Pyrotechnic chemistry: Gunpowder and explosives - Gorst A.G. Smokeless powder: history of invention, composition, application

Around smokeless powder

A person lives in search.
Robert Walser

We will talk not about those people whose fate was connected with the use of firearms, but about those who created gunpowder and looked for new areas of its application.

The oldest invention

First, let's pay tribute to the predecessor of smokeless powder - its smoky “brother”. Black powder (also called black powder) is a thoroughly mixed mixture of potassium nitrate KNO 3, charcoal and sulfur. The main advantage of gunpowder is that it can burn without air. Combustible substances are coal and sulfur, and the oxygen necessary for combustion is supplied by saltpeter. Another important property of gunpowder is that it produces a large amount of gases during combustion. Chemical equation burning gunpowder:

2KNO 3 + S + 3C = K 2 S + 3CO 2 + N 2.

The first mention of a recipe for preparing a flammable mixture of saltpeter, sulfur and coal (obtained from bamboo sawdust) is found in an ancient Chinese treatise of the 1st century. n. e., at that time gunpowder was used to make fireworks. The widespread use of black powder as a military explosive began in Europe at the end of the 13th century. The flammable components of gunpowder, coal and sulfur, were quite accessible. However, saltpeter was a scarce product, since the only source of potassium nitrate KNO 3 was the so-called potassium or Indian nitrate. There were no natural sources of potassium nitrate in Europe; it was brought from India and used only for the production of gunpowder. Since more and more gunpowder was needed every century, and imported saltpeter, which was also very expensive, was not enough, another source was found - guano (from the Spanish. guano). These are decomposed naturally the remains of bird and bat droppings, which are a mixture of calcium, sodium and ammonium salts of phosphoric, nitric and some organic acids. The main difficulty in producing gunpowder from such raw materials was that guano contains not potassium, but predominantly sodium nitrate NaNO 3. It cannot be used to make gunpowder, because it attracts moisture, and such gunpowder quickly becomes damp. In order to convert sodium nitrate into potassium nitrate, a simple reaction was used:

NaNO 3 + KCl = NaCl + KNO 3.

Each of these compounds is soluble in water and does not precipitate from the reaction mixture, so the resulting aqueous solution contains all four compounds. However, separation is possible if the different solubilities of the compounds are used with increasing temperature. The solubility of NaCl in water is low and, moreover, changes very little with temperature, and the solubility of KNO 3 in boiling water is almost 20 times higher than in cold water. Therefore, saturated hot aqueous solutions of NaNO 3 and KCl are mixed, and then the mixture is cooled, the resulting crystalline precipitate contains fairly pure KNO 3.

However, not all problems have been solved. Most of the constituents of guano are soluble in water and are easily washed away by rain. Therefore, in Europe, accumulations of guano could only be found in caves where colonies of birds or bats had previously nested. Caves containing accumulations of guano were found, for example, in the foothills of the Crimea, which made it possible to organize a small gunpowder factory using “cave raw materials” in Sevastopol during the Anglo-Franco-Russian War of 1854–1855.

Naturally, all European reserves were small, and they were quickly used up. The huge reserves of guano along the Pacific coast of South America came to the rescue. Millions of colonies of fish-eating birds—gulls, cormorants, terns, and albatross—nested on rocky shores along the coasts of Peru, Chile, and on offshore islands (Fig. 1). Because the area receives almost no rain, guano accumulated on the coast over many centuries, forming deposits in some places tens of meters thick and over 100 km long. Guano was not only a source of saltpeter, but also a valuable fertilizer, and the demand for it was constantly increasing. As a result, in 1856, the United States even adopted a special “Guano Islands Act” (sometimes called the “Guano Law”). According to this law, the guan islands were considered the property of the United States, which contributed to the accelerated seizure of such islands and the creation of control over the sources of a valuable resource.

The demand for guano reached such a scale that at the beginning of the 20th century. its exports amounted to millions of tons, all proven reserves began to quickly deplete. A problem arose, the like of which chemistry has always been able to solve; a fundamentally different gunpowder was created; saltpeter was not required for its production at all.

It all started with polymers

Humanity has long ago learned to use natural polymers (cotton, wool, silk, animal skins). The shapes of the resulting products - fibers for making fabrics or layers of leather - depend on the source material. To change the shape fundamentally, it was necessary to chemically modify the source material in some way. It was cellulose that opened the way to such transformations, which ultimately led to the creation of polymer chemistry. Cellulose consists of cotton wool, wood, flax threads, hemp fibers and, of course, paper, which is made from wood.

The polymer chain of cellulose is assembled from cycles connected by oxygen bridges; in appearance it resembles beads (Fig. 2).

Since cellulose contains many hydroxyl HO groups, they were subjected to various transformations. One of the first successful reactions is nitration, i.e. introduction of nitro groups NO 2 by the action of nitric acid HNO 3 on cellulose (Fig. 3).

To bind the released water and thereby speed up the process, concentrated sulfuric acid is added to the reaction mixture. If cotton wool is treated with the specified mixture, and then washed from traces of acids and dried, then in appearance it will look exactly the same as the original one, but unlike natural cotton, such cotton wool is easily dissolved in organic solvents, such as ether. This property was immediately used; varnishes began to be made from nitrocellulose - they form a magnificent shiny surface that is easy to polish (nitrovarnishes). For a long time, nitro varnishes were used to cover car bodies, but now they have been replaced by acrylic varnishes. By the way, nail polish is also made from nitrocellulose.

No less interesting is that the first plastic in the history of polymer chemistry was made from nitrocellulose. In the 1870s. Thermoplastic was first created based on nitrocellulose mixed with the plasticizer camphor. Such plastic was given a certain shape at elevated temperature and under pressure, and when the substance cooled, the given shape was retained. The plastic was named celluloid, the first photographic and film films, billiard balls (thus replacing expensive ivory), as well as various household items (combs, toys, frames for mirrors, glasses, etc.) began to be made from it. The disadvantage of celluloid was that it was easily flammable and burned very quickly, and it was almost impossible to stop the burning. Therefore, celluloid was gradually replaced by other, less fire-hazardous polymers. For the same reason, artificial silk made from nitrocellulose was quickly abandoned.

The once popular celluloid is not forgotten today. Famous rock band Tequilajazz released an album called "Celluloid". The album includes some tunes written for films, and the word "celluloid" refers to the material from which film was previously made. If the authors wanted to give a more modern name to the album, then it should have been called “Cellulose Acetate”, since it is less fire hazardous and therefore replaced celluloid, and the ultra-modern name would be “Polyester”, which is beginning to successfully compete with cellulose acetate in the manufacture of film.

There are products where celluloid is still used; it has proven to be indispensable in the manufacture of balls for table tennis; According to guitarists, the best sound is produced by celluloid mediators (plectrums). Illusionists use small sticks of this material to demonstrate bright, quickly fading flames.

The flammability of nitrocellulose, which interrupted its “career” in polymer materials, opened a wide road in a completely different direction.

Fire without smoke

Back in the 1840s. researchers noticed that when wood, cardboard and paper are treated with nitric acid, quickly burning materials are formed, but the most good way the production of nitrocellulose was discovered by accident. In 1846, the Swiss chemist K. Schonbein spilled concentrated nitric acid on the table while working and used a cotton rag to remove it, which he then hung to dry. After drying, the flame instantly burned the fabric. Schonbein studied the chemistry of this process in more detail. It was he who first decided to add concentrated sulfuric acid when nitrating cotton. Nitrocellulose burns very effectively. If you put a piece of “nitrated” cotton wool on your palm and set it on fire, the cotton wool will burn so quickly that your hand will not feel any burn (Fig. 4).

