova”), V.A. Serov (“Girl with Peaches”), I.E. Repin (“Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan”, “The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan”, “Barge haulers on the Volga”), etc.
The period from the 1880s to the early 1920s. entered the history of Russian culture under the name of the Silver Age. New directions in art have emerged: symbolism(D.S. Merezhkovsky, K.D. Balmont,
V.Ya. Bryusov, A.A. Block), futurism(I. Severyanin, B. Pasternak,
V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky), acmeism(N.S. Gumilyov, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam), avant-garde(V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich,
M. Chagall and others).
The Russian people also discovered exceptional musicality. Russian classical music emerged. M.I. Glinka, M.P. Mussorgsky, A.P. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, P.I. Chaikovsky -
all these are stars of the first magnitude of the world musical art. Music formed its own picture of the world, its own ways of understanding the life and history of the fatherland. The achievements of Russian ballet, which has become a kind of standard of perfection and artistry, are also known to the whole world.
The foundations of scientific natural science were laid by the universal genius M.V. Lomonosov, whose scientific traditions were continued by representatives of various schools and directions of subsequent generations of Russian scientists, such as physiologists I.M. Sechenov
and K.A. Timiryazev, the great Russian mathematician, the creator of non-Euclidean geometry N.I. Lobachevsky, biologist I.I. Mechnikov, chemist
DI. Mendeleev, the founder of military field surgery N.I. Pirogov, creator of the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans I.P. Pavlov and others.
Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, Russian culture was becoming the most important component of the overall ensemble of the entire world culture. Humanism and citizenship, catholicity and collectivism, nationality and democracy, high education and deep spirituality are its distinctive features, which will be preserved and developed in the Soviet period of its history. The outstanding Russian thinker I.A. Ilyin emphasized that Russia has its own spiritual and historical gifts and tasks, behind it stands a certain divine historical plan. The originality of Russian culture has found one of its most striking incarnations in Russian philosophy.
RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE IX–XVII CENTURIES
Block A
A1. Which of the following features are characteristic of Russian culture?
a) binary
b) competition
c) smoothness of evolution
d) peripheral development
A2. The features of the Russian mentality are:
a) messianic sentiments
b) prudence, pragmatism
c) community
d) a tendency to measured, methodical activity
e) cult of the law
A3. Which of the events can be considered as a boundary beyond which Russian culture found itself in a position of cultural loneliness?
a) the baptism of Rus'
b) The Great Schism of 1054
c) the fall of the Byzantine Empire
d) Patriotic War of 1812
e) the abolition of serfdom
A4. The monolithic nature of Russian culture is preserved up to:
a) the Mongol-Tatar invasion
b) Time of Troubles
c) reforms of Peter I
G) October revolution 1917
A5. What two concepts are associated with Slavic paganism?
c) temple
e) velva
f) basilica
A6. Among the most ancient books of Rus' that have come down to our times are:
a) Ostromir Gospel
b) A word about Igor's regiment
c) Radzivilov Chronicle
d) Izborniki of Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich
e) Domostroy
A7. In what Russian cities in the XI century. Sophia Cathedrals were built?
b) Novgorod
c) Vladimir
d) Polotsk
e) Pereyaslav
A8. The temple architecture of Kievan Rus was strongly influenced by:
a) Byzantine architectural style
b) East Slavic pagan architecture
c) architecture Northern Europe
d) Arabic architectural tradition
a) Vladimir Monomakh
b) Theodosius of the Caves
c) Metropolitan Hilarion
d) Andrei Bogolyubsky
d) none of the given options is correct
A10. What was the name of the handwriting used to write books in Rus' in the 11th-13th centuries?
b) statutory letter
d) hieratic writing
A11. What is the iconographic type? Vladimir icon mother of god?
a) Eleusa (Tenderness)
b) Hodegetria (Guidebook)
c) Oranta (Prayer Book)
d) Burning Bush
A12. What can be called one of the features of Russian culture of the XII-XV centuries?
a) following in line with the development of the cultures of the Catholic West
b) the dominance of the Novgorod cultural tradition
c) polycentrism
d) a pronounced secular nature of culture
A13. Which of the famous Russian icon painters wrote at the beginning of the 15th century. famous icon "Trinity" for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery?
a) Theophanes the Greek
b) Andrey Rublev
c) Dionysius
d) Simon Ushakov
A14. Who is the architect of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin?
a) Aristotle Fioravanti
b) Marco Fryazin
c) Pietro Solari
a) Neil Sorsky
b) Vitus Bering
c) Afanasy Nikitin
d) Avvakum Petrov
e) Vasily Poyarkov
A16. The first two famous book printers in Russia are:
a) Francysk Skaryna
b) Nikifor Tarasiev
c) Ivan Fedorov
d) Peter Mstislavets
e) Nevezha Timofeev
A17. The monument of Russian moralistic literature of the 16th century, which is a set of everyday rules, advice and instructions, is called:
a) Domostroy
b) Pandects
c) Synopsis
d) Sudebnik
A18. When did the tent style begin to spread in the stone temple architecture of Russia?
d) early 18th century
A19. What is a parsuna?
a) one of the symbols of the power of Russian tsars
b) fabric used to make sails and canvases
c) the conditional name of works of portraiture of the 17th century.
d) part of the church, separated from the common room by an iconostasis
A20. What style ends the development of Russian medieval architecture?
a) classicism
b) Naryshkin baroque
c) neo-Greek
d) Elizabethan baroque
Answers to the tasks of block A
Task A1. Russian culture is characterized by binary and peripheral development (a, d).
Task A2. The features of the Russian mentality are messianism and communality (a, c).
Task A3. The cultural loneliness of Rus' is associated with the death of the Byzantine Empire (c).
Task A4. The monolithic nature of Russian culture persisted until the reforms of Peter I (c).
Task A5. The concepts of "sorcerer" and "temple" (b, c) are associated with the paganism of the Slavs.
Task A6. Among the oldest books of Rus' that have come down to our times are the Ostromir Gospel (1056-1057) and Svyatoslav's Izborniks (1073 and 1076) (a, d).
Task A7. In the XI century. Sophia cathedrals were built in Kyiv, Novgorod and Polotsk (a, b, d).
Task A8. The temple architecture of Kievan Rus was strongly influenced by the Byzantine architectural style (a).
Task A10. The handwriting used to write books in Rus' in the 11th-13th centuries is known as the “charter” or “charter letter” (b).
Task A11. The Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God belongs to the iconographic type of Eleusa (Tenderness) (a).
Task A12. One of the features of Russian culture of the XII-XV centuries. can be called polycentrism (c).
Task A13. The famous icon "Trinity" for the cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery was painted by Andrey Rublev (b).
Task A14. The architect of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin is Aristotle Fioravanti (a).
Task A15. The book "Journey Beyond Three Seas" was written by Afanasy Nikitin (c).
Task A16. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets (c, d) are considered the first two famous book printers in Russia.
Task A17. A monument of Russian moralistic literature of the 16th century. is "Domostroy" (a).
Task A18. The tented style begins to spread in the 16th century. (b).
Task A19. Parsuna is a conventional name for works of portraiture of the 17th century. (V).
Task A20. The development of Russian medieval architecture ends with the Naryshkin or Moscow baroque (b).
Block B
IN 1. What term is used to denote the discontinuity of the historical development of culture, which is characteristic, among other things, of Russian culture?
AT 2. Match the name of the East Slavic deity and the function attributed to him:
a) Veles 1) patron of livestock, trade, wealth
b) Perun 2) the god of sunlight and fertility
c) Stribog 3) god of thunder
d) Dazhdbog 4) god of wind and storms
AT 3. What two alphabets originally existed in ancient Slavic writing?
AT 4. Arrange Events cultural life Kievan Rus in chronological order:
a) the baptism of Rus' by Prince Vladimir
b) the creation of the oldest part of the "Russian Truth" by Yaroslav the Wise
c) the creation of the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh
d) completion of the construction of the Church of the Tithes of the Assumption of the Virgin in Kyiv
AT 5. Match the title of the work with the period in which it was created:
a) "Word about the destruction of the Russian land" 1) XI century
b) "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" 2) XII century
c) "Sermon on Law and Grace" 3) XIII century
AT 6. What does the work of ancient Russian literature "Zadonshchina" tell about?
