Russian culture 14th-16th centuries literature. Russian culture

Since the 14th century The revival of Russian culture begins, due to the liberation of Russian lands from the Horde yoke, the formation of the Russian centralized state and the success of economic development. Gradually, an all-Russian culture begins to take shape.

Literature

In the XIV-XV centuries. Most of the chronicles are compiled in Moscow monasteries; the Gospels, lives of saints, and teachings are copied. The development and strengthening of the Russian state was accompanied by a strengthening of the position of the church in all spheres of spiritual life. In the 16th century The ideological activities of the church acquired a wide scope. The Church launched a fight against all kinds of dissent and established strict regulation of all spiritual life. The Church monitored the correct understanding of the teachings of Christ and cruelly punished freethinkers and heretics.

Painting

Russian painting in the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented prosperity. Man and his spiritual world are the central theme of Russian painting.

Was a great artist Feofan the Greek, who came from Byzantium in the 70s of the 14th century. to Novgorod. Only the Deesis icons in the Annunciation Cathedral have survived to our time.

Andrey Rublev- the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the 15th century. Rublev created his masterpiece - the icon “The Life-Giving Trinity” (Tretyakov Gallery).

Dionysius- leading Moscow icon painter of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. He is considered a successor to the traditions of Andrei Rublev. The most famous works of Dionysius are the wall paintings and iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery, made by the master together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir.

Also, the XIV-XV century became the period of development of book miniatures.

Book business

Centers for literacy and education in the 16th century. There were monasteries and churches where schools were created, and there were libraries of handwritten and printed books. Until the middle of the 16th century. All books in Rus' were written by hand. WITH 1553 Russian book printing begins. IN April 1564 clerk Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated printed book “Apostle” (about the activities of Christ’s disciples). This was followed by the Book of Hours and other books, which were distinguished by a high level of printing.

Architecture

IN 1485 The construction of new Kremlin walls and towers began. Civil engineering is developing, a number of buildings - chambers - are being built in the Kremlin, the most famous of which is the Faceted Chamber (1487-1496). The most famous architectural monument of this period is St. Basil's Cathedral, the construction of which continued in 1554-1560.

13. “Time of Troubles” at the beginning of the 17th century.

Time of Troubles (1598-1613) in the history of the Fatherland is characterized by the weakness of state power and disobedience of the outskirts to the center, imposture, civil war and intervention, “the great ruin of the Moscow state.”

Causes of the Troubles: 1. the Rurik family was interrupted 2. beginning of the 17th century was a disaster for Russia (hunger, general discontent, people begin to leave their native villages to travel around the country) 3. oprichnina, which showed the people their lack of rights in the face of arbitrary power

After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible (1584) inherited the throne his son Feodor (1584-1598)- a person incapable of ruling. All power was in the hands of his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.

The beginning of the Troubles was marked by the death of Ivan the Terrible's son Dmitry. After the death of Feodor, Boris Godunov was elected Tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended.

IN 1601 - an impostor is declared in Poland False Dmitry (Grigory Otrepiev), posing as the son of Ivan the Terrible.

IN 1605 The boyars, having betrayed Boris (his death), swore allegiance to False Dmitry, who began to reign.

IN 1606 During the uprising, False Dmitry was killed. On the throne Vasily Shuisky. The strengthening of serfdom, instability and arbitrariness of the feudal lords caused an uprising of peasants and serfs.

1606 -the first peasant war. The main reasons: the process of enslavement, instability and turmoil in power structures. Ivan Bolotnikov-the head of the uprising of peasants and serfs from Putivl moved to Moscow.

Summer 1607., when Ivan Bolotnikov’s army was besieging Tula, a second impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry ( False Dmitry II). False Dmitry II achieved some success.

IN June 1608 False Dmitry II approached Moscow. Many nobles and government officials, dissatisfied with Shuisky’s rule, moved to Tushino. Dual power was established in the country. In fact, in Russia there were two kings, two Boyar Dumas, two systems of orders. A palace coup took place in Moscow.

Tsar Vasily July 17, 1610 was dethroned. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. Power passed into the hands of the boyars, who soon swore allegiance to the Polish prince Vladislav, in September 1610 The Poles entered the capital.

Some Russian cities did not support the Poles, and the country split into two camps. Period from 1610 to 1613 went down in history as "Seven Boyars"- by the number of boyars who headed the “Russian” party.

A powerful popular anti-Polish movement is rising in the country and 1611 A people's militia is formed and besieges Moscow. The militia was led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Due to contradictions in the government of I, the militia disintegrated, but the very next year a second militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. His headman Kuzma Minin V September 1611 called on fellow citizens to help the Moscow state. The head of the zemstvo militia invited the steward and governor prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. IN October The militia took Moscow by storm and the Poles capitulated.

