Topic: healing in the states of the ancient East. healing in ancient india and ancient china

Medicine in ancient India

The ancient Indian culture, the development of which can be traced over many centuries, was created by many peoples inhabiting India in the 3rd - 1st millennium BC. e. The ancient civilization of India developed within the Hindustan subcontinent. At present, this is the territory of modern states - Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan. The slave system in India developed towards the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e., however, the remnants of the patriarchal community persisted for a long time.

The population of ancient Indian society was divided into four main estates (or castes): Brahmins- priests (priests) kshatriyas- warriors, Vaishya- merchants, artisans, pastoralists, free peasants, sudra- servants and handymen.

In the history of medicine Ancient India is divided into three periods:

The period of the Harappan civilization (III - the beginning of the II millennium BC; the Indus River Valley): the emergence of the first slave-owning city-states on the territory of modern Pakistan;

Vedic period (late II - mid-I millennium BC; Ganges River valley): with the advent of the Aryans, the center of civilization moved to the eastern part of the subcontinent; compilation of the Vedas ("sacred texts");

The classical period (the second half of the 1st millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC; the Hindustan subcontinent): the flourishing of the original culture of ancient India, the high development of agriculture, crafts and trade, the establishment and spread of Buddhism.

Sources of information about the healing of ancient India are: archaeological and ethnographic data, ancient literary monuments(religious-philosophical writings - the Vedas, "precepts of Manu", samhitas of Charaka ("Caraka-samhitâ") and Sushruta ("Sushruta-samhitâ"), descriptions of historians, philosophers and travelers of antiquity.

Archaeological excavations of the ancient cities of the Indus Valley Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Changhu-Daro testify to high culture and a high level of sanitary improvement. The cities had sanitary facilities - wells, baths, a swimming pool, water supply and sewerage, and a water supply system built earlier than the Roman one.

The oldest written sources containing limited information about healing in ancient India are sacred hymns - Veda. The Rig Veda (XII-X centuries BC) and the Atharvaveda (VIII-VI centuries BC) reflect medical knowledge closely related to religious beliefs and magical ideas. The emergence of diseases is the punishment of the gods and the influence of evil spirits. Healing was explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells. However, during the period religious beliefs and mystical ideas, the practical experience of the people was used: the cure of diseases with medicinal plants, the effect of which was explained by the influence of a healing force that counteracts evil spirits.

An ancient physician in India was called bhishaj which means "exorcist". Gradually, over time, the healer-caster turns into a healer-healer, but he continues to be called bhishaj.

Many issues of hygiene are covered in the “precepts of Manu”: the influence of climate and seasons on health, cleanliness in the home, gymnastics, nutrition, moderation in food, and the benefits of getting up early after sleep. Personal hygiene rules are carefully developed - brushing teeth with brushes and powders, bathing, rubbing the body, changing clothes, etc. Overeating, drug abuse and drunkenness are condemned, restriction in meat consumption is prescribed, fresh plant foods, milk and honey are recommended. Attention is drawn to the cleanliness of dishes.

According to the "precepts of Manu" it was not allowed to sell a pregnant slave.

In ancient India, much attention was paid not only to personal, but also to public hygiene. The following facts testify to the high level of improvement in the cities of the Indus Valley: wide streets, every house had baths, baths were built with warm pipes under the floor for heating. Garbage pits for public use were equipped in the cities, and a latrine was built in each house. City authorities issued orders aimed at preventing and combating epidemic (infectious) diseases. There were rules on the removal from the cities of persons suffering from leprosy (leprosy), on the eviction of residents from cities in which there was an epidemic of the plague. IN major cities positions of employees were established who were obliged to monitor the removal of sewage and garbage, the sanitary condition of markets, and the sale of food products.

Outstanding monuments of ancient Ayurvedic writing "Charaka-samhita" (I - II centuries AD) and "Sushruta-samhita" (IV century AD) reflect the main directions of traditional ancient Indian medicine.