AT 7. Arrange the events of the cultural life of Muscovite Rus' in chronological order:
a) publication in Moscow of "Apostle" - the first dated printed book
b) the construction of the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin by architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solari
c) Stoglavy Cathedral, which streamlined the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church
d) Union of Florence, the beginning of the autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church
AT 8. Match the name of the historical character and the scope of his activity:
a) Fedor Kon 1) architect
b) Abraham Palitsyn 2) icon painter
c) Semyon Dezhnev 3) traveler, explorer of Siberia
d) Simon Ushakov 4) writer and historian
AT 9. Arrange the events of the cultural life of the Moscow State in chronological order:
a) the church reform of Patriarch Nikon, the beginning of the Schism
b) the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow
c) the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral
d) the first performance of the Russian court theater
AT 10 O'CLOCK. In what century did tendencies towards the secularization of culture begin to manifest themselves clearly in Russia?
Answers to the tasks of block B
Task B1. Discontinuity in the development of culture is called discreteness.
Task B2. Veles - patron of livestock, trade, wealth (a-1); Perun - god of thunder (b-3); Stribog - the god of wind and storms (v-4); Dazhdbog - the god of sunlight and fertility (g-2).
Task B3. In ancient Slavic writing, there were originally two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic.
Task B4. Baptism of Rus' by Prince Vladimir (988-990) - completion of the construction of the Church of the Tithes in Kiev (996) - creation of the oldest part of the "Russian Truth" (1016 or 1030s) - creation of the "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh" (the very end of XI - the beginning of XII c.) (a, d, b, c).
Task B5. "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" - XIII century (between 1238 and 1246)
(a-3); "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - XII century (between 1185 and 1199) (b-2); "The Word of Law and Grace" - XI century (between 1037 and 1050) (c-1).
Task B6. "Zadonshchina" is dedicated to the victory of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich over the Tatars, won by him in 1380 on the banks of the Don, on the Kulikovo field.
Task B7. The Union of Florence, the beginning of the autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church (1439 and 1448) - the construction of the Palace of Facets (1487–1491) - the Stoglavy Cathedral (1551) - the publication of the Apostle in Moscow (1564) (d, b, c, a).
Task B8. Fedor Kon - architect (a-1); Avraamiy Palitsyn - writer and historian
(b-4); Semyon Dezhnev - traveler, explorer of Siberia (in-3); Simon Ushakov - icon painter (g-2).
Task B9. Construction of St. Basil's Cathedral (1555-1560) - Church reform of Patriarch Nikon (1650-1660s) - the first performance of the Russian court theater (1672) - opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow (1687) (c, a, d, b).
Task B10. Tendencies towards the secularization of Russian culture began to clearly manifest themselves in the 17th century.
Block C
C1. “One of the saddest features of our peculiar civilization is that we are only just discovering truths that have long been hackneyed in other places. (...) This comes from the fact that we have never walked hand in hand with other peoples; we do not belong to any of the great families of the human race; we belong neither to the West nor to the East, and we have no traditions of either. Standing, as it were, outside of time, we were not affected by the worldwide education of the human race. (...)
What has become a habit, an instinct among other peoples, we have to hammer into our heads with hammer blows. Our memories do not go beyond yesterday; we are, so to speak, strangers to ourselves. We move so strangely in time that with each step we take forward, the past moment disappears for us forever. This is the natural result of a culture based entirely on borrowing and imitation. (...)
We belong to the number of those nations that, as it were, are not part of humanity, but exist only in order to give the world some important lesson.
1. To which Russian thinker do the above lines belong?
2. The founder of what direction in Russian cultural and philosophical thought is the author of this passage?
3. Describe the position of this trend regarding the role of Russia and Europe in historical development.
4. Name other representatives of this direction.
C2. " Does Russia belong to Europe? Unfortunately or to pleasure, to happiness or misfortune - no, it does not belong. It did not feed on any of those roots with which Europe sucked up both beneficial and harmful juices directly from the soil of the ancient world that it itself destroyed - it did not feed on those roots that drew food from the depths of the Germanic spirit. It was not part of the renewed Roman Empire of Charlemagne, which constitutes, as it were, a common trunk, through the division of which the entire multi-branched European tree was formed - it was not part of that theocratic federation that replaced the Charles Monarchy. (...) In a word, she is not involved in either European good or European evil; how can it belong to Europe? Neither true modesty nor true pride allows Russia to be considered Europe.
1. Which Russian thinker does this passage belong to? In what work did he analyze the relations between the mentioned civilizations?
4. What ideological direction does this author belong to?
C3. “... In the earliest versions of Old Russian legislation (“Russian Truth”), the nature of the compensation (“vira”) that the attacker had to pay to the victim is proportional to the material damage (the nature and size of the wound) he suffered. However, in the future, legal norms develop, it would seem, in an unexpected direction: a wound, even a severe one, if it is inflicted by the sharp part of the sword, entails less damage than less dangerous blows with an unsheathed weapon or a sword hilt, a bowl at a feast or “rear” (back) side of the fist.
1. What are the functions of culture in this passage?
2. Why was a less dangerous slap inflicted a greater penalty than a wound inflicted by a sword?
3. The morality of which part of ancient Russian society was reflected by these legal norms?
4. Give examples of a similar substitution of real harm by a “cultural sign” (one or two examples).
Answers to the tasks of block C
Task C1.
1. This is an excerpt from the first of the "philosophical letters" of the Russian thinker Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev.
2. The publication of the "letter" became a theoretical expression of that trend in Russian thought, which was called "Westernism".
3. "Westernism" is a Russian variety of Eurocentrism - the idea of Europe as the optimal and most effective model of social and cultural development. The Westerners considered Russia not an independent civilization, but a part - and a backward one at that - of the European world. Therefore, they believed that the main task of Russia was to join the European culture and civilization. To do this, it is necessary to copy the political and economic system of Western Europe.
4. Russian Westernism was not homogeneous. There were two directions in it: liberal and revolutionary. Liberal Westerners (T.N. Granovsky, V.P. Botkin, K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin) were supporters of the parliamentary form of government. The revolutionary Westernism included V.G. Belinsky, N.P. Ogarev and A.I. Herzen. They viewed Western capitalism as an inhuman system and subsequently switched to socialist positions.
Task C2.
1. This is a quote from the work of Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky "Russia and Europe".
2. Danilevsky denied Russia's belonging to Europe, because Russia developed on its own linguistic, ethnic and religious base. It was not part of the political associations of Europe and relied on other cultural traditions, other cultural and historical principles - not on the heritage of Latin Rome, but on the heritage of Greek Byzantium.
3. Danilevsky substantiated the idea, expressed before him by the Slavophiles, that Russia is a special, original civilization, not similar to either the European or Asian world. He called it the Slavic cultural-historical type and believed that this new type is replacing the decrepit Germano-Roman civilization.
4. Danilevsky was the most prominent representative of "pochvennichestvo" - a trend in neo-Slavophilism.
Task C3.
1. This passage deals with the regulatory and symbolic functions of culture.
2. The wound inflicted by the combat part of the weapon did not dishonor, but was even considered honorable. Anyone who was recognized as worthy of a duel was recognized as socially equal. On the contrary, a slap in the face or a blow with a stick was dishonorable, since this was how a slave was beaten. Such a blow was an insult to the warrior and therefore was punished more severely.
3. Such legal norms reflected the morality of the squad environment, i.e. military nobility of ancient Rus'. These norms testify to the formation of the concept of honor in the military environment.
4. For example, in Western Europe, when knighting, a real blow (in recognition of the initiate as worthy of a military wound) was replaced by a symbolic application of the sword to the shoulder. In the noble code of honor, when challenged to a duel, a real slap in the face (i.e., direct insult by action) was replaced by a symbolic gesture - throwing a glove.