The French engineer P. Viel succeeded in producing gunpowder based on this combustible material in 1884. It was necessary to create a composition that was easily recyclable; in addition, it was required that it be stable during storage and safe to handle. By dissolving nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether, Viel obtained a viscous mass, which, after grinding and subsequent drying, gave excellent gunpowder. It was much more powerful than black powder, and when burned it did not produce smoke, which is why it was called smokeless. The latter property turned out to be very important for combat operations. When using smokeless gunpowder, the battlefields were not shrouded in clouds of smoke, which allowed artillery to conduct targeted fire. There was also no telltale cloud of smoke after the shot, which previously gave the enemy the location of the shooter. At the end of the 19th century. all developed countries began to produce without black powder.

Legends and reality

Each chemical product goes through a complex path from laboratory experiments to industrial production. It was necessary to create different types of gunpowder, some suitable for artillery, others for rifle shooting, the gunpowder must be stable in quality, stable during storage, and its production must be safe. Therefore, several methods of producing gunpowder appeared at once.

D.I. Mendeleev played a significant role in organizing gunpowder production in Russia. In 1890, he toured Germany and England, where he became acquainted with the production of gunpowder. There is even a legend that before this trip, Mendeleev determined the composition of smokeless gunpowder, using information about the amount of raw materials that were delivered weekly to the gunpowder production plant. It can be assumed that for a chemist of such a high class it was not difficult to understand the general scheme of the process based on the information received.

Returning from a trip to St. Petersburg, he began to study in detail the nitration of cellulose. Before Mendeleev, many believed that the more nitrated cellulose was, the higher its explosive power. Mendeleev proved that this is not so. It turned out that there is an optimal degree of nitration, at which part of the carbon contained in the gunpowder is oxidized not into carbon dioxide CO 2, but into carbon monoxide CO. As a result, the largest volume of gas is formed per unit mass of gunpowder, i.e. gunpowder has maximum gas production.

During the production of nitrocellulose, it is thoroughly washed with water to remove traces of sulfuric and nitric acids, and then dried to remove traces of moisture. Previously, this was done using a stream of warm air. This drying process was ineffective and also explosive. Mendeleev proposed drying the wet mass by washing it with alcohol, in which nitrocellulose is insoluble. The water was then reliably removed. This method was subsequently adopted throughout the world and became a classic technique in the manufacture of smokeless powder.

As a result, Mendeleev managed to create a chemically homogeneous and completely safe to use smokeless gunpowder. He named his gunpowder pyrocollodium- fire glue. In 1893, new gunpowder was tested when firing from long-range naval guns, and Mendeleev received a congratulatory telegram from the famous oceanographer and remarkable naval commander, Vice Admiral S.O. Makarov.

Unfortunately, the production of pyrocollodion gunpowder, despite its obvious advantages, has not been established in Russia. The reason for this was the admiration of the leading officials of the Artillery Directorate for everything foreign and, accordingly, distrust of Russian developments. As a result, at the Okhtinsky plant, all gunpowder production was carried out under the control of the invited French specialist Messen. He did not even take into account the opinion of Mendeleev, who noticed shortcomings in production, and conducted the matter strictly according to his instructions. But Mendeleev’s pyrocollodion gunpowder was adopted by the American army and was produced in huge quantities at US factories during the First World War. Moreover, the Americans even managed to take out a patent for the production of pyrocollodion gunpowder five years after it was created by Mendeleev, but this fact did not excite the Russian military department, which firmly believed in the advantages of French gunpowder.

By the beginning of the twentieth century. The production of several types of smokeless powder was established throughout the world. The most common among them were Mendeleev’s pyrocollodion gunpowder, in addition, Viel’s pyroxylin gunpowder, which was close to it in composition, but had a different technology and shorter shelf life (it was described earlier), as well as a powder mixture called cordite There is one unusual story connected with the production of cordite, which will be discussed below.

Chemist-President

H. Weizmann (1874–1952)

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. The military industry of England was focused on cordite gunpowder. It contained nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. At the molding stage, acetone was used, which imparted increased plasticity to the mixture. After molding, the acetone evaporated. The difficulty was that by the beginning of the First World War, England imported the bulk of acetone from the United States by sea, but at that time German submarines were already in full control of the sea. In England there was an urgent need to produce acetone on their own. The little-known chemist Chaim Weizmann, who had recently emigrated to England from the village of Motol (near the city of Pinsk in Belarus), came to the rescue.

While working at the Department of Chemistry at the University of Manchester, he published a paper describing the enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates. This resulted in a mixture of acetone, ethanol and butanol. The British War Department invited Weizmann to find out whether it was possible, using the process he discovered, to organize the production of acetone in the quantities necessary for the military industry. According to Weizmann, such production could be created if small technical problems. Simple distillation is quite suitable for separating acetone due to the noticeable difference in boiling points of the compounds present. However, when organizing production, a completely different complexity arose. The source of carbohydrates in the Weizmann process was grain, but England's own grain production was entirely consumed by the food industry. Additional grain had to be imported from the United States by sea, and as a result, German submarines that threatened acetone imports also threatened grain imports. It seemed that the circle had closed, but nevertheless a way out of this situation was found. Horse chestnuts, which, by the way, had no nutritional value, turned out to be a good source of carbohydrates. As a result, a massive campaign to collect horse chestnuts was organized in England, and all schoolchildren in the country took part in it.

Lloyd George, who was British Prime Minister during the First World War, expressed his gratitude to Weizmann for his efforts to strengthen the country's military power, and introduced him to Foreign Secretary David Balfour. Balfour asked Weizmann what award he would like to receive. Weizmann's desire turned out to be completely unexpected; he proposed creating a Jewish state on the territory of Palestine - the historical homeland of the Jews, which by that time had been under the control of England for many years. As a result, in 1917, the Balfour Declaration, which went down in history, appeared, in which England made a proposal to allocate territory for the future Jewish state.

This declaration played its role, but not immediately, but only 31 years later. When the whole world learned about the atrocities of the Nazis during the Second World War, the need to create such a state became obvious. As a result, the State of Israel was created in 1948. Chaim Weizmann became its first president, as the man who first proposed this idea to the world community. The research institute in the Israeli city of Rehovot now bears his name. It all started with the production of smokeless gunpowder.

The return of an ancient “profession”

For a long time, the use of gunpowder in warfare was limited to two tasks: the first was to set in motion a bullet or projectile located in the barrel of a gun, the second was that the combat charge located in the head of the projectile was supposed to explode when it hit the target and produce a destructive effect. Smokeless gunpowder made it possible to revive at a new level another, forgotten possibility of gunpowder, for which, in fact, it was created in Ancient China - the launching of fireworks. Gradually, the military industry came to the idea of ​​using smokeless gunpowder as a fuel to propel a rocket due to the jet thrust generated when gases are released from the rocket nozzle. The first such experiments were carried out in the first half of the 19th century, and the advent of smokeless gunpowder brought these works to a new level - rocket technology arose. At first, solid-fuel rockets were created based on powder charges, and soon rockets using liquid fuel - a mixture of hydrocarbons with oxidizers - appeared.

By this time, the composition of gunpowder had been slightly changed: in Russia, instead of highly volatile solvents, they began to use the addition of TNT. New pyroxylin-trotyl gunpowder(PTP) burned absolutely without smoke, with enormous gas production and quite stably. It began to be used in the form of pressed checkers, somewhat reminiscent of a hockey puck. It is interesting that the first such checkers were made on the very presses that Mendeleev used during his passion for gunpowder.

One of the first unusual applications of solid rockets based on anti-tank missiles was proposed in the 1930s. – use them as aircraft boosters. On the ground, this made it possible to sharply reduce the length of the aircraft's take-off run, and in the air it provided a short-term sharp increase in flight speed when it was necessary to catch up with the enemy or avoid meeting him. You can imagine the feelings of the first testers when a torch of mad fire erupted from the side of the pilot’s cockpit.

Domestic rocket science in the 1930s. headed prominent figures in the field of rocket technology - I.T. Kleimenov, V.P. Glushko, G.E. Langemak and S.P. Korolev (future creator of space rockets), who worked at the specially created Jet Research Institute (RNII).