Ayurveda contains information about medicines of plant, animal and mineral origin, with herbal medicines being the most numerous class. Remedies for poisons have been described, including antidotes for snake bites. Medicinal plants were specially grown in India. Of the animal products, milk, fat, oil, blood, glands, bile of animals, birds and fish were widely used. Healers used gold, silver, copper, antimony, other metals and their compounds as medicines. They cauterized ulcers, treated eye and skin diseases, and were prescribed for internal diseases. Of particular importance among healers was mercury and its salts. Mercury was considered a panacea for many diseases. "A doctor who is familiar with the healing properties of roots is a person who knows the power of prayers - a prophet, but who knows the action of mercury - a god." Mercury was used to treat syphilitic skin lesions, and in pairs they killed harmful insects.

It was believed that only healers had the right to prepare medicines. Medicines prepared by non-healers were considered invalid.

The Vedas describe the symptoms of malaria and anthrax, mention different types diseases: digestive disorders, jaundice, leprosy, hemorrhoids, "disease in the joints" (possibly rheumatism), the effects of snake bites and other poisonous animals, eye and ear lesions, skin and genitourinary diseases. Cholera, plague and leprosy are described with great care.

In the system of medical knowledge, importance was attached to diagnostics. The doctor was first of all obliged to "unravel the disease and only then proceed to treatment." Diagnosis of diseases by ancient Indian healers is based on examining the patient's body, a detailed questioning of the patient and the study of body heat, skin color and tongue, secretions, noises in the lungs, voice, etc. The healer had to be able to palpate the abdominal cavity, determine the size of the spleen and liver.

The Sushruta treatise describes three stages of inflammation. Signs of the first stage are minor pain. The second is shooting pains, swelling, a feeling of pressure, local heat, redness and dysfunction. The third is the reduction of swelling and the formation of pus. Local inflammations were treated with leeches, Spanish flies, jars, linseed poultices or grated carrots. With suppuration, surgical methods were used - opening of the abscess; with mastitis - radial incisions.

In ancient India, surgery was considered the first and best of all medical sciences: She is a precious work of heaven and an eternal source of glory.”. The level of development of surgery is evidenced by surgical instruments discovered during archaeological excavations and ancient books that mention surgical instruments, which numbered two hundred items. Ancient Indian healers decided to perform such operations as amputation of limbs, stone section, herniotomy, laparotomy, caesarean section, etc. The healers masterfully performed cataract surgery. Plastic surgery was done to compensate for defects in the ears, nose, lips. Nose and lip plastic surgery for a long time was known in surgery under the name of the Indian method. Dentistry was regarded as an important branch of surgery.

From the healer who performed surgical operations, great skill and resourcefulness were required. He had to have a firm hand and an intrepid heart so that “during the operation he would not look like a cowardly soldier who first appeared on the battlefield”, be distinguished by courage, dexterity and excellent command of surgical instruments.

In the course of operations, general anesthetics were used - opium, wine, plants from the nightshade family. Having no idea about antisepsis and asepsis, Indian healers achieved meticulous cleanliness during operations. In the treatment of wounds, dressings made of fabrics soaked in cow's oil were used, wounds were poured with boiling liquids (oil, balm). Cotton, cambium plants were used as a dressing material. The wounds were sutured with jute threads, strips of aponeurosis and intestines of animals.

The treatise "Sushruta Samhita" gives advice to pregnant women about keeping cleanliness and right image life, the incorrect position of the fetus, the rotation of the fetus on the leg and on the head, extraction of the fetus, embryotomy are described.

The ideas of ancient Indian healers about the physiology of the human body were based on the concept of a close connection between a person and the outside world, which consisted of five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of three substances: air, fire and water, the carriers of which in the body were considered prana, bile and mucus. Health was understood as the result of a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, the normal state of the sense organs and clarity of mind, and the disease was understood as a violation of these correct ratios and the negative impact on a person of the five elements (the influence of the season, climate, unhealthy water, indigestible food and so on.). In Ayurveda "Sushruta Samhita" all diseases are divided into natural, associated with nature and supernatural, sent by the gods.

Among the natural causes of disease, importance was attached to errors in nutrition, addiction to wine, physical overstrain, starvation, and past illnesses. In addition, it was believed that the state of health is influenced by climatic changes, the age and mood of the patient. Longing, sadness, anger, fear - " the first steps on the ladder of any disease».