8 CULTURE OF IMPERIAL RUSSIA (XVIII - EARLY XX CENTURIES)
Block A
A1. What features were characteristic of the modernization of Russian society carried out by Peter I?
a) direct borrowing of elements of European culture
b) the smooth nature of the changes
c) concern for the well-being of all segments of the population
d) harmonization of Russian tradition and European innovations
e) forced nature of changes
A2. prominent figures the cultures of Peter the Great were:
a) G. Derzhavin
b) A. Cantemir
c) M. Shcherbatov
d) F. Prokopovich
e) S. Diaghilev
f) P. Grave
A3. What changes took place in Russian culture at the beginning of the 18th century?
a) a civil font was introduced
b) the first women's educational institution was opened
c) the reckoning from the Nativity of Christ was introduced
d) the Empire style of architecture appeared
A4. What was the name of the manual for the education of young nobles, first published in 1717?
a) "Youth honest mirror"
b) "Pilot"
c) "Dueling Code"
d) "City of the Sun"
A5. The first public museum in Russia was the Kunstkamera, open to visitors in:
A6. Who initiated the opening of Moscow University?
a) I.I. Betsky
b) M.V. Lomonosov
c) Catherine II
d) B.Kh. Minikha
A7. The representative of the radical wing of the Russian Enlightenment, who was one of the first to put forward the idea of a revolutionary reorganization of Russian society, was:
a) V.N. Tatishchev
b) A.N. Radishchev
c) I.I. Shuvalov
a) M.I. Kozlovsky
b) A.M. Opekushin
c) K.B. Rastrelli
d) E.M. Falcone
A9. Which of the following writers is a prominent representative of romanticism?
a) N.V. Gogol
b) V.A. Zhukovsky
c) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
d) N.A. Nekrasov
A10. Supporters of what direction of socio-political thought idealized pre-Petrine Rus', saw in it the true foundations of Russian civilization?
a) westerners
b) masons
c) Slavophiles
A11. The founder of the Russian classical music school is considered to be:
a) M.I. Glinka
b) P.I. Chaikovsky
you. Dargomyzhsky
d) C.A. Cui
A12. Which painter painted the painting “The Last Day of Pompeii”?
a) Andrei Rublev
b) Karl Bryullov
c) Valentina Serova
d) Mikhail Vrubel
A13. Who painted the painting "Barge haulers on the Volga"?
a) Mikhail Nesterov
b) Vasily Surikov
c) Ilya Repin
d) Leon Bakst
e) Konstantin Korovin
A14. What founders creative association, created in opposition to the Academy of Arts, were painters I.N. Kramskoy, G.G. Myasoedov, N.N. Ge, V.G. Perov, I.I. Shishkin?
a) Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (Wanderers)
b) World of Art (World of Art)
c) New Society of Artists
e) Donkey tail
A15. What field of activity unites S.S. Pimenova, V.I. Demut-Malinovsky, B.I. Orlovsky, P.K. Klodt, I.I. Martos, M.M. Antokolsky?
a) music
b) literature
c) painting
d) sculpture
A16. What is the name of the direction in architecture, which is characterized by mixing various styles, dissimilar elements?
a) obscurantism
b) minimalism
c) eclecticism
d) contamination
A17. Representatives of the Art Nouveau style in Russian architecture are:
a) A.N. Voronikhin, K.I. Russia
b) A.I. Stackenschneider, K.A. Tone
c) P. Behrens, O.K. Wagner
d) L.N. Kekushev, F.O. Shekhtel
a) Konstantin Balmont
b) Igor Severyanin
c) Vladimir Mayakovsky
d) Sergei Yesenin
A19. The Moscow Art Theater was founded in 1898:
a) S.I. Mamontov and S.P. Diaghilev
b) V.F. Komissarzhevskaya and V.E. Meyerhold
c) K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko
A20. Which Russian scientists became laureates Nobel Prize at the beginning of the 20th century?
a) D.I. Mendeleev
b) A.D. Sakharov
c) I.I. Mechnikov
d) I.P. Pavlov
e) A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky
Answers to the tasks of block A
Task A1. The modernization carried out by Peter I was characterized by the direct borrowing of elements of European culture and the forced nature of changes (a, e).
Task A2. A. Kantemir and F. Prokopovich (b, d) were outstanding cultural figures of the time of Peter the Great.
Task A3. At the beginning of the XVIII century. civil script and the chronology from the Nativity of Christ were introduced (a, c).
Task A4. The guide for the education of young nobles was called "Youth's Honest Mirror or Indication for Worldly Behavior, Collected from Various Authors" (a).
Task A5. The Kunstkamera was opened to visitors in 1719 (c).
Task A6. One of the initiators of the opening of Moscow University was M.V. Lomonosov (b).
Task A7. The representative of the radical wing of the Russian Enlightenment was A.N. Radishchev (b).
Task A9. A prominent representative of romanticism was V.A. Zhukovsky (b).
Task A10. The idealization of pre-Petrine Rus' was characteristic of the Slavophiles (c).
Task A11. The founder of the Russian classical music school is M.I. Glinka (a).
Task A12. The canvas "The Last Day of Pompeii" was written by Karl Bryullov (b).
Task A13. "Barge Haulers on the Volga" - a painting by I. Repin (c).
Task A14. Artists Kramskoy, Myasoedov, Ge, Perov, Shishkin were among the founders of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (a).
Task A15. Pimenov, Demut-Malinovsky, Orlovsky, Klodt, Martos, Antokolsky - outstanding Russian sculptors (g).
Task A16. The direction in architecture, which is characterized by a mixture of different styles, is called eclecticism (c).
Task A17. Representatives of the Art Nouveau style in Russian architecture are L.N. Kekushev and F.O. Shekhtel (g).
Task A18. The symbolist poet was K. Balmont (a).
Task A19. The Moscow Art Theater was founded by K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko (c).
Task A20. Nobel laureates in medicine at the beginning of the 20th century. became I.I. Mechnikov (1908) and I.P. Pavlov (1904) (c, d).
Block B
IN 1. Match the name of the representative of the Russian culture XVIII V. and scope of activities:
a) D.I. Fonvizin
b) G.R. Derzhavin
c) F.G. Volkov
d) I.I. Shuvalov
1) publicist, playwright, creator of Russian everyday comedy
2) actor, theatrical figure, "the father of the Russian theater"
3) statesman, the greatest poet of the second half of the century
4) statesman, philanthropist, initiator of the establishment of Moscow University and the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts
AT 2. Match the name of the architect with the names of the monuments he erected:
a) B.F. Rastrelli
b) D. Trezzini
c) Yu.M. Felten
1) Building of the Twelve Colleges, Peter and Paul Cathedral
2) Winter Palace, Smolny Cathedral
3) Big Hermitage, Chesme Church
AT 3. Match the names of representatives of Russian culture of the 18th century. and scope of their activities:
a) I.N. Nikitin, A.P. Antropov, I.P. Argunov, D.G. Levitsky, F.S. Rokotov
b) A.G. Schedel, J.-B. Leblon, N. Michetti, A. Rinaldi
in hell. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov
1) portrait painters
2) writers
3) architects
AT 4. What new direction, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and a desire for a more concrete depiction of the characters' experiences, appears in Russian literature at the end of the 18th century?