It was at this institute, based on the ideas of Glushko and Langemak, that a project for a multi-charge installation for salvo firing of rocket projectiles was first created; later this installation became known under the legendary name “Katyusha”.

During these years, the flywheel of Stalin's repressions was already gaining momentum. In 1937, on the basis of a false denunciation, the head of the institute, Kleimenov, and his deputy, Langemak, were arrested and soon shot, and in 1938, Glushko (8 years) and Korolev (10 years) were arrested and sentenced. All of them were later rehabilitated, Kleimenov and Langemak posthumously.

In these dramatic events An unsightly role was played by A.G. Kostikov, who worked at the institute as an ordinary engineer. He headed the expert commission, which made a decision on the sabotage activities of the main management staff of the institute. Outstanding specialists were arrested and convicted as enemies of the people. As a result, Kostikov took the position of chief engineer, then became the head of the institute and at the same time the “author” of a new type of weapon. For this he was generously awarded at the beginning of the war, despite the fact that he had nothing to do with the creation of Katyusha.

The authorities’ recognition of Kostikov’s merits in creating new weapons, as well as his efforts to identify “enemies of the people” at the institute, did not save him from repression. In July 1942, the institute he led received a task from the Defense Committee: to develop a jet-powered interceptor fighter within eight months. The task was extremely difficult, and it was not possible to complete it on time (the aircraft was created only six months after the expiration of the specified period). In February 1943, Kostikov was arrested and accused of espionage and sabotage. However, his further fate was not as tragic as that of those whom he himself accused of sabotage; a year later he was released.

Returning to the story about the Katyushas (Fig. 5), we recall that the effectiveness of the new missile weapons was demonstrated at the very beginning of the war. On July 14, 1941, the first salvo of five Katyusha rockets covered a concentration of German troops in the area of ​​the Orsha railway station. Then the Katyushas appeared on the Leningrad Front. By the end of the Great Patriotic War, more than ten thousand Katyushas operated on its fronts, firing about 12 million missiles of various calibers.

Peaceful professions of gunpowder

Interestingly, gunpowder can save lives not only as a result of its use in firearms for protection against an aggressive attack, but also for its completely peaceful use.

The intensive development of the automotive industry has raised a number of problems, primarily the safety of the driver and passengers. The most widespread are seat belts, which protect against injury during sudden car braking. However, such belts cannot prevent the head from hitting the steering wheel, dashboard or windshield or the back of the head when the body moves sharply backwards. The most modern method of protection is an airbag; it is a nylon bag of a certain shape, which at the right time is filled with compressed air from a special can (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Airbag test on mannequins

The cushion has small vents through which gas is slowly released after it "compresses" the occupant. The airbag fills with gas in 0.05 s, but this time is still not enough in cases where the car is moving at speeds above
120 km/h. Smokeless powder came to the rescue. An instantly burning small powder charge allows you to inflate the cushion with combustion products ten times faster than compressed air. Since gases are slowly released after inflating the pillow, a special composition of gunpowder was developed that, when burned, does not form harmful products such as nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide.

Smokeless gunpowder found another peaceful use where it was least expected - to fight fire. A small powder charge placed in a fire extinguisher allows the extinguishing mixture to be “shot” almost instantly in the direction of the spreading flame.

Let us also not forget that to this day the ancient “profession” of gunpowder – launching fireworks (Fig. 7) – creates a joyful mood for us on holidays.

Gunpowder is a propellant explosive substance, consisting of several components, capable of burning without access to oxygen from the outside, releasing a large amount of thermal energy and gaseous substances, used for throwing projectiles, propelling rockets and other purposes.

Invention of gunpowder

According to modern generally accepted opinion, gunpowder was invented in the Middle Ages in China, as a result of the experiments of Chinese alchemists who were looking for the elixir of immortality and accidentally stumbled upon gunpowder.

The invention of gunpowder led to the introduction of fireworks in China and the use of gunpowder for military purposes, in the form of flamethrowers, rockets, bombs, primitive grenades and mines.

For a long time, the Chinese used gunpowder to make incendiary projectiles, which they called “huo pao,” which means “fireball” in Chinese. A special throwing machine threw this ignited projectile, which exploded in the air, scattering burning particles around itself, setting everything on fire.

A little later, the secret of making gunpowder came from China through India to the Arabs, who improved the technology of its manufacture and the Mamluks of Egypt began to use gunpowder in their cannons on an ongoing basis.

The appearance of gunpowder in Europe

The first appearance of gunpowder in Europe is associated with the name of the Byzantine Mark the Greek, who described the composition of gunpowder in his manuscript; this happened around 1220. The English scientist Roger Bacon was the first to mention gunpowder in Europe in his scientific treatise in 1242.

The secondary invention of gunpowder in Europe is associated with the name of the alchemist monk Berthold Schwartz, who, while conducting his experiments, accidentally received a mixture of saltpeter, coal and sulfur, began to grind it in his mortar, the mixture ignited from a spark that accidentally fell on it. It was Berthold Schwartz who is credited with the idea of ​​​​creating the first artillery weapon. Although perhaps this is just a legend.

In 1346, at the Battle of Crecy, the British used cast bronze cannons firing volleys against the French. A charge of gunpowder was placed in the cannon, the fuse was brought out, and a core was placed in the cannon, which was an ordinary stone, or could be made of lead or iron. The fuse was ignited, the gunpowder inside the gun ignited, and the powder gases threw the core out. The appearance and combat use of gunpowder in Europe radically changed the nature of warfare.

In 1884, the first smokeless gunpowder was invented, it was pyroxylin gunpowder, it was first obtained by the French scientist P. Viel. Four years later, in 1888, Alfred Nobel invented ballistic gunpowder in Sweden; cordite gunpowder was first produced in Great Britain by Frederick Abel and James Dewar in 1889.

Russian scientists also contributed to the development of new gunpowder; the famous Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev created pyrocollodion gunpowder in 1887-1891.

The development of gunpowder is still ongoing, new recipes for preparing gunpowder are being created, and work is underway to improve their basic characteristics.

Gunpowder in Russia

Gunpowder first appeared in Russia in 1389. In the 15th century, the first gunpowder factories appeared in Russia.

Great development of the gunpowder business occurred during the reign of Peter I, who paid great attention development of military affairs and industrial development, during his reign three large gunpowder factories were built in St. Petersburg, Sestroretsk and Okhta.

Russian scientists Mikhail Yuryevich Lomonosov and Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev conducted their experiments on studying and creating new gunpowders.

Types of gunpowder

All gunpowders are divided into two large groups:

• mixed powders, these include smoky, or black powder, aluminum powder
• nitrocellulose ( smokeless powder), These include pyroxylin powder, ballistic powder, cordite powder

Black powder

The whole history of gunpowder began with the creation of black gunpowder; all other gunpowders were created much later.

Black powder is a mixture of crushed particles of coal, sulfur and saltpeter, mixed in certain proportions. Each of the components of black powder performs its own function. When heated to a temperature of 250 degrees, sulfur ignites first, which ignites the saltpeter. At a temperature of about 300 degrees, saltpeter begins to release oxygen, due to which the combustion process occurs. Coal in gunpowder is a fuel, the combustion of which produces a large amount of gases that create the enormous pressure necessary for a shot.

Black powder has a granular structure, and the size of the grain affects big influence on the properties of gunpowder, its burning rate and the pressure it creates.

When producing black powder, it goes through five stages:

• Grinding components (saltpeter, coal and sulfur) into powder
• Mixing
• Pressing into discs
• Crushing into granules
• Polishing

The quality of black powder and the efficiency of its combustion depends on:

• fineness of grinding components
• completeness of mixing
• grain shape and size

Depending on the grain size of black powder, it is:

• large (0.8 – 1.25 mm);
• medium (0.6 – 0.75 mm);
• small (0.4 – 0.6 mm);
• very small (0.25 – 0.4 mm).