Anatomy was developed rather poorly, since for a long time the cult traditions of the prohibition of the slaughter of animals and the opening of human corpses prevailed. Therefore, the knowledge of Indian healers about the structure human body were not extensive and complete, and the methods of anatomy were imperfect. So, the corpse was subjected to maceration for seven days in running water. After that, the soaked parts were successively scraped off with a brush or bark, or the process of natural decomposition was simply observed. Healers attached particular importance to the brain, spine, chest, which was considered the receptacle of diseases. The navel was considered the center of life, from which all vessels and nerves originate. Particularly important parts of the body were singled out - palms, soles, testicles, inguinal regions, etc., damage to which was considered life-threatening.

original form medical training were schools at temples and monasteries, where young men studied under the guidance of monks versed in the art of healing. More perfect medical education was given in higher schools, often referred to as universities, in the cities of Taxila, Benares and other cultural centers of ancient India. The teaching was conducted by tutors from the highest class of doctors - vaidsha, who were allowed to have no more than three or four students. The mentor required not only deep knowledge of the subject, but also high moral qualities. The training was carried out for five to six years. The right to practice medicine was given by the Raja. He also monitored the activities of healers and the observance of medical ethics. For improper treatment, the healer paid a fine depending on the social status of the patient.

Professional value healer was determined by the degree of his practical and theoretical training - " A doctor who neglects theoretical information is like a bird with a clipped wing».

These are the main features of the healing of ancient India, which had a huge impact on the subsequent development of not only medicine in various regions of the globe, but also world culture as a whole.

Medicine in ancient China

The process of class stratification of society and the emergence of slavery occurred in China at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the VII - VI centuries. BC e. in the territory modern China large state formations began to take shape - kingdoms such as oriental despotisms. Long wars between states ended with the victory of the Qin kingdom over neighboring kingdoms. In the III century. BC e. the first all-Chinese state was formed - a single empire of Qin.

History of healing Ancient China is divided into two periods:

Royal period (XVIII - III centuries BC): the oral tradition of transferring medical knowledge prevails;

Han Dynasty Period (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD): Chronicles of the Han Dynasty are compiled and medical writings that have survived to this day are recorded.

Sources of information on the history of healing in ancient China are: monuments of medical writing (from the 3rd century BC), data from archeology and ethnography.

Ancient Chinese scientists own many discoveries and inventions in the field of natural science and technology. In the Shang-Yin era (second half of the 2nd millennium BC), astronomy appeared and a lunisolar calendar was compiled. In the IV century. BC e. Shi Shen compiled the world's first star catalog, including about 800 luminaries. Zhang Tsang in the first half of the 2nd century. BC e. found a method for solving equations with two and three unknowns. In ancient China, the compass, speedometer, seismoscope, porcelain, paper, gunpowder and printing were invented. However, due to the well-known isolation and isolation of Chinese society, outstanding achievements natural science and technical thought did not have a significant impact on the development of world culture. Most of them were not even known to other peoples, so many of the discoveries of Chinese scientists were later rediscovered by scientists from other countries. This also applies to the achievements of Chinese medicine.

The religious ideas of the ancient Chinese are characterized by a combination of elements of various beliefs and religions. Of greatest importance was the cult of ancestors, largely preserved in all systems of official Chinese ideology.

Chinese philosophy has come a long way of formation and development: from the cult of nature to religious and philosophical systems, the most important of which are Taoism and Confucianism (from the 6th century BC).

The development of the natural science views of the Chinese was influenced by the philosophy of elemental materialism (natural philosophy), which goes back to ancient ideas about the interaction of two opposing substances or principles - a passive female (yin) and an active male (yang). The interaction and struggle of these principles give rise to five elements: water, fire, wood, metal and earth, which are in constant motion and mutual transformation. Health was understood as the result of a balance between the beginnings of yin and yang and the five elements, and illness was a violation of their correct interaction. Diseases were divided into two groups. Thus, diseases of the first group were characterized by an increased function of yang, and the diseases of the second group were characterized by a decreased function of yin. According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, a person consists of five primary elements that form the five main organs: the liver, heart, stomach, lungs and kidneys. Therefore, in Chinese medicine, the understanding of disease is based on the interaction of the body with environment, and the variety of diseases is determined, first of all, by the characteristics of the organism itself and its individual qualities.