AT 5. Match the names of scientific and educational centers with the names of the rulers during whose reign they were established:
a) Moscow University
b) Petersburg Academy of Sciences
c) St. Petersburg Practical Technological Institute
d) Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum
2) Elizaveta Petrovna
3) Nicholas I
4) Alexander I
AT 6. Match the names of Russians scientists XIX V. and areas of their scientific interests:
a) A.M. Butlerov
b) N.I. Lobachevsky
c) N.M. Przhevalsky
d) I.M. Sechenov
e) A.S. Popov
1) mathematician, creator of non-Euclidean geometry
2) chemist, creator of the theory of the chemical structure of organic substances
3) geographer, traveler, explorer Central Asia
4) physicist, electrical engineer, inventor of the radiotelegraph
5) physiologist, pathologist, psychologist
AT 7. Rank the literary works by the time they were first published, from earliest to latest:
a) "Poor Liza" N.M. Karamzin
b) “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky
c) "Dead Souls" (volume one) by N.V. Gogol
d) "Duel" A.I. Kuprin
AT 8. Match the name of the Russian painter of the XIX century. and the genre to which the main part of his creative heritage belongs:
a) O. Kiprensky 1) marinism
b) I. Aivazovsky 2) portrait
c) V. Vereshchagin 3) landscape
d) I. Shishkin 4) ballistics
AT 9. Compare the names of Russian poets and the names of the literary movements they represent:
a) N.S. Gumilyov 1) symbolism
b) V.Ya. Bryusov 2) futurism
c) V.V. Khlebnikov 3) acmeism
d) S.A. Yesenin 4) imagism
Q10. Indicate the correspondence between the names of representatives of Russian culture and the scope of their activities:
a) V.V. Cold 1) ballerina
b) Z.E. Serebryakova 2) silent film actress
c) A.P. Pavlova 3) artist
d) Z.N. Gippius 4) writer
Answers to the tasks of block B
Task B1. D. Fonvizin - publicist, playwright (a-1); G. Derzhavin - statesman, poet (b-3); F. Volkov - actor, theater figure
(at 2); I. Shuvalov - statesman, philanthropist (g-4).
Task B2. B. Rastrelli - Winter Palace, Smolny Cathedral (a-2); D. Trezzini - Building of the Twelve Colleges, Peter and Paul Cathedral (b-1); Y. Felten - The Great Hermitage, Chesme Church (v-3).
Task B3. Nikitin, Antropov, Argunov, Levitsky, Rokotov - portrait painters (a-1); Schedel, Leblon, Michetti, Rinaldi - architects (b-3); Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov, Kheraskov - writers (v-2).
Task B4. Literary direction late 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and a desire for a more concrete depiction of the characters' experiences, is called sentimentalism.
Task B5. Moscow University (1755) was founded by Elizaveta Petrovna (a-2); Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1724) - Peter I (b-1); St. Petersburg Practical Institute of Technology (1828) - Nicholas I (in-3); Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1810) - Alexander I (g-4).
Task B6. Butlerov - chemist (a-2); Lobachevsky - mathematician (b-1); Przhevalsky - geographer (v-3); Sechenov - physiologist (g-5); Popov - physicist (d-4).
Task B7. "Poor Liza" (1792) - "Dead Souls" (1842) - "Crime and Punishment" (1866) - "Duel" (1905) (a, c, b, d).
Task B8. O. Kiprensky - portrait painter (a-2); I. Aivazovsky - marine painter (b-1); V. Vereshchagin - battle-player (v-4); I. Shishkin - landscape painter (g-3).
Task B9. N. Gumilyov - representative of acmeism (a-3); V. Bryusov - symbolism
(b-1); V. Khlebnikov - futurism (v-2); S. Yesenin - imagism (g-4).
Task B10. V. Kholodnaya - film actress (a-2), Z. Serebryakova - artist (b-3), A. Pavlova - ballerina (c-1), Z. Gippius - writer (d-4).
Block C
C1. “This disease, which has infected Russia for a century and a half, is expanding and taking root, (...) it seems to me that it is most decent to call Europeanism; and the fundamental question, on which the whole future depends, the whole fate of not only Russia, but also the whole Slavdom, is (...) whether this disease will turn out to be grafting, which, having subjected the body to a beneficial upheaval, will be cured, leaving no harmful indelible marks (...)
All forms of Europeanization, with which Russian life is so rich, can be summed up under the following three categories:
1. Distortion of folk life and replacement of its forms with alien, foreign forms (...)
2. Borrowing various foreign institutions and transplanting them onto Russian soil with the idea that what is good in one place should be good everywhere.
3. A look at both internal and external relations and issues of Russian life from a foreign, European point of view; looking at them with European glasses.
1. What period of Russian history, which was characterized by "Europeanism", does the author of the passage mean?
3. What directions in Russian thought were generated by the problem of Russia's cultural and historical identity in relation to Europe?
4. Name other representatives of the direction to which the author of the passage belonged.
C2. “Under Alexander, the style of “Louis XVI” gives way to the style of “Empire”. This is the last step in development. classical style. (...) The desire for extreme simplicity of lines is combined with a passion for colossal dimensions. (...) The true finalizer of the Alexander style - and of the entire St. Petersburg period of architecture - is Carl Rossi. (...) With his buildings, he gave the monumental Petersburg its final present look. Rossi worked not only on buildings, but also on streets and squares. All four of Rossi's major works have this character.
1. What period of the “Alexander style” is referred to in the text?
2. What are the four main works of K. Rossi in St. Petersburg.
3. To what architectural style refers to the work of Carl Rossi?
4. Name the monumental structures of other architects that appeared in the capital of Russia in the time of Alexander.
C3. “Much of the creative upsurge of that time entered the further development of Russian culture and is now the property of all Russian cultured people. But then there was an intoxication of creative upsurge, novelty, tension, struggle, challenge. During these years, many gifts were sent to Russia. This was the era of the awakening of independent philosophical thought in Russia, the flowering of poetry and the sharpening of aesthetic sensibility, religious anxiety and quest, interest in mysticism and the occult. New souls appeared, new sources of creative life were discovered, new dawns were seen, the feeling of decline and death was combined with the feeling of sunrise and the hope of the transformation of life. But everything happened in a rather closed circle, cut off from a broad social movement. (...) The cultural renaissance appeared in our country in the pre-revolutionary era and was accompanied by sharp feeling approaching death of old Russia. There was excitement and tension, but no real joy.”
1. What period of "creative upsurge" and "renaissance" in Russian culture does the author of the above passage write about?
2. What term is used to describe the state of European and Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by a general worldview crisis, pessimistic moods, extreme individualism and subjectivism, immorality, refined aestheticism, a tendency towards irrationalism and mysticism?
4. List the main literary trends that developed in Russia in the era under consideration.
Answers to the tasks of block C
2. This period of Russian history was characterized by a sharp cultural gap between the elite of the nobility and the bulk of the country's population. The gap was generated by the reforms of Peter I, who modernized Russia according to European models, and planted them primarily in higher strata Russian society.
3. When discussing the problem of the uniqueness of Russia, Slavophilism and Westernism were formed. The Slavophils defended the idea of Russia's identity, the independence of its cultural and historical development. Westerners viewed Russia as a backward outskirts of the European world, whose task is to catch up with Europe.
4. Danilevsky developed the ideas of the Slavophiles. Among the founders of Slavophilism were I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov and K.S. Aksakov. Yu.F. Samarin and I.S. Aksakov.
Task C2.
1. We are talking about the first quarter of the 19th century. during the reign of Alexander I.
2. The four main works of K. Rossi are: the Mikhailovsky Palace with the square adjacent to it; the ensemble of Palace Square, formed by a semicircle of the building of the General Staff and the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Finance with an arch in the middle; the square and surrounding streets near the Alexandrinsky Theatre; buildings of the Senate and the Synod on the Senate Square.
3. The architecture of K. Rossi belongs to classicism (Russian Empire style).
4. The first monumental building in St. Petersburg during the time of Alexander I is the Kazan Cathedral (1801–1811) by architect A.N. Voronikhin. The construction of the Admiralty (1806–1815) by the architect A.D. Zakharov and the Exchange building with an arrow Vasilyevsky Island(1805–1810, architect J.F. Thomas de Thomon). In Alexander's time, the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral also began, stretching for forty years (1817–1857, architect O. Montferrand).
2. This cultural phenomenon is called decadence or decadence.
3. Representatives of the Russian “religious and philosophical renaissance” were V.S. Solovyov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, L. Shestov, N.A. Berdyaev (author of the quoted passage), S.N. Bulgakov, P.A. Florensky, V.V. Rozanov, S.L. Frank and others
4. Main literary currents Silver Age were symbolism, acmeism and futurism.
No wonder the national culture of Russia has always been considered the soul of the people. Its main feature and attractiveness lies in its amazing diversity, originality and originality. Each nation, developing its own culture and traditions, tries to avoid imitation and humiliated copying. That is why their own forms of organizing cultural life are being created. In all known typologies, it is customary to consider Russia separately. The culture of this country is truly unique, it cannot be compared with either Western or eastern directions. Of course, all peoples are different, but it is the understanding of the importance of internal development that unites people all over the planet.