Black powder is used not only for hunting, but also for other purposes:

• corded (for fire cords)
• rifle (used as an igniter for smokeless powder charges)
• coarse black powder (for igniters)
• slow burning black powder (for intensifiers and moderators in tubes and fuses)
• mine (for blasting)
• hunting
• sports

As a result of long experiments, the optimal composition of black powder for hunting was developed:

• 76% potassium nitrate
• 15% coal
• 9% sulfur

It is important for a hunter to correctly determine the quality and condition of the black powder he uses to load cartridges.

• The color of black powder should be black or slightly brown, without any extraneous tints
• Black powder grains should not have a whitish tint
• When crushing a grain of black powder between your fingers, it should not crumble, but break into separate particles
• When poured, black powder should not form lumps or leave dust.

If black powder does not meet these characteristics, its use when loading cartridges can be dangerous for the hunter himself; such powder can cause the gun barrel to rupture.

Advantages of black powder

Disadvantages of black powder

• Black powder is very hygroscopic; with a moisture content of more than 2%, it ignites very poorly. Therefore, it is extremely important to store it in the right conditions.
• High corrosion of barrels; when black powder burns, sulfuric and sulfurous acids are formed, which cause severe corrosion of barrels.
• Thick smoke when fired, which often makes it difficult to fire a second shot.
• Black powder cannot be used in semi-automatic weapons.
• Dangerous to handle. Black powder has a low ignition temperature, is easily ignited, and can be dangerous, especially when burning a large mass, as a powerful explosion occurs.
• It is approximately three times inferior in power to smokeless powder, gives a low shot flight speed, with fairly strong recoil and a loud shot.

Aluminum powder

Aluminum gunpowder is not used for hunting or shooting, but is used in pyrotechnics. Consists of three components: nitrate, aluminum and sulfur. Aluminum powder has a high temperature and burning rate, and emits a large amount of light. It is used in explosive compositions and compositions that produce a flash. Aluminum powder is practically not afraid of moisture and does not form lumps.

Smokeless powder

Smokeless powder was invented much later than black powder. Currently, it has almost completely replaced black powder from use in hunting.

Smokeless gunpowder is very different from smoky gunpowder in composition, properties and basic characteristics; it has its own advantages and disadvantages.

According to their composition, smokeless powders are:

• monobasic (main component nitrocellulose)
• dibasic (main components: nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin)
• tribasic (main components: nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and nitroguanidine)

In addition to the main components, smokeless powders include stabilizers, ballistic modifiers, softeners, binders, copper reducers, flame arresters, additives that reduce barrel wear, combustion catalysts, and graphite. It is these additives that create the desired quality of gunpowder.

Nitrocellulose decomposes over time, especially during storage large quantity gunpowder or storing gunpowder at temperatures above 25 degrees, decomposition generates heat, which can lead to spontaneous combustion of gunpowder. Single-base nitrocellulose powders are especially susceptible to decomposition. To prevent this phenomenon, stabilizers are added to gunpowder, the main one of which is diphenylamine. Stabilizers are added in small quantities, about 0.5-2% of the total mass of gunpowder, but large quantities can worsen the ballistic performance of gunpowder.

Flame extinguishing agents are added in order to reduce the flash from a shot, which unmasks the shooter and blinds him when fired.

Catalysts are added to enhance the burning rate of gunpowder.

Graphite is added to smokeless powder to prevent the powder granules from sticking together and to prevent spontaneous combustion of the powder from static electricity discharges.

Single- and dual-base smokeless powders now make up the bulk of gunpowders used for hunting. They are so common that when they say “gunpowder” they mean smokeless powder.

The properties of smokeless powder depend greatly on the size and shape of its granules. The surface of the granules affects the change in their shape and the rate of combustion of gunpowder. By changing the shape of the granules, you can change the pressure and combustion rate of the gunpowder.

Fast-burning powders produce greater pressure and, accordingly, give greater speed to the bullet or shot, but at the same time they produce a higher temperature, which increases wear on the gun barrel.

The color of smokeless powder can be from yellow to black, all possible shades.

Advantages of smokeless powder

• It has low hygroscopicity, does not absorb moisture from the air and does not change its properties; if smokeless powder is damp, it can be dried, after drying it will completely restore its properties
• More powerful than black powder
• Produces less combustion products, causes less barrel clogging, and can be used in semi-automatic weapons.
• Produces less smoke and a quieter shot sound

Disadvantages of smokeless powder

• Due to the higher combustion temperature, it causes more wear on the gun barrel
• Requires the right conditions storage, if these conditions are not met, it changes its properties
• Shorter shelf life than black powder
• Less resistant to temperature fluctuations than black powder

How to choose gunpowder

When comparing black and smokeless powders, the choice falls on smokeless powder. Smokeless gunpowder is significantly superior to smoky gunpowder in all its qualities and characteristics.

Pyroxylin gunpowder made it possible to successfully solve firing problems from all artillery systems, right up to the end of the First World War. The further development of domestic artillery urgently required the development and use of ballietite gunpowder.

The main components of ballistic powders are low-nitrogen cellulose nitrates (colloxylins), a low-volatile solvent - plasticizer, a chemical resistance stabilizer and various additives. In the USA, pyroxpleins containing 13.15% and 13.25% nitrogen are used in ballistic powders.

Nitroglycerin and nitrodiglycol are the most widely used solvents in the production of ballistic powders.

Nitroglycerin is a product of processing glycerin with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids and is a powerful explosive that is highly sensitive to external influences. Nitroglycerin is a liquid under normal conditions and serves as a good plasticizer for low-nitrogen cellulose nitrates. During the manufacturing process of gunpowder, nitroglycerin is not removed from the powder mass and is one of the main components of the finished gunpowder, which largely determines its physicochemical and ballistic properties.

Nitrodiglycol is a product of treating diethylene glycol with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. Diethylene glycol is obtained synthetically from ethylene. Like nitroglycerin, nitrodiglycol is a liquid with good plasticizing properties.

During the Second World War, Germany began to use gunpowder based on nitrodiglycol, which contained up to 30% nitroguanidine, which is a white crystalline substance with explosive properties. Such gunpowders are called guanidine or gudol.

Gunpowders containing nitroguanidine are used in the USA and are called tribasic powders, in contrast to pyroxylin powders, called single-base, and nitroglycerin, called dibasic. Centralites, crystalline substances, are most widely used as a stabilizer for the chemical resistance of ballistic powders. white. The finished gunpowder contains from 1 to 5% centralite. The moisture content in ballistic powders is usually no more than 1%.

Depending on the purpose of the powders, various additives are introduced into their composition. To reduce the combustion temperature in order to reduce the intense effect of gunpowder, so-called cooling additives are introduced into its composition, for which dinitrotoluene, dibutyl phthalate and some other substances are used. Dinitrotoluene and dibutyl phthalate are also additional plasticizers for colloxylin. Their content in the finished gunpowder can be from 4 to 11%.

A so-called technological additive can be introduced into the composition of gunpowder, which facilitates the process of manufacturing the powder mass. Vaseline is widely used as a technological additive; its content in gunpowder is up to 2%.

To eliminate the phenomena of intermittent and unstable combustion in jet engines, catalytic and stabilizing additives are introduced into the powder composition. Their content in gunpowder is small: from 0.2 to 2-3%. Lead compounds are used as combustion catalysts, and chalk, magnesium oxide and other refractory substances are used as stabilizing additives.

The compositions of some domestic and foreign ballistic powders are given in Table. 10.

Table10

Ballistic gunpowders are used for firing guns, mortars and rocket launchers.

Gunpowder are made mainly in the form of tubes 1 (Fig. 12) of various lengths and with different thicknesses of the burning arch.

Mortar powders prepared in the form of plates, 2 ribbons, 3 spirals and rings.