IN January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor was convened in the year, at which the election of a new king took place. Largely thanks to Patriarch Filaret, they put Mikhail Romanov, who was 16 years old at the time. The power of the new tsar was significantly limited by the boyars and the Zemsky Sobor, without whose blessing the tsar could not make the most important decisions.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT TROUBLES:

It is very difficult to assess the significance of the Time of Troubles for the fate of our state. The immediate events of this period led to global economic devastation And impoverishment of the country. The consequence of the turmoil was that Russia lost part of its lands, which had to be returned with heavy losses: Smolensk, western Ukraine, Kola Peninsula. For an indefinite period, one could forget about access to the sea, and therefore about trade with Western Europe. The greatly weakened Russian state was surrounded by strong enemies in the form of Poland and Sweden, and the Crimean Tatars revived. On the other hand, the role of the people in the expulsion of the Polish-Swedish invaders, the accession of the new Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) – they united society, and the self-awareness of the Russian people rose to a qualitatively new level.

RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 14th-16th CENTURIES
INFLUENCE OF THE TATAR-MONGOL ISIS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands from the mid-13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', the construction of stone buildings temporarily ceased.

The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works perished, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural and general cultural achievements.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to form on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLES

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. New centers are also appearing: Moscow and Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and manuscript books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of unifying the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle from the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first code of an all-Russian character since the times of Ancient Rus'; the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Rus' is substantiated here.

• In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, tales, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.

First cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state.

Second cycle of epics- Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies.

• The main characters are Sadko and Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the devastation of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

In the tradition of lament it is written “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”(only the first part has survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A whole series of hagiographies are dedicated to princes who died in the horde. This Life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'.

• From here images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions were borrowed. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in victory and glorifies Moscow as the state center of Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing across three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Rus'. It retells impressions from travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian nation.

• A language has emerged that differs from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

• In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. . The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Elected Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Rus' reflected several trends on issues of the relationship between power and individual segments of the population called upon to support it. Either the royal power had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

The Great Menaion of the Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaion contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, organizer of correspondence and editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were to contain “all the holy books of the Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of the Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions on all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century version attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

• Although Domostroy was a collection of advice on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th - 15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of wonderful painters were working in Rus'.

• At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person who came from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod painter Feofan the Greek.

He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, his icons convey spiritual tension. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

• The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrey Rublev.

He is a master of laconic but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque coloring is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God, who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at a table appeared in Byzantium in the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - “hospitality”) of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, Saint Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as three hypostases of God. The middle Angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right Angel - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis for this interpretation of the icon is the clothing and arrangement of the Angels), however, the identical appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. Before the Angels stands a cup - a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice for our sins.

At the end of the 15th century, a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent calorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes by Uspensky Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod icon painting school also operates. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

• Under Dmitry Donskoy, the white stone Kremlin was built for the first time.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches are being restored. Thanks to additions and reconstructions, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Fioravanti traveled to Vladimir and examined the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479, he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a faceted chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

• The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'.

Masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, its own architectural style appears.

Introduction P. 3
Chapter 1. Russian culture of the XIV – XV centuries P. 6
1. Book business P. 6
2. Literature. Chronicle S. 8
3. Architecture P. 12
4. Painting P. 15
5. Accumulation of scientific knowledge P. 17
Chapter 2. Russian culture of the 15th – early 16th centuries P. 19
1. Book business P. 19
2. Chronicles. Literature P. 20
3. Architecture P. 21
4. Painting P. 25
Conclusion p. 26
List of used literature. P. 27

Introduction

In the middle of the 13th century, Rus' was subjected to a Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had catastrophic consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material assets, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.
As a result of the political events of the 13th - 14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people found themselves divided and separated from each other. Entry into different state entities complicated the development of economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Rus' and deepened the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation of three fraternal nationalities on the basis of the Old Russian nationality - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th century and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialect differences) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.
Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at this time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle to eliminate feudal fragmentation and create a unified state.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to deepening feudal fragmentation. In the culture of disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies also became more and more clearly evident.
The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the fight against foreign yoke became one of the leading ones in culture and runs like a red thread through works of oral folk art, writing, painting, and architecture.
The culture of this time was also characterized by the idea of ​​an inextricable connection between Rus' of the 14th and 15th centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This tendency was clearly manifested in oral folk art, chronicles, literature, political thought, and architecture.
In this essay we examined the development of Russian culture in the 14th – early 16th centuries. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - mid-XV centuries and the end of the XV - early XVI centuries. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (around the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various spheres of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of an incipient revival. From the second half of the 14th century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to the liberation of the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused a rise in national self-awareness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local cultural characteristics, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes leading.
The turn of the 15th - 16th centuries was a turning point in the historical development of Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, and predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.
Overcoming feudal fragmentation and the creation of a unified state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country and served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-awareness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century, especially clearly manifested in socio-political thought and architecture.
And in spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence against foreign invaders continued to remain one of the leading ones.
During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Rus' was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced forward in their development. For the Russian state, establishing ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among the European powers. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture; outstanding architects and other craftsmen came to work in Russia.
The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society and the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.
The development of progressive trends in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to the autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the 14th – mid-15th centuries