The importance of the culture of different nationalities in the world
Each country and each nation is important in its own way for the modern world. This is especially true of history and its preservation. Today it is quite difficult to talk about how important culture is for modernity, because the scale of values has changed significantly in recent years. National culture has increasingly become perceived somewhat ambiguously. This is due to the development of two global trends in the culture of different countries and peoples, which increasingly began to develop conflicts against this background.
The first trend is directly related to some borrowing of cultural values. All this happens spontaneously and almost uncontrollably. But it comes with incredible consequences. For example, the loss of color and originality of each individual state, and hence its people. On the other hand, more and more countries began to appear that call on their citizens to revive their own culture and spiritual values. But one of the most important issues- Russian national culture, which in recent decades has begun to fade against the backdrop of a multinational country.
Formation of the Russian national character
Perhaps many have heard about the breadth of the Russian soul and the strength of the Russian character. The national culture of Russia largely depends on these two factors. At one time, V.O. Klyuchevsky expressed the theory that the formation of the Russian character largely depended on the geographical location of the country.
He argued that the landscape of the Russian soul corresponds to the landscape of the Russian land. It is also not surprising that for the majority of citizens living in a modern state, the concept of "Rus" carries a deep meaning.
Household life also reflects the remnants of the past. After all, if we talk about the culture, traditions and character of the Russian people, it can be noted that it was formed a very long time ago. Simplicity of life has always been a hallmark of the Russian people. And this is primarily due to the fact that the Slavs suffered a lot of fires that destroyed Russian villages and cities. The result was not only the lack of rootedness of the Russian people, but also a simplified attitude to everyday life. Although it was precisely those trials that fell to the lot of the Slavs that allowed this nation to form a specific national character that cannot be unambiguously assessed.
The main features of the national character of the nation
Russian national culture (namely, its formation) has always largely depended on the nature of the people who lived on the territory of the state.
One of the most powerful traits is kindness. It was this quality that manifested itself in a wide variety of gestures, which even today can be safely observed among the majority of the inhabitants of Russia. For example, hospitality and cordiality. After all, no nation welcomes guests the way they do in our country. And such a combination of qualities as mercy, compassion, empathy, cordiality, generosity, simplicity and tolerance is rarely found in other nationalities.
Another important trait in the character of Russians is the love of work. And although many historians and analysts note that as far as the Russian people were hardworking and capable, they were just as lazy and lack of initiative, one cannot fail to note the efficiency and endurance of this nation. In general, the character of a Russian person is multifaceted and has not yet been fully studied. What, in fact, is the very highlight.
Values of Russian culture
In order to understand the soul of a person, it is necessary to know its history. The national culture of our people was formed in the conditions of the peasant community. Therefore, it is not surprising that in Russian culture the interests of the collective have always been higher than personal interests. After all, Russia has lived a significant part of its history in the conditions of hostilities. That is why among the values of Russian culture they always note extraordinary devotion and love for their homeland.
The concept of justice in all ages was considered the first thing in Rus'. This has come from the very moment when every peasant was allocated an equal piece of land. And if in most nations such a value was considered instrumental, then in Russia it acquired a targeted character.
Many Russian sayings say that our ancestors had a very simplified attitude to work, for example: "Work is not a wolf, it will not run away into the forest." This does not mean that the work was not appreciated. But the concept of "wealth" and the very desire to get rich have never been present in a Russian person to the extent that is attributed to him today. And if we talk about the values of Russian culture, then all of it was reflected in the character and soul of a Russian person, first of all.
Language and literature as values of the people
Whatever you say, but the most great value every nation is its language. The language in which he speaks, writes and thinks, which allows him to express his own thoughts and opinions. No wonder there is a saying among Russians: "Language is the people."
Ancient Russian literature arose at the time of the adoption of Christianity. At that moment there were two directions of literary art - this is world history and the meaning of human life. Books were written very slowly, and the main readers were members of the upper classes. But this did not prevent Russian literature from developing to world heights over time.
And at one time Russia was one of the most reading countries in the world! Language and national culture are very closely related. After all, it was through the scriptures that experience and accumulated knowledge were transmitted in ancient times. In historical terms, Russian culture dominates, but the national culture of the peoples living in the vastness of our country also played a role in its development. That is why most of the works are closely intertwined with historical events other countries.
Painting as a part of Russian culture
Just like literature, painting occupies a very significant place in the development of the cultural life of Russia.
The first thing that developed as the art of painting in the territories of Rus' was icon painting. Which once again proves high level spirituality of this people. And at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, icon painting reaches its apogee.
Over time, the desire to draw arises among the common people. As mentioned earlier, the beauties in which the Russians lived had a great influence on the formation of cultural values. Perhaps that is why a huge number of paintings by Russian artists were dedicated to the expanses of their native land. Through their canvases, the masters conveyed not only the beauty of the surrounding world, but also the personal state of the soul, and sometimes the state of the soul of an entire people. Often, a double secret meaning was laid in the paintings, which was revealed only to those for whom the work was intended. The art school of Russia is recognized by the whole world and occupies place of honor on the world podium.
Religion of the multinational people of Russia
National culture largely depends on what gods the nation worships. As you know, Russia is a multinational country, in which about 130 nations and nationalities live, each of which has its own religion, culture, language and way of life. That is why religion in Russia does not have a single name.
To date, there are 5 leading directions in the territory of the Russian Federation: Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, as well as Catholicism and Protestantism. Each of these religions has a place in a vast country. Although, if we talk about the formation of the national culture of Russia, then from ancient times the Russians belonged exclusively to the Orthodox Church.
At one time, the great Russian principality, in order to strengthen relations with Byzantium, decided to adopt Orthodoxy throughout Rus'. Church leaders in those days were without fail included in the inner circle of the king. Hence the notion that the church is always connected with state power. In ancient times, even before the baptism of Rus', the ancestors of the Russian people worshiped Vedic gods. The religion of the ancient Slavs was the deification of the forces of nature. Of course, there were not only good characters, but mostly the gods of the ancient representatives of the nation were mysterious, beautiful and kind.
Cuisine and traditions in Rus'
National culture and traditions are practically inseparable concepts. After all, all this is, first of all, the memory of the people, something that keeps a person from depersonalization.
As mentioned earlier, Russians have always been famous for their hospitality. That is why Russian cuisine is so varied and delicious. Although a few centuries ago, the Slavs ate fairly simple and monotonous food. In addition, it was customary for the population of this country to fast. Therefore, the table was basically always divided into modest and lean.
Most often, meat, dairy, flour and vegetable products could be found on the table. Although many dishes in Russian culture have an exclusively ritual meaning. Traditions are tightly intertwined with the kitchen life in Russia. Some dishes are considered ritual and are prepared only on certain holidays. For example, kurniki are always prepared for a wedding, kutya is cooked for Christmas, pancakes are baked for Shrovetide, and Easter cakes and Easter cakes are cooked for Easter. Of course, the residence of other peoples on the territory of Russia was reflected in its cuisine. Therefore, in many dishes you can observe unusual recipes, as well as the presence of by no means Slavic products. And it’s not for nothing that they say: “We are what we eat.” Russian cuisine is very simple and healthy!
Modernity
Many people try to judge how much the national culture of our state has been preserved today.
Russia is indeed a unique country. She has a rich history and a difficult fate. That is why the culture of this country is sometimes tender and touching, and sometimes tough and warlike. If we consider the ancient Slavs, then it was here that the real national culture was born. Preserving it, more than ever, is important today! Over the past few centuries, Russia has learned not only to live with other nations in peace and friendship, but also to accept the religion of other nations. Until today, most of the ancient traditions that Russians honor with pleasure have been preserved. Many features of the ancient Slavs are present today among the worthy descendants of their people. Russia - great country, which treats its culture extremely sparingly!