Rice. 12. Form of ballistic powders:

1-pipe (tubular gunpowder); g-tape (tape-based)

roh); 3- ring; 4 - checker

Rocket propellants are manufactured in the form of thick-arched single-channel blocks of 4 cylindrical and more complex geometric shapes.

Modern technology makes it possible to produce powder bombs with a burning crown thickness of up to 300 mm or more.

The manufacturing process of ballistic powders is carried out as follows.

The powder components are mixed in warm water. With this mixing, colloxylin swells in solvents.

After preliminary removal of moisture, the mass is repeatedly passed through hot rollers. The rollers further remove moisture, compact and plasticize the powder mass. From the powder mass, powder elements of the required shape and size are obtained.

To obtain tubes, the powder web after rollers is rolled into rolls and pressed through appropriate dies. The tubes are cut into powder elements of a certain length. To obtain lamellar, belt and ring-shaped powder, the powder mass is passed through rollers with a precisely controlled gap. The resulting canvas is cut into plates or ribbons of given sizes or rings are cut out of it.

The technological process of manufacturing ballistic powders is less time-consuming and more economical than pyroxylin powders, allows for widespread use of automation, but is more explosive.

Depending on the purpose, chemical composition, shape and size of the powder elements, ballistic type powders are distinguished. The symbols of gunpowder brands are very diverse. Jet propellant has designations that indicate only the purpose of the propellant and its approximate composition. The designation of jet powders does not contain any indication of the shape and size of the elements. For example, H, HM 2 means jet powder, in which nitroglycerin is used as a plasticizer; the second gunpowder contains the addition of magnesium oxide (2%).

Gun ballistic gunpowders are designated as follows: after the letters indicating the approximate composition of the gunpowder, a number indicating the calorie group of the gunpowder is placed through a dash, and then the size of the tube is indicated by a fraction, similar to pyroxylin gunpowders. Unlike pyroxylin powders, when designating tubular ballistic powders, the letters TP are not affixed, since ballistic powders are not manufactured in the form of cylindrical grains. For example, the NDT-3 18/1 grade means that nitroglycerin gunpowder containing dinitrotoluene as a cooling additive, which belongs to the third group in terms of caloric content, has the shape of a single-channel tube with a burning arch thickness of 1.8 mm. Flake powders are designated by letters and numbers: NBPl 12-10 - nitroglycerin ballistic mortar flake powder with a crown thickness of 0.12 mm and a plate width of 1 mm.

Belt gunpowder is designated by the letter L and a number corresponding to the thickness of the burning arch in hundredths of a millimeter, for example NBL-33. Ring powders are designated by the letter K followed by a fractional number: the numerator is the inner diameter of the ring in millimeters, the denominator is the outer diameter. Following the fraction through a dash is a number indicating the thickness of the burning vault in hundredths of a millimeter, for example NBK 32/64-14.

Ballistic powders are distinguished by a variety of chemical compositions and geometric shapes, and therefore they differ in their physicochemical and ballistic properties.

Ballistic powders are less hygroscopic than pyroxylin powders.

A positive property of ballistic powders, widely used in practice, is the ability to significantly change their energy characteristics by changing the content of a low-volatile explosive solvent over a fairly wide range and introducing various additives into their composition. This allows us to significantly expand the scope of practical application of this group of nitrocellulose powders. The combustion heat of ballistic powders, depending on their composition, can vary from 650 to 1500 kcal/kg. Based on the heat of combustion, ballistic powders are divided into high-calorie (1000-1500 kcal/kg), medium-calorie (800-1000 kcal/kg) and low-calorie (650-800 kcal/kg). Low-calorie powders are often called cold or low-erosion.

For ballistic powders, the burning rate, powder strength and other characteristics can vary over a wide range.

Plan:

Introduction

• 1 History of gunpowder
• 2 Types of gunpowder
  • 2.1 Mixed powders
    • 2.1.1 Black powder
  • 2.2 Nitrocellulose powders
    • 2.2.1 Pyroxylin
    • 2.2.2 Ballistic
    • 2.2.3 Cordite
    • 2.2.4 Solid rocket fuel
• 3 Powder combustion and its regulation
• 4 Characteristics of gunpowder
Literature

Introduction

Nitrocellulose smokeless powder N110

Smokeless powder cartridge

Powder- a multicomponent solid substance capable of regular combustion in parallel layers without access to oxygen from the outside, releasing a large amount of thermal energy and gaseous products used for throwing projectiles, propelling rockets and for other purposes. Gunpowder belongs to the class of propellant explosives.

1. History of gunpowder

The first representative of explosives was black powder- a mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate, coal and sulfur, usually in a ratio of 15:3:2. There is a strong opinion that such compounds appeared in ancient times and were used mainly as incendiary and destructive agents. However, no material or reliable documentary evidence of this was found. In nature, deposits of nitrate are rare, and potassium nitrate, necessary for the manufacture of sufficiently stable compositions, does not occur at all.

In China, the recipe for gunpowder appeared in 1044, but gunpowder may have existed earlier; Some believe that the inventor of gunpowder or the harbinger of the invention was Wei Boyang in the 2nd century. For the supposed invention of gunpowder by the medieval Chinese, see Four Great Inventions.

The production of potassium nitrate requires developed technological methods that appeared only with the development of chemistry in XV-XVI centuries. The production of carbon materials with a highly developed specific surface area, such as charcoal, also requires advanced technology, which appeared only with the development of iron metallurgy. The most likely is the use of various natural nitrate-containing mixtures with organics, which have properties inherent in pyrotechnic compositions. The monk Berthold Schwartz is considered to be one of the inventors of gunpowder.

The propellant property of black powder was discovered much later and served as an impetus for the development of firearms. It has been known in Europe (including Rus') since the 13th century; until the middle of the 19th century remained the only high explosive and until late XIX century - a throwing weapon.

With the invention of nitrocellulose powders, and then individual powerful explosives, black powder largely lost its importance.

Pyroxylin gunpowder was first produced in France by P. Viel in 1884, ballistic gunpowder in Sweden by Alfred Nobel in 1888, and cordite gunpowder in Great Britain at the end of the 19th century. Around the same time (1887-91) in Russia, Dmitry Mendeleev developed pyro-collodion gunpowder, and a group of engineers from the Okhtinsky Powder Plant developed pyroxylin gunpowder.

In the 30s of the 20th century, the USSR was the first to create ballistic powder charges for rockets, which were successfully used by troops during the Great Patriotic War (multiple launch rocket systems). Blended propellants for rocket engines were developed in the late 1940s.

Further improvement of gunpowder is carried out in the direction of creating new formulations, special-purpose gunpowders and improving their basic characteristics.

2. Types of gunpowders

There are two types of gunpowder: mixed (including smoky) and nitrocellulose (smokeless). Gunpowders used in rocket engines are called solid rocket fuels. The basis nitrocellulose Gunpowder consists of nitrocellulose and plasticizer. In addition to the main components, these powders contain various additives.

Gunpowder is a propellant explosive. Under appropriate conditions of initiation, gunpowder is capable of detonation in a manner similar to high explosives, making black powder for a long time used as a high explosive. At long-term storage more than the period established for a given gunpowder or when stored in improper conditions, chemical decomposition of the components of the gunpowder occurs and a change in its operational characteristics (combustion mode, mechanical characteristics of rocket bombs, etc.). The operation and even storage of such powders is extremely dangerous and can lead to an explosion.

2.1. Mixed powders

2.1.1. Black powder

Powder box and scoop for gunpowder from the 18th-19th centuries.

Modern smoky gunpowder is made in the form of grains irregular shape. The basis for producing gunpowder is a mixture of sulfur, potassium nitrate and coal. Many countries have their own proportions for mixing these components, but they do not differ much; in Russia the following composition is adopted: 75% KNO 3 (potassium nitrate), 15% C (charcoal) and 10% S (sulfur). The role of the oxidizing agent in them is played by potassium nitrate (potassium nitrate), the main fuel is coal. Sulfur is a cementitious substance that reduces the hygroscopicity of gunpowder and facilitates its ignition. The combustion efficiency of black powder is largely related to the fineness of grinding of the components, the completeness of mixing and the shape of the finished grains.