1. BOOK BUSINESS.
Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book treasures and on the level of literacy, the traditions of writing and book learning, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and were further developed.
The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development of book publishing. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, which had book-writing workshops and libraries containing hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to this day. From the end of the 15th century. An inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery has reached us (4, p. 67).
But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the scribes' notes on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book-writing workshops also existed in cities and at princely courts. Books were produced, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.
The development of writing and bookmaking was accompanied by changes in writing techniques. In the XIV century. Expensive parchment was replaced by paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. The writing graphics have changed; instead of a strict “statutory” letter, the so-called half-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and “cursive writing,” which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and helped meet the growing demand (9, p..47).
Liturgical books predominated in book production, the necessary set of which was available in every religious institution - in a church, a monastery. The nature of the reader's interests was reflected by "children's" books, that is, books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in monastery libraries. The most common type of "chetya" book in the 15th century. collections of mixed composition have become, which researchers call “libraries in miniature.”
The repertoire of "four" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian works; Next to religious and edifying literature, there were works of a secular nature - excerpts from chronicles, historical stories, journalism. It is noteworthy that these collections contain articles of a natural science nature. Thus, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery of the early 15th century. included articles “On the latitude and longitude of the earth”, “On stages and fields”, “On the distance between heaven and earth”, “Lunar current”, “On earthly structure”, etc. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about structure of the Universe. The earth was recognized as a sphere, although it was still placed at the center of the universe (4, P.32). Other articles give a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, occur from the collision of clouds). There are also articles on medicine, biology, and extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and doctor of the 2nd century. Galena.
Russian books of the 14th and 15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political resonance.

2. LITERATURE. CHRONICLES.
Russian literature of the 14th - 15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its acute journalisticism and put forward the most important problems of the political life of Rus'. Chronicle writing was especially closely connected with socio-political life. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played a large role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p. 12).
In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, having been interrupted for a while in some, was resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing continued to be distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, and tendentious coverage of events from the perspective of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign conquerors ran through all the chronicles.
The Moscow chronicle, which appeared in the first half of the 14th century, also had a local character at first. However, with the increasing political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a national character. As it developed, Moscow chronicles became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow’s successes in unifying Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.
The growth of national self-awareness was evidenced by the revival of all-Russian chronicles at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Rus', was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which perished during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a lot of work to unite and process disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, a new chronicle was compiled (the Vladimir Polychron), the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand princely power with the urban population of feudal centers for the purpose of the political unification of Rus'. These vaults formed the basis for subsequent chronicle vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was the Moscow Code of 1479 (1, p. 49).
All Moscow chronicles are permeated by the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand-ducal power. They clearly demonstrate the historical and political concept that emerged at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Rus' in the 14th and 15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Rus'. The chronicles propagated the idea, which later became official, that Moscow inherited the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir and was their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with the “Tale of Bygone Years.”
Unifying ideas that corresponded to the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century, the Novgorod-Sophia arch, which was all-Russian in nature, was created, which included the Photius arch. The Tver chronicle also took on an all-Russian character, in which the strong power of the Grand Duke was promoted and the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde were noted. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the Tver princes in the unification of Rus' (1, p. 50).
The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, the military story became one of the most common genres. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.
An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu.” The main part of its content is the story of the capture and destruction of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the disaster to promote Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.
The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular druzhina story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice. But this story has not reached us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtones. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskov people against German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).
A monument to Tver literature from the early 14th century is “The Tale of the Murder of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde.” This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. Based on an oral folk poetic work, “The Tale of Shevkal” was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.
The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo Field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-awareness and instilled in the Russian people confidence in their abilities. Under its influence, the Kulikovo cycle of works arose, which are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis for victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. They all talk about the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Rus' over the Tatars (4, pp. 24-25).
The most profound and significant work of this cycle is “Zadonshchina” - a poem written by Sophony Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not strive to give a consistent and thorough depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and Prince Dmitry Ivanovich is presented as the true organizer of the Russian forces.
The Chronicle Tale of the Battle of Kulikovo for the first time gives a coherent account of the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, and the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian affair. However, in the story there is a noticeable deviation from real historical facts, which are interpreted from the point of view of religious morality: the final reason for the defeat of the Tatars is “divine will”; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, love of peace and love of Christ.
“The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” is the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. On the one side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of the Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of “The Legend” is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, and understands the importance of unity between the princes. In "The Legend" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power is justified (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).
It is only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy that the Battle of Kulikovo is mentioned in the “Tale of the Life and Death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia.” This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Rus' is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflected the desire of the churchmen for an alliance with the grand ducal power.
The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story “About the capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the capture of the Russian land.” The story is characterized by such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the 14th - 15th centuries, covering events from the perspective of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. There is no individual hero in it. Ordinary townspeople who took the defense of Moscow into their own hands after the princes and boyars fled from it are the true hero of the story (9, pp. 53-54).
During the time under review, hagiographic literature received great development, a number of works of which are permeated with current journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of thoughts about the leading role of Moscow and the close union of princely power and the church (with primary importance given to church power) as the main condition for the strengthening of Rus'. The hagiographic literature also reflected specifically ecclesiastical interests, which did not always coincide with the interests of the grand ducal authorities. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, who saw the commonality of the fate of Metropolitan Peter, not recognized at one time by the prince of Tver, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.
The rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style) has become widespread in hagiographic literature. The text included lengthy and florid speeches-monologues, the author's rhetorical digressions, and reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the hero’s feelings, his state of mind, and psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the works of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of German knights brought the country to the brink of destruction.