The Russian people, and culture along with it, were born in the vast expanse of the East European Plain. This led to the constant influence of the geographical factor on the development of many elements of Russian culture. At the very beginning of the birth of Russian culture, Byzantine and Scandinavian cultural traditions had a strong influence on it. The first handed over to Rus' the highest spiritual traditions, the second - the political and military culture, the Rurik family. However, the complete merging of these two cultures never happened. Hence the inconsistency of the entire Russian culture as a whole, the clashes between spiritual power and political power. The Russian people never wanted to give up their traditions, and the people reacted to any attempts by the authorities to bring any changes with bursts of uprisings and mass discontent. Conservatism is one of the main features of the culture of our country. Conservatism, in my opinion, characterizes one of the negative aspects of a person, namely, the habit of following the path of least resistance, the fear of what you do not know, and, consequently, the inability to change and progress. This largely explains the lag of the state at various stages of historical development. If changes are inevitable, then the other side of the thinking of the Russian person, oriented towards maximalism, a radical upheaval and the reorganization of everything and everything in the shortest possible time, turned on. But this, as we know from history, did not lead to anything good.
Another feature of our people is a deep faith. One of the fundamental factors of Russian culture has always been the concept of "sample". The Russian people have long lived according to Christian laws. A person was completely dependent on the church; everyday life had to be built according to a model and guided by it in the choice of forms, relationships, in the search for one's place in the world among other people. There was a strong belief that "people imitate monks, monks imitate angels, angels imitate God." All Russian culture in all its manifestations was based on Christian laws.
Spiritual culture created patterns for everyday everyday culture. The house was built in the image and likeness of the temple, "Domostroy" dictated picture perfect everyday life of a person. Church and state were inseparable concepts. People depended on the authorities in every possible way and worked for the most part only for the benefit of the state. A stable division into the upper classes and the common people, into those who dictate the laws and those who must strictly follow them, has survived to this day in our country.
A special attitude to work, Russian culture is characterized by utopianism (hope for the unrealizable, "maybe"), communality.
34 / Social regulation as a way of influencing society on the individual.
Personal behavior is externally observable actions, actions of individuals, their certain sequence, one way or another affecting the interests of other people, their groups, the whole society. Human behavior acquires social meaning, becomes personal when it is included in communication with other people. First of all, we are talking about meaningful behavior, about the realization in actions and deeds of such connections and relationships in which the subject of behavior participates as a rational being, consciously related to his actions.
Social behavior is a system of actions socially conditioned by language and other sign-semantic formations, through which a person or a social group participates in social relations, interacts with the social environment. Social behavior includes human actions in relation to society, other people and the objective world. These actions are regulated by social norms of morality and law.
social regulation of personality behavior
IN In the ordinary sense, the concept of "regulation" means ordering, establishing something in accordance with certain rules, developing something with the aim of bringing it into a system, proportioning, establishing order. Personal behavior is included in a broad system of social regulation. The functions of social regulation are: formation, evaluation, maintenance, protection and reproduction the norms, rules, mechanisms, means necessary for the subjects of regulation that ensure the existence and reproduction of the type of interaction, relationships, communication, activity, consciousness and behavior of the individual as a member of society. The subjects of the regulation of the social behavior of the individual in the broad sense of the word are society, small groups and the individual himself.
External factors of behavior regulation.
Personality included in complex system public relations. All types of relations: production, moral, legal, political, religious, ideological determine the real, objective, due and dependent relations of people and groups in society. To implement these relations, there are various types of regulators.
A wide class of external regulators is occupied by all social phenomena with the definition of "social", "public". These include:
· social production, · public relations (broad social context of the life of the individual), · social movements, · public opinion, · social needs, · public interests, · public sentiments, · public consciousness, · social tension, · socio-economic situation.
In the sphere of the spiritual life of society, morality, ethics, mentality, culture, subculture, archetype, ideal, values, education, ideology, mass media, worldview, religion act as regulators of individual behavior. In the sphere of politics - power, bureaucracy, social movements. In the field of legal relations - law, law.
General human regulators are: sign, language, symbol, traditions, rituals, customs, habits, prejudices, stereotypes, mass media, standards, labor, sports, social values, environmental situation, ethnic group, social attitudes, life, family
35 social control
social control - methods and strategies. determining the behavior of people within society
types: formal and informal
Formal is called control by the social institutions of society - the state, the judiciary, prosecutorial supervision, the police or the police, the authorities, the church.
Informal control- this is the control exercised by public opinion, especially the opinion of the immediate environment - the primary group. Historically, informal control appeared much earlier than formal control (the process of mutual control of participants in a process, for example, buyers and sellers, members of the production team, as well as various forms of public opinion reaction to people's behavior (condemnation, refusal to contact, etc.).
36 Social Deviations
social deviations are violations social norms, which are characterized by a certain mass character, stability and prevalence. This refers to such negative mass social phenomena as drunkenness, crime, bureaucracy, religious and ideological fanaticism, totalitarianism, etc.
Social deviations have the following signs: historical determinism, negative consequences for society, relatively massive and relatively stable in time. Social deviations are characterized by direction and content. Society opposes social deviations with organized methods of dealing with them: legal, economic, moral sanctions. In some cases, social deviations are transient. Examples of transient social deviations: clothing speculation, marriage of convenience, dissidence. In parallel with this, measures of social influence in relation to social deviations are changing. Thus, according to the laws of pre-revolutionary Russia, religious moral and legal sanctions against drunkenness, drug addiction, suicide. In case of suicide, the traditional church burial ceremony was prohibited, the deceased was not buried in a common cemetery, his will (testament) was recognized as legally invalid, in the event of an unsuccessful suicide attempt, the suicide was threatened with imprisonment.
37.the concept of anomie
a concept introduced into scientific circulation by Emile Durkheim to explain deviant behavior (suicidal moods, apathy, frustration, illegal behavior).
Durheim came up with the idea Anomie- a social state which is characterized by the decomposition of the value system due to the crisis of the whole society of its social institutions, the contradiction between the proclaimed goals and the impossibility of their implementation for the majority.
anomie is a state of society in which decomposition, disintegration and disintegration of the system of values and norms that guarantee social order occur. A necessary condition for the emergence of anomie in society is the discrepancy between the needs and interests of some of its members, on the one hand, and the possibilities of satisfying them, on the other. It manifests itself in the form of the following violations:
1) vagueness, instability and inconsistency of value-normative prescriptions and orientations, in particular, the discrepancy between the norms that define the goals of activity and the norms governing the means of achieving them; 2) the low degree of impact of social norms on individuals and their weak effectiveness as a means of normative regulation of behavior; 3) partial or complete absence of normative regulation in crisis, transitional situations, when the old system of values is destroyed, and the new one has not developed or has not been established as generally accepted.
Further development of the concept of anomie is associated with the name of Robert Merton.
38.Deviations and development of society.
In all societies, human behavior sometimes goes beyond the limits allowed by the norms. Norms only indicate what a person should do and what should not; but they are not a reflection of actual behavior. The actual actions of some people often go beyond what others consider acceptable behavior. Social life is characterized not only by conformity, but also by deviation.
Deviation is a deviation from the norm, considered by most members of society as reprehensible and unacceptable.
Deviation cannot be said to be inherent in certain forms of behavior; rather, it is an evaluative definition imposed on specific behaviors by various social groups. In everyday life, a person leaves judgments about the desirability or undesirability of a particular style of behavior. Society translates such judgments into positive or negative consequences for those who follow or do not follow such behaviors. In this sense, we can say that deviation is what society considers deviation.
Deviation characteristics (V.I. Dobrenkov):
1. Relativity of deviation.
Comparison different cultures shows that the same actions are approved in some societies and unacceptable in others. Defining behavior as deviant varies by time, place, and group of people. Example: If ordinary people vaults are broken into, they are stigmatized as defilers of dust, but if archaeologists do this, then they are spoken of with approval, as scientists pushing the boundaries of knowledge. Nevertheless, in both cases, strangers invade the burial places and take out some objects from there.