Types of black powders (% composition KNO 3, S, C.):

• corded (for fire cords)(77%, 12%, 11%);
• rifle (for igniters for charges of nitrocellulose powders and mixed solid fuels, as well as for expelling charges in incendiary and illuminating shells);
• coarse-grained (for igniters);
• slow-burning (for intensifiers and moderators in tubes and fuses);
• mine (for blasting) (75%, 10%, 15%);
• hunting (76%, 9%, 15%);
• sports.

Black powder is highly flammable under the influence of flame and spark (flash point 300 °C), and is therefore dangerous to handle. Stored in a hermetically sealed container separately from other types of gunpowder. Hygroscopic, with a moisture content of more than 2% it does not ignite well. The process of producing black powder involves mixing finely ground components and processing the resulting powder pulp to obtain grains of specified sizes. Corrosion of barrels with black powder is much worse than with nitrocellulose powders, since the by-product of combustion is sulfuric and sulfurous acids. Black powder is currently used in fireworks. Until about the end of the 19th century, it was used in firearms and explosive ammunition.

2.2. Nitrocellulose powders

Based on the composition and type of plasticizer (solvent), nitrocellulose powders are divided into: pyroxylin, ballistite and cordite.

2.2.1. Pyroxylin

Part pyroxylin gunpowder usually contains 91-96% pyroxylin, 1.2-5% volatile substances (alcohol, ether and water), 1.0-1.5% stabilizer (diphenylamine, centrolyte) to increase storage stability, 2-6% phlegmatizer to slow down combustion of the outer layers of powder grains and 0.2-0.3% graphite as additives. Such gunpowders are made in the form of plates, ribbons, rings, tubes and grains with one or more channels; used in small arms and artillery. The main disadvantages of pyroxylin powders are: the low energy of gaseous combustion products (relative to, for example, ballistic powders), the technological difficulty of obtaining large-diameter charges for rocket engines. Main time technological cycle is spent on removing volatile solvents from the powder semi-finished product. Depending on the purpose, in addition to the usual pyroxylin powders, there are special powders: flame-retardant, low-hygroscopic, low-gradient (with a low dependence of the burning rate on the temperature of the charge); low-erosion (with reduced high-erosion impact on the barrel bore); phlegmatized (with a reduced burning rate of surface layers); porous and others. The process of producing pyroxylin powders involves dissolving (plasticizing) pyroxylin, pressing the resulting powder mass and cutting to give the powder elements a certain shape and size, removing the solvent and consists of a number of sequential operations.

2.2.2. Ballistic

The basis ballistic Powders consist of nitrocellulose and a non-removable plasticizer, which is why they are sometimes called dibasic. Depending on the plasticizer used, they are called nitroglycerin, diglycol, etc. The usual composition of ballistic powders: 40-60% colloxylin (nitrocellulose with a nitrogen content of less than 12.2%) and 30-55% nitroglycerin (nitroglycerin powders) or diethylene glycol dinitrate (diglycol gunpowder) or mixtures thereof. In addition, these powders contain aromatic nitro compounds (for example, dinitrotoluene) to regulate the combustion temperature, stabilizers (diphenylamine, centralite), as well as petroleum jelly, camphor and other additives. Also, finely dispersed metal (an alloy of aluminum and magnesium) can be added to ballistic powders to increase the temperature and energy of combustion products; such powders are called metallized. Gunpowder is made in the form of tubes, blocks, plates, rings and ribbons. Based on their application, ballistic powders are divided into rocket (for charges for rocket engines and gas generators), artillery (for propelling charges for artillery guns) and mortar (for propellant charges for mortars). Compared to pyroxylin powders, ballistic gunpowders are characterized by lower hygroscopicity, faster production, the ability to produce large charges (up to 0.8 meters in diameter), high mechanical strength and flexibility due to the use of a plasticizer. The disadvantage of ballistic powders compared to pyroxylin powders is the great danger in production due to the presence in their composition of a powerful explosive - nitroglycerin, which is very sensitive to external influences, as well as the inability to obtain charges with a diameter greater than 0.8 m, unlike mixed gunpowders based on synthetic polymers . The technological process for the production of ballistic powders involves mixing components in warm water in order to distribute them evenly, squeeze out the water and repeatedly roll on hot rollers. This removes water and plasticizes the cellulose nitrate, which takes on the appearance of a horn-like sheet. Next, the gunpowder is pressed through dies or rolled into thin sheets and cut.

2.2.3. Cordite

Cordite gunpowder contains high-nitrogen pyroxylin, a removable (alcohol-ether mixture, acetone) and a non-removable (nitroglycerin) plasticizer. This brings the production technology of these gunpowders closer to the production of pyroxylin gunpowder. Advantage cordites- greater power, however, they cause increased burning of the barrels due to the higher temperature of the combustion products.

2.2.4. Solid rocket fuel

Mixed gunpowders based on synthetic polymers (solid rocket fuels) contain approximately 50-60% oxidizer, usually ammonium perchlorate, 10-20% plasticized polymer binder, 10-20% fine aluminum powder and various additives. This direction of powder making first appeared in Germany in the 30-40s of the XX century; after the end of the war, the active development of such fuels began in the USA, and in the early 50s in the USSR. The main advantages over ballistic powders that attracted a lot of attention to them were: higher specific thrust of rocket engines using such fuel, the ability to create charges of any shape and size, high deformation and mechanical properties of the compositions, and the ability to regulate the burning rate over a wide range. These advantages made it possible to create strategic missiles with a range of more than 10,000 km; using ballistic gunpowder, S.P. Korolev, together with gunpowder makers, managed to create a missile with a maximum range of 2,000 km. But mixed solid fuels have significant disadvantages compared to nitrocellulose powders: the very high cost of their production, the duration of the charge production cycle (up to several months), the complexity of disposal, and the release of ammonium perchlorate into the atmosphere during combustion of hydrochloric acid.

3. Combustion of gunpowder and its regulation

Combustion in parallel layers, which does not turn into an explosion, is caused by the transfer of heat from layer to layer and is achieved by manufacturing fairly monolithic powder elements, free of cracks. The burning rate of gunpowder depends on pressure according to a power law, increasing with increasing pressure, so you should not focus on the burning rate of gunpowder at atmospheric pressure when assessing its characteristics. Regulating the burning rate of gunpowder is a very complex task and is solved by using various combustion catalysts in the powder composition. Combustion in parallel layers allows you to regulate the rate of gas formation. The gas formation of gunpowder depends on the size of the surface of the charge and its burning rate.

The surface area of ​​the powder elements is determined by their shape, geometric dimensions and can increase or decrease during the combustion process. Such combustion is called accordingly progressive or degressive. To obtain a constant rate of gas formation or its change according to a certain law, individual sections of charges (for example, rocket charges) are covered with a layer of non-combustible materials ( reservation). The burning rate of gunpowder depends on its composition, initial temperature and pressure.

4. Characteristics of gunpowder

The main characteristics of gunpowder are: heat of combustion Q - the amount of heat released during complete combustion of 1 kilogram of gunpowder; the volume of gaseous products V released during the combustion of 1 kilogram of gunpowder (determined after bringing the gases to normal conditions); gas temperature T, determined during the combustion of gunpowder under conditions of constant volume and absence of heat losses; powder density ρ; gunpowder force f is the work that 1 kilogram of powder gases could do, expanding when heated by T degrees at normal atmospheric pressure.

Characteristics of the main types of gunpowder

Literature

• Mao Tso-ben It was invented in China / Translation from Chinese and notes by A. Klyshko. - M.: Young Guard, 1959. - P. 35-45. - 160 s. - 25,000 copies.
• Soviet military encyclopedia, M., 1978.