Literature of the 13th century characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. Chronicle stories about the battle on the river tell about fierce battles with invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land. Kalke “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The memory of the invasion of Rus' was preserved in the works of later times “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “The Legend of Kitezh”. The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which plunged into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped destruction by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle took shape over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer “Book, verb chronicler” (late 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the 14th century. The rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities and centers of economic life and culture are being revived and new ones are developing.

Moscow is leading the fight for the unification of Russian lands, and its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, “Zadonshchina” (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo Field. This work was written in the genre of a historical story by the Ryazan resident Sophony in the 80s. XIV century The author compares the events of contemporary life with the events described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Victory on the Kulikovo field is like revenge for the defeat of Igor Svyatoslavovich’s troops. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture developed widely, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov - cities that were politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV–XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers of development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongol period (continuity of cultures). They used masonry made from rough-hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly brick. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). This feature of Novgorod art was noted by academician I. E. Grabar: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Examples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratelates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple construction, civil construction was also carried out. The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built themselves stone chambers. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was founded in Novgorod.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city resembled a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is harsh and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers. Pskov craftsmen gained great fame in Rus' and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly being built and expanded.

Construction was also carried out in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome “cubicity” and create a new, upward-facing composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV–XV centuries. just like architecture, it became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongol period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Rus' of this time is attributed to the Golden Age. Along with icon painting, fresco - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water - became widespread. In the XIV century. fresco painting is designed compositionally, landscape is introduced, and the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among artists of the 14th–15th centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free painting style. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they painted the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourished. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​concord and harmony, and the perfection of artistic form.

His most famous work is the Trinity icon. In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the late XV–XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a unified Russian state continued, the country was finally freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are strengthening in Russian culture.

Works appearing in the literature supporting the new government policy. The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.” It stated that Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the concept of “Moscow – the Third Rome”. The economic and political achievements of Russia at this time had a noticeable impact on increasing the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and sextons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

The appearance of book printing. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Book printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564, the first Russian printed book was published “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature “Monthly Readings”. These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by month in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing chronicle works are being created, for example, the Litsevoy Chronicle - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. A monument of Russian historical literature is also the “Degree Book,” compiled by Ivan IV’s confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains “ Domostroy" He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal, etc.

Architecture of the period XV – XVI centuries. reflected the increasing international role of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of a Russian centralized state was marked by the construction of a new Kremlin on the site of the old one, the ensemble of which was finally formed at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries. At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brick masonry replaced traditional white stone masonry. In 1485 - 1495 The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479 a new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489 The Annunciation Cathedral, the home church of the Grand Dukes, was built.

In 1505 - 1508 The Archangel Cathedral was built, the appearance of which clearly expressed the secular style of architecture. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the tsars (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example the Chamber of Facets, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century. was the construction of the temple tent type, in which the national originality of Russian traditions was most clearly expressed. An example of a tented church was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555 – 1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the 16th century “Fortress construction” gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitai-Gorod, then White City). These works were supervised by the famous master Fyodor Kon; he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV – XVI centuries. presented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionysius. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

The range of painting themes is gradually expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

Painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to Academician D.S. Likhachev, “of all periods in the history of Russian culture, it was the XV – XVI centuries. are especially important. It is then that the interrupted process of creating a unified state and the revival of culture take place..."

Lecture, abstract. The culture of Russian lands and the Russian state in the 14th-16th centuries - concept and types. Classification, essence and features. 2018-2019.