2. The mechanism for fixing definitions.
People define what should and should not be considered abnormal in different ways. Example: In 1776, the British branded George Washington as a traitor; 20 years later he became President of the United States. In the 1940s British authorities in Palestine called Menachem Begin a terrorist; 30 years later, he headed the state of Israel and was very popular. Who and what is defined as a violator and deviation from the norm depends to a large extent on who gave this definition and in whose hands the power is concentrated to consolidate it. In recent years, behaviors such as homosexuality, alcoholism, drug use, traditionally considered deviant in Russia, defined in terms of the criminal code, have been revised. There is a growing belief that these behaviors are medical problems and people are being put in honey. institutions where they receive treatment.
3. Zone of acceptable variations.
Norms can be represented not as a fixed point, but rather as a certain zone. Example: A university professor is supposed to be formal with students. But one professor at a large university has a habit of climbing up on the pulpit or sitting on its lid during a lecture. Many students first laugh at the teacher, but then he conquers the entire audience. Then the students said that his style of behavior is part of an effective teaching methodology.
In general, no style of behavior is an aberration in itself; deviation is the subject of social definitions.
Add. Example: appearing at work drunk is not normal, but at a New Year's party it is the norm.
There are two types of deviations:
1) Individual deviations, when an individual rejects the norms of his subculture;
2) Group deviation, considered as conformal behavior of a member of a deviant group in relation to its subculture.
However, in real life, deviant personalities cannot be strictly divided into these two types. Most often, these two types of deviations intersect.
In addition, there are primary and secondary deviations. This concept was first formulated and developed in detail by X. Becker.
Primary deviance refers to the deviant behavior of the individual, which generally corresponds to the cultural norms accepted in society. For example, manifestations of eccentricity, “little pranks”
A secondary deviation is a deviation from the norms existing in a group, which is socially defined as deviant. The person is identified as a deviant.
39 Social institution - social structure or order social structure determining the behavior of a certain set of individuals of a particular society
social institution is a form of human activity based on a well-developed ideology, a system of rules and norms, as well as social control over their implementation.
Structure
G. Spencer - the first to use the term "social. institute" - continued Comte's ideas. Identified a factor in the development of social. institutions of society-va - the struggle with neighboring communities and with the encirclement. environment for existence. In the process of evolution, total. organism, its structure becomes more complicated and there is a need to form a coordinating subsystem. Social The body consists of 3 subsystems: regulatory, producing means for life, distribution. Types of social institutions according to Spencer: kinship institutions, economic institutions, regulatory institutions. Thus, social the institution develops as a stable structure of social action
The concept of a social institution implies:
the presence of a need in society and its satisfaction by the mechanism of reproduction of social practices and relations;
These mechanisms, being supra-individual formations, act in the form of value-normative complexes that regulate social life as a whole or its separate sphere, but for the benefit of the whole;
Their structure includes:
· role models behaviors and statuses (prescriptions for their execution);
their substantiation (theoretical, ideological, religious, mythological) in the form of a categorical grid that defines a “natural” vision of the world;
· means of transmitting social experience (material, ideal and symbolic), as well as measures that stimulate one behavior and repress another, tools to maintain institutional order;
social positions - the institutions themselves represent a social position (“empty” social positions do not exist, so the question of the subjects of social institutions disappears).
Functions inherent in all institutions:
·
The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of conduct, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its members and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Institute of the Family assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. Social control provides a state of stability for each family, limits the possibility of its collapse.
Regulatory function. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns and patterns of behavior. All human life takes place with the participation of various social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations.
Integrative function. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of the members. This happens under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.
· Broadcasting function. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have learned its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, roles.
· Communicative functions. The information produced by the institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. This is the main function of the media institute. Scientific institutions actively perceive information.
40 table in the textbook
41. institutionalization- this is the replacement of spontaneous, reflex behavior with a predictable one that is expected, modeled, regulated.
The process of institutionalization, as a result of which a social institution is formed, goes through several main stages:
The emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized action. This need should concern the establishment of order in a certain area of human activity;
the formation of common goals that should be pursued by a significant number of members of human society;
The emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction, carried out by trial and error. Such norms are informal and extremely short-lived;
the emergence of procedures associated with norms and rules, which are ways to achieve group goals;
institutionalization of norms and rules of conduct, as well as institutional procedures, which is: a necessary condition for their consolidation in the behavior of members of society;
establishment of a system of formalized sanctions to maintain norms and rules, their differentiation depending on individual social groups of society and their application depending on various situations that develop in society;
creation of a system of statuses and roles that should cover all members of the social institution without exception.
The process of institutionalization thus involves a number of points.
· One of the necessary conditions for the emergence of social institutions is the appropriate social need. Institutions are designed to organize the joint activities of people in order to meet certain social needs. Thus, the institution of the family satisfies the need for the reproduction of the human race and the upbringing of children, implements relations between the sexes, generations, etc. The institution of higher education provides training for the workforce, enables a person to develop his abilities in order to realize them in subsequent activities and ensure his own existence, etc. The emergence of certain social needs, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction, are the first necessary moments of institutionalization.
· A social institution is formed on the basis of social ties, interactions and relationships of specific individuals, social groups and communities. But he, like others social systems, cannot be reduced to the sum of these individuals and their interactions. Social institutions are supra-individual in nature, have their own systemic quality. Consequently, a social institution is an independent public entity that has its own logic of development. From this point of view, social institutions can be considered as organized social systems characterized by the stability of the structure, the integration of their elements and a certain variability of their functions.
· The third most important element of institutionalization is the organizational design of a social institution. Outwardly, a social institution is a set of organizations, institutions, individuals equipped with certain material resources and performing a certain social function. Thus, the institution of higher education is driven by the social corps of teachers, service personnel, officials who operate within institutions such as universities, the ministry or the State Committee for high school etc., which for their activities have certain material values (buildings, finances, etc.).
42. Traditional and modern social institutions.
Each social institution is characterized by the presence of the goal of its activity, specific functions that ensure the achievement of such a goal, a set of social positions and roles typical for this institution, as well as a system of sanctions that encourage the desired and suppress deviant behavior.
The history of the evolution of social institutions is the history of the gradual transformation of institutions of the traditional type into institutions modern type. Traditional institutions are characterized primarily by the fact that they are based on rules of conduct strictly prescribed by ritual and custom, and on family ties. Genus, a large family community are the dominant institutions of primitive society.
In the course of their development, institutions become more and more specialized in function. Some of them occupy a dominant position in the system of social institutions. In the developed societies of modern times, values that affirm success and achievements are being increasingly developed. Among the dominant ones are the institutions of religion, economics, marriage, politics, science and mass higher education, which ensure the reproduction and dissemination of the values of competence, independence, personal responsibility and rationality, without which the functioning of modern social institutions in the motivational structure of the individual is impossible. A distinctive feature of the institutions of modern times is also their relatively greater independence from the degree of moral precepts; the choice of modes of behavior and the acceptance or rejection of certain institutions becomes the subject of a freer moral and emotional choice of individuals.
43 family is a social group whose members are related by ties of marriage or adoption and live together, cooperating economically and taking care of children. The family is one of the most ancient institutions. It arose much earlier than the religion of the state, etc.
family functions
1) reproductive (biological continuation)
2) educational (preparing the younger generation for life in society
3) farm-economical housekeeping
4) spiritually emotional development of the personality spiritual, mutual enrichment support, friendly attitude
5) leisure organization of normal leisure activities
6) sexual satisfaction of sex needs
structural needs of a person according to Maslow 1) physiological and sexual 2) in the security of their existence 3) social needs for communication 4) prestigious in recognition) 5) spiritual in self-realization
44. Factors of social impact on the family and marriage.
The main motives for divorce can be divided into three types:
1 - motives due to the impact of socio-economic factors: financial settlement at marriage, frequent business trips of one of the spouses, dissatisfaction with housing and living conditions, conviction of a spouse with imprisonment for a long period;
2 -motives due to socio-psychological factors: differences in needs, interests, goals, interference of third parties, dissimilarity of characters, unreasonable jealousy, new love, betrayal;
3 - socio-biological motives: drunkenness and alcoholism of a spouse, adultery, illness, mental illness, inability or unwillingness of one of the spouses to have children, a big age difference, real and imaginary sexual incompatibility.
Note that women are often the main reason for divorce. consider material difficulties and drunkenness, and men - a new hobby, incompatibility and uniformity family life. Young people more often see the reason for divorce in the incompatibility of characters, the appearance new love, betrayal and everyday life of family life.