Man has made many discoveries that were of great importance in one area or another of life. However, very few of these discoveries actually affected the course of history.

Gunpowder and its invention are precisely from this list of discoveries that contributed to the development of many areas of humanity.

Story

Background to the appearance of gunpowder

Scientists have debated for a long time about the time of its creation. Some argued that it was invented in Asian countries, while others, on the contrary, disagree and prove the opposite, that gunpowder was invented in Europe, and from there it came to Asia.

Everyone agrees that China is the birthplace of gunpowder.

The existing manuscripts speak of noisy holidays that were held in the Middle Kingdom with very loud explosions that were not familiar to Europeans. Of course, it was not gunpowder, but bamboo seeds, which burst with loud noise when heated. Such explosions made Tibetan monks think about the practical application of such things.

History of invention

Now it is no longer possible to determine with an accuracy of one year the time of the invention of gunpowder by the Chinese, however, according to manuscripts that have survived to this day, there is an opinion that in the middle of the 6th century, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire also knew the composition of substances with the help of which fire with a bright flame could be obtained. The Taoist monks advanced the furthest towards the invention of gunpowder, who eventually invented gunpowder.

Thanks to the found work of monks, which was dated back to the 9th century, which contains lists of all certain “elixirs” and how to use them.

Much attention was paid to the text, which indicated the prepared composition, which unexpectedly ignited right after production and caused burns to the monks.

If the fire was not put out immediately, the alchemist’s house would burn to the ground.

Thanks to such information, discussions about the place and time of the invention of gunpowder were ended. Well, I must say that after the invention of gunpowder, it only burned, but did not explode.

The first composition of gunpowder

The composition of gunpowder required an exact ratio of all components. It took the monks another year to determine all the shares and components. As a result, a mixture was obtained that received the name “fire potion.” The potion contained molecules of coal, sulfur and saltpeter. There is very little saltpeter in nature, with the exception of the territories of China, where saltpeter can be found directly on the surface of the earth in a layer of several centimeters.

Gunpowder components:

Peaceful uses of gunpowder in China

When gunpowder was first invented, it was mainly used in the form of various sound effects or for colorful “fireworks” during entertainment events. However, local sages understood that the combat use of gunpowder was also possible.

China in those distant times was constantly at war with the nomads around it, and the invention of gunpowder was in the hands of military commanders.

Gunpowder: First military use by the Chinese

There are manuscripts by Chinese monks that claim the use of a “fire potion” for military purposes. The Chinese military surrounded the nomads and lured them into a mountainous area, where gunpowder charges were pre-installed and set on fire after the enemy’s campaign.

Strong explosions paralyzed the nomads, who fled in shame.

Having understood what gunpowder is and realizing its capabilities, the emperors of China supported the production of weapons using a fiery mixture, including catapults, powder balls, and various projectiles. Thanks to the use of gunpowder, the troops of the Chinese commanders did not know defeat and put the enemy to flight everywhere.

Gunpowder leaves China: Arabs and Mongols begin to make gunpowder

According to information received, around the 13th century, information about the composition and proportions for the manufacture of gunpowder was obtained by the Arabs; there is no exact information about how this was done. According to one legend, the Arabs massacred all the monks of the monastery and received a treatise. In the same century, the Arabs were able to build a cannon that could fire gunpowder shells.

"Greek Fire": Byzantine Gunpowder

Further information from the Arabs about gunpowder and its composition in Byzantium. By slightly changing the composition qualitatively and quantitatively, a recipe was obtained, which was called “Greek fire”. The first tests of this mixture were not long in coming.

During the defense of the city, cannons loaded with Greek fire were used. As a result, all the ships were destroyed by fire. Accurate information about the composition of “Greek fire” has not reached our times, but presumably it was used - sulfur, oil, saltpeter, resin and oils.

Gunpowder in Europe: who invented it?

For a long time, Roger Bacon was considered the culprit behind the appearance of gunpowder in Europe. In the mid-thirteenth century, he became the first European to describe in a book all the recipes for making gunpowder. But the book was encrypted, and it was not possible to use it.

If you want to know who invented gunpowder in Europe, then the answer to your question is the story of Berthold Schwartz. He was a monk and practiced alchemy for the benefit of his Franciscan Order. At the beginning of the fourteenth century he worked to determine the proportions of the substance from coal, sulfur and saltpeter. After much experimentation, he managed to grind the necessary components in a mortar in a proportion sufficient to cause an explosion.

The blast wave almost sent the monk to the next world.

The invention marked the beginning of the era of firearms.

The first model of the “shooting mortar” was developed by the same Schwartz, for which he was sent to prison in order to not disclose the secret. But the monk was kidnapped and secretly transported to Germany, where he continued his experiments in improving firearms.

How the inquisitive monk ended his life is still unknown. According to one version, he was blown up on a barrel of gunpowder; according to another, he died safely at a very old age. Be that as it may, gunpowder gave the Europeans great opportunities, which they did not fail to take advantage of.

The appearance of gunpowder in Rus'

There is no exact answer about the origin of gunpowder in Rus'. There are many stories, but the most plausible is considered to be that the composition of the gunpowder was provided by the Byzantines. For the first time, gunpowder was used in a firearm when defending Moscow from a raid by the troops of the Golden Horde. Such a gun did not incapacitate the enemy’s manpower, but made it possible to frighten horses and sow panic in the ranks of the Golden Horde.

Smokeless powder recipe: who invented it?

Approaching more modern centuries, let's say that the 19th century was the time of improvement of gunpowder. One of the interesting improvements is the invention of pyroxylin powder, which has a solid structure, by the Frenchman Viel. Its first use was appreciated by representatives of the defense department.

The point is that the gunpowder burned without smoke, leaving no traces.

A little later, inventor Alfred Nobel announced the possibility of using nitroglycerin gunpowder in the production of projectiles. After these inventions, gunpowder was only improved and its characteristics improved.

Types of gunpowder

The following types of gunpowder are used in the classification:

• mixed(the so-called black powder (black powder));
• nitrocellulose(respectively, smokeless).

It may be a discovery for many, but solid rocket fuel used in spacecraft and rocket engines is nothing more than the most powerful gunpowder. Nitrocellulose powders consist of nitrocellulose and a plasticizer. In addition to these parts, various additives are mixed into the mixture.

The storage conditions of gunpowder are of great importance. If the gunpowder is found beyond the possible storage period or the technological storage conditions are not met, irreversible chemical decomposition and deterioration of its properties are possible. Therefore, storage is of great importance in the life of gunpowder, otherwise an explosion may occur.

Black powder

Black powder is produced on the territory of the Russian Federation in accordance with the requirements of GOST-1028-79.

At the present time, the production of smoky or black powder is regulated and complies regulatory requirements and rules.

The types of gunpowder are divided into:

• grainy;
• powder powder.

Black powder consists of potassium nitrate, sulfur and charcoal.

• potassium nitrate oxidizes, allowing to burn at a rapid rate.
• charcoal is a fuel (which is oxidized by potassium nitrate).
• sulfur- a component that is necessary to ensure ignition. Requirements for the proportions of grades of black powder in different countries different, but the differences are not big.

The shape of granular grades of gunpowder after production resembles grain. Production consists of five stages:

1. Grind to powder;
2. Mixing;
3. Pressed onto discs;
4. Grain crushing occurs;
5. The grains are polished.

The most the best varieties Gunpowder burns better if all components are completely crushed and thoroughly mixed, even the output shape of the granules is important. The combustion efficiency of black powder is largely related to the fineness of grinding of the components, the completeness of mixing and the shape of the finished grains.

Types of black powders (% composition KNO 3, S, C.):

• corded (for fire cords) (77%, 12%, 11%);
• rifle (for igniters for charges of nitrocellulose powders and mixed solid fuels, as well as for expelling charges in incendiary and illuminating shells);
• coarse-grained (for igniters);
• slow-burning (for intensifiers and moderators in tubes and fuses);
• mine (for blasting) (75%, 10%, 15%);
• hunting (76%, 9%, 15%);
• sports.