Divorce as a social phenomenon leads to complex and numerous consequences and manifestations of deformation in the life of the family. However, an equally important problem for socio-psychological analysis is the study of the situation before a divorce. On the one hand, it is characterized by an increase in the conflict of relationships, a decrease in satisfaction with family life, a weakening of family cohesion, on the other hand, an increase in family efforts aimed at preserving family life.
During his life cycle the family is constantly faced with various difficulties, adverse conditions, problems. From a methodological point of view, researchers focus on two main areas of analysis of this topic.
The first is the study of the family in difficult conditions that have arisen due to the adverse impact of general large-scale social processes: wars, economic crises, natural disasters.
The second is the study of "normative stresses", i.e. those difficulties encountered in the lives of families with everyday conditions. These difficulties are associated with the passage of the family through the main stages of the life cycle.. As well as problems that arise when external factors lead to a violation of the mechanism of functioning of the institution of the family: long separation, divorce, serious illness.
Consider the main points present in the occurrence and identification of family deformations.
Factors causing family deformations. We are talking about a fairly wide range of circumstances, features of the social environment, living conditions of the family, changes in the personality of one of the spouses that can complicate the functioning of the family. All the numerous problems facing the family can be conditionally divided according to the strength and duration of their impact. Two groups of family problems are of particular importance. An example of the former is the death of a spouse, the news of adultery, sudden changes in life and social status (for example, sudden and serious illness). The second group of problems includes excessive physical and mental stress in everyday life, at work, difficulties in solving the housing problem, a long and persistent conflict between family members, etc...
The following classification of problems faced by the family can be given. There are two types of them: problems associated with a sharp change in the lifestyle of the family (life stereotype) - for example, marriage, the beginning of family life, the birth of a child. And the problems associated with cumulative labor, i.e. their overlap - for example, the need to make decisions on a number of problems after the appearance of a child in the family, namely the conclusion of education, mastering a specialty, solving life problems, caring for a child, etc..
So-called "normative stressors" pass through all stages of the family cycle, that is, those problems that are experienced to varying degrees by all families: related to mutual
housing problems, with the care and upbringing of a child, etc. . The combination of the above problems at certain points in the family life cycle can lead to family crises.
Similar information.
Introduction
Discussion about the culture of Russia has been and remains relevant to modern society.
Domestic culture throughout all the centuries of its formation is inextricably linked with the history of Russia. Our cultural heritage, formed in the process of formation and development of national self-consciousness, was constantly enriched by our own and world cultural experience. It gave the world the pinnacle of artistic achievements, became an integral part of world culture. The attitude towards Russian culture among the figures of world culture has always been ambiguous and contradictory. A hundred and fifty years ago, it was already felt so clearly that one of the most educated and European poets in Russia, Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev, formulated this attitude and its reasons in a quatrain:
Russia cannot be understood with the mind,
Do not measure with a common yardstick:
She has a special become,
You can only believe in Russia
Tyutchev considered this attitude to Russia and its culture to be original, irrational, accessible only to faith and arising from misunderstanding. Even earlier, in 1831, Pushkin wrote even more sharply in the poem "To the Slanderers of Russia":
Leave us: you have not read These bloody tablets...
Mindlessly seduces you
Fight desperate courage -
And you hate us...
Pushkin saw the reason in the fire of the Napoleonic Wars, which had not yet cooled down. But in the two world wars of the 20th century, Russia was an ally of France and England, it was also an ally of the United States, and the same familiar notes sound in the disputes between Russian and Western intellectuals.
Russian culture world
The concept of Russian culture, its characteristics and features
russian culture world national
The concepts of “Russian culture”, “Russian national culture”, “culture of Russia” can be considered as synonyms, or as independent phenomena. They reflect different states and components of our culture. It seems that when studying Russian culture, the focus should be on the culture itself, the cultural traditions of the Eastern Slavs as a union of tribes, Russians, Russians. Culture of other peoples in this case is of interest as a result and process of mutual influence, borrowing, dialogue of cultures. In this case, the concept of “Russian culture” is synonymous with the concept of “Russian national culture”. The concept of “culture of Russia” is broader, as it includes the history of the formation and development of the culture of the Old Russian state, individual principalities, multinational state associations - the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, Russian Federation. In this context, Russian culture acts as the main backbone element of the culture of a multinational state. The multinational culture of Russia can be typified on various grounds: confessional (Orthodox, Protestants, Muslims, Buddhists, etc.); according to the economic structure (agricultural culture, cattle breeding, hunting), etc. It is very unproductive to ignore the multinational character of the culture of our state, as well as the role of Russian culture in this state. Interest in the peculiarities of the culture of different peoples of Russia is shown to a greater extent by ethnographers and to a lesser extent by culturologists. Simultaneous existence of different cultures, mixed marriages, multidirectional traditions within the same family, village, city require attentive attitude researchers. The good relations in the country, the successful solution of the tasks of developing the culture of Russia largely depend on the harmonization of these relations, mutual knowledge.
The study of national culture is not only an educational task. It is closely connected with another - no less important - to grow bearers of Russian culture, followers of its traditions, which will contribute to its preservation as a part of world culture, expanding the boundaries of Russian culture, and the dialogue of cultures.
“Oh, light bright and beautifully decorated Russian land! You are glorified by many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, locally revered rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clear fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious decrees, monastery gardens, God's temples and formidable princes, boyars honest, many nobles. You are full of everything, Russian land, O orthodox Christian faith!
These lines, imbued with deep love for their land, can be considered an epigraph to this text. They form the beginning of the ancient literary monument “The Word about the destruction of the Russian land”. Unfortunately, only an excerpt has been preserved, which was found as part of another work - “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The time of writing the "Word" - 1237 - the beginning of 1246 Each national culture is a form of self-expression of the people. It reveals the features of the national character, worldview, mentality. Any culture is unique and goes through its own, inimitable way of development. This fully applies to Russian culture. It can be compared with the cultures of the West only to the extent that they interact with it, influence its genesis and evolution, and are connected with Russian culture by a common destiny.
Attempts to understand the national culture, to determine its place and role in the circle of other cultures are associated with certain difficulties. They can be subdivided into the following: a strong attraction of researchers to a comparative approach, a constant attempt to compare our culture and the culture of Western Europe and almost always not in favor of the first; ideologization of specific cultural and historical material and its interpretation from various positions, during which some facts are brought to the fore, and those that do not fit into the author's concept are ignored.
When considering the cultural-historical process in Russia, three main approaches are clearly traced.
The first approach is represented by supporters of the unilinear model of world history. According to this concept, all the problems of Russia can be solved by overcoming the civilizational, cultural lag or modernization.
Supporters of the second proceed from the concept of multilinear historical development, according to which the history of mankind consists of the history of a number of original civilizations, one of which includes the Russian (Slavic - N.Ya. Danilevsky or Orthodox Christian - A. Toynbee) civilization. Moreover, the main features or “soul” of each civilization cannot be perceived or deeply understood by representatives of another civilization or culture, i.e. is unknowable and not reproducible.
The third group of authors tries to reconcile both approaches. These include the well-known researcher of Russian culture, the author of the multi-volume work “Essays on the History of Russian Culture” P.N. Milyukov, who defined his position as a synthesis of two opposing constructions of Russian history, “of which one put forward the similarity of the Russian process with the European one, bringing this similarity to the point of identity, and the other proved Russian originality, to the point of complete incomparability and exclusivity.” Milyukov occupied a conciliatory position and built the Russian historical process on the synthesis of both features, similarity and originality, emphasizing the features of originality "somewhat more sharply than the similarities." It should be noted that identified by Milyukov at the beginning of the 20th century. approaches to the study of the cultural-historical process of Russia retained, with some modifications, their main features until the end of our century.
Most authors, who differ in their assessments and prospects of the cultural and historical development of Russia, nonetheless distinguish a number of common factors (conditions, causes) that determine the features (backwardness, delay, originality, originality) of Russian history and culture. Among them: natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional, ethnic, features of social and state organization Russian society.