When handling black powder, you must take precautions and keep the powder away from open source fire, since it ignites easily, a flash at a temperature of 290-300 °C is sufficient for this.

There are high requirements for packaging. It must be sealed and black powder must be stored separately from the rest. Very picky about moisture content. If the moisture content is more than 2.2%, this powder is very difficult to ignite.

Before the beginning of the 20th century, black powder was invented for use in firing weapons and in various throwing grenades. Now used in the production of fireworks.

Varieties of gunpowder

Aluminum grades of gunpowder have found their use in the pyrotechnic industry. The basis is potassium/sodium nitrate (needed as an oxidizer), aluminum powder (this is flammable) and sulfur, reduced to the state of powder and mixed together. Due to the large release of light during combustion and the speed of combustion, it is used in explosive elements and flash compositions (producing a flash).

Proportions (saltpeter: aluminum: sulfur):

• bright flash - 57:28:15;
• explosion - 50:25:25.

Gunpowder is not afraid of moisture and does not change its flowability, but it can get very dirty.

Classification of gunpowders

This is a smokeless powder that was developed in modern times. Unlike black powder, nitrocellulose has a high efficiency. And there is no smoke that the arrow can give off.

In turn, nitrocellulose powders, due to the complexity of the composition and wide application can be divided into:

1. pyroxylin;
2. ballistic;
3. cordite.

Smokeless powder is gunpowder that is used in modern types of weapons and various explosive products. It is used as a detonator.

Pyroxylin

The composition of pyroxylin powders usually includes 91-96% pyroxylin, 1.2-5% volatile substances (alcohol, ether and water), 1.0-1.5% stabilizer (diphenylamine, centralite) to increase storage stability, 2- 6% phlegmatizer to slow down the combustion of the outer layers of powder grains and 0.2-0.3% graphite as additives.

Pyroxylin powders are produced in the form of plates, ribbons, rings, tubes and grains with one or more channels; The main uses are pistols, machine guns, cannons, and mortars.

The production of such gunpowder consists of the following stages:

• Dissolution (plasticization) of pyroxylin;
• Composition pressing;
• Cut from a mass with various shapes of gunpowder elements;
• Solvent removal.

Ballistic

Ballistic powders are gunpowders of artificial origin. The largest percentage has the following components:

• nitrocellulose;
• non-removable plasticizer.

Due to the presence of exactly 2 components, experts call this type of gunpowder 2-basic.

If there are changes in the percentage of gunpowder plasticizer content, they are divided into:

1. nitroglycerin;
2. diglycol.

The structure of the composition of ballistic powders is as follows:

• 40-60% colloxylin (nitrocellulose with a nitrogen content of less than 12.2%);
• 30-55% nitroglycerin (nitroglycerin powders) or diethylene glycol dinitrate (diglycol powders) or a mixture thereof;

Also included are various components that have a small percentage of content, but they are extremely important:

• dinitrotoluene– necessary to be able to control the combustion temperature;
• stabilizers(diphenylamine, centralite);
• Vaseline oil, camphor and other additives;
• Fine metal can also be added to ballistic powders(an alloy of aluminum and magnesium) to increase the temperature and energy of combustion products, such gunpowder is called metallized.

Continuous technological scheme for the production of powder mass of high-energy ballistic powders

The appearance of the manufactured gunpowder is in the form of tubes, checkers, plates, rings and ribbons. Gunpowder is used for military purposes, and according to their application they are divided:

• rocket(for charges for rocket engines and gas generators);
• artillery(for propellant charges for artillery pieces);
• mortar(for propellant charges for mortars).

Compared to pyroxylin powders, ballistic gunpowders are characterized by lower hygroscopicity, faster production, the ability to produce large charges (up to 0.8 meters in diameter), high mechanical strength and flexibility due to the use of a plasticizer.

The disadvantages of ballistic powders compared to pyroxylin powders include:

1. Great danger in production due to the presence in their composition of a powerful explosive - nitroglycerin, which is very sensitive to external influences, as well as the inability to obtain charges with a diameter of more than 0.8 m, in contrast to mixed gunpowders based on synthetic polymers;
2. Complexity technological process production ballistic powders, which involves mixing the components in warm water in order to distribute them evenly, squeezing out the water and repeated rolling on hot rollers. This removes water and plasticizes the cellulose nitrate, which takes on the appearance of a horn-like sheet. Next, the gunpowder is pressed through dies or rolled into thin sheets and cut.

Cordite

Cordite powders contain high-nitrogen pyroxylin, a removable (alcohol-ether mixture, acetone) and non-removable (nitroglycerin) plasticizer. This brings the production technology of these gunpowders closer to the production of pyroxylin gunpowder.

The advantage of cordites is greater power, but they cause increased burning of the barrels due to the higher temperature of the combustion products.

Solid rocket fuel

Synthetic polymer-based mixed propellant (solid rocket fuel) contains approximately:

• 50-60% oxidizing agent, usually ammonium perchlorate;
• 10-20% plasticized polymer binder;
• 10-20% fine aluminum powder and other additives.

This direction of powder making first appeared in Germany in the 30-40s of the 20th century; after the end of the war, the active development of such fuels began in the USA, and in the early 50s - in the USSR. The main advantages over ballistic gunpowder, which attracted a lot of attention to them, were:

• high specific thrust of rocket engines using such fuel;
• the ability to create charges of any shape and size;
• high deformation and mechanical properties of the compositions;
• the ability to regulate the burning rate over a wide range.

These properties of gunpowder made it possible to create strategic missiles with a range of more than 10,000 km. Using ballistic gunpowder, S.P. Korolev, together with gunpowder makers, managed to create a rocket with a maximum range of 2,000 km.

But mixed solid fuels have significant disadvantages compared to nitrocellulose powders: the very high cost of their production, the duration of the charge production cycle (up to several months), the complexity of disposal, the release of hydrochloric acid into the atmosphere during the combustion of ammonium perchlorate.

Powder combustion and its regulation

Combustion in parallel layers, which does not turn into an explosion, is caused by the transfer of heat from layer to layer and is achieved by manufacturing fairly monolithic powder elements, free of cracks.

The burning rate of gunpowder depends on pressure according to a power law, increasing with increasing pressure, so you should not focus on the burning rate of gunpowder at atmospheric pressure when assessing its characteristics.

Regulating the burning rate of gunpowder is a very difficult task and is solved by using various combustion catalysts in the powder composition. Combustion in parallel layers allows you to regulate the rate of gas formation.

The gas formation of gunpowder depends on the size of the surface of the charge and its burning rate.

The surface area of ​​the powder elements is determined by their shape, geometric dimensions and can increase or decrease during the combustion process. Such combustion is called progressive or digressive, respectively.

To obtain a constant rate of gas formation or its change according to a certain law, individual sections of charges (for example, missiles) are covered with a layer of non-combustible materials (armor).

The burning rate of gunpowder depends on its composition, initial temperature and pressure.

Characteristics of gunpowder

The characteristics of gunpowder are based on parameters such as:

• heat of combustion Q- the amount of heat released during complete combustion of 1 kilogram of gunpowder;
• volume of gaseous products V released during the combustion of 1 kilogram of gunpowder (determined after bringing the gases to normal conditions);
• gas temperature T, determined by combustion of gunpowder under conditions of constant volume and absence of heat losses;
• powder density ρ;
• gunpowder strength f- the work that could be done by 1 kilogram of powder gases, expanding when heated by T degrees at normal atmospheric pressure.

Characteristics of nitro powders

Non-military use

The ultimate main purpose of gunpowder is military purposes and use for the destruction of enemy targets. However, the composition of Sokol gunpowder allows its use for peaceful purposes, such as fireworks, construction tools (construction pistols, punches), and in the field of pyrotechnics - squibs. The characteristics of Bars gunpowder are more suitable for use in sports shooting.

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