In ancient China, the anatomy of corpses was carried out. In accordance with anatomical concepts, the heart was considered the main organ, the liver was the abode of the soul, and the gallbladder was the seat of courage. Approximately from the II century. BC e. a ban was imposed on the autopsy of corpses in connection with the approval of Confucianism as the official religion, which suspended the development of anatomy in China.

Diagnosis was one of the most important elements of healing in ancient China. The following methods of examining the patient were used: examining the skin, mucous membranes and tongue, listening to the sounds that arise in the human body, determining its smells. Particular attention was paid to the natural openings of the body or "windows of the body" - ears, mouth, nostrils, eyes. Urine was examined for taste and color. Questioning the patient, assessing the general condition and determining the mood of the patient was considered important. When diagnosing diseases, much attention was paid to the study of the pulse, while the following types were distinguished: superficial, deep, rare, frequent, thin, excessive, free, viscous, intense, gradual. According to the ancient Chinese healers, with the help of the study of the pulse, one can establish how the heart, lungs and liver work, explain the feelings of a person - sadness, anger, joy, pain, a state of ecstasy, anguish of the spirit. It is the pulse that determines the circular movement of blood through the vessels - this is how the ancient Chinese healers believed.

Chinese healers were known for heart disease, lung disease, and mental disorders. Skin diseases, gastrointestinal diseases and eye diseases were common. There were infectious diseases accompanied by high mortality. Frequent epidemics of smallpox led to blindness. In order to prevent smallpox in the nostrils healthy people the dried pus of smallpox pustules of the patient was injected. Ancient books describe malaria and malaria-like diseases, scurvy (a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C) and beriberi (a disease caused by a lack of vitamin B1).

An outstanding surgeon of ancient China is Hua Tuo (141-203), who successfully treated fractures, operated on the skull, chest, and abdominal cavity (abdominal section, caesarean section). When stitching wounds, he used silk, jute and hemp threads, "veins" of calves, lambs and tigers. For pain relief, hemp juice and plants of the nightshade family, wine, as well as mandrake and belladonna were used.

Tires, bandages, bandages, tourniquets for the treatment of fractures and wounds were made from bamboo, ceramics, tree bark and other improvised means. Surgical instruments were made from bronze, iron, bones and sea shells.

Hua-To created a peculiar kind of gymnast, which is currently called classical Chinese gymnastics. In it, the movements are imitative and resemble the movements of five animals and birds - a stork, a tiger, a monkey, a bear and a deer.

Treatment depended on the general condition of the patient, the alleged cause and prognosis of the disease. At the same time, healers proceeded from the position that in any disease the body is affected as a whole. In this regard, they said: Avoid treating only the head if the head hurts, and only treating the legs if the legs hurt.».

Based on the doctrine of the interaction and struggle of opposing principles in the body (yang and yin), Chinese healers developed principles for treating the opposite, for example, heat with cold and vice versa, etc.

The original methods of traditional Chinese medicine are acupuncture (acupuncture), therapeutic moxibustion and massage, which are still used today.

According to ancient Chinese healers, acupuncture facilitates the movement of blood vessels and a special "vital" gaseous substance, and also eliminates their "stagnation", thereby eliminating the cause of the disease. In addition, acupuncture has a stimulating, regulating and coordinating effect on the nervous system.

Cauterization (moxa) of "vital points" on the human body with the help of lit sticks from dried wormwood or a special tow was used to treat many diseases.

Diet therapy, water procedures, sunbathing were widely used to treat a number of diseases. In the II century. BC e. in medical practice, a kind of plastic gymnastics began to be used, designed for a certain psychological effect, distracting the patient from mournful thoughts, relieving pain, creating a cheerful and joyful mood.

The medicines used in the treatment of various diseases were also diverse. From plants, healers used ginseng, lemongrass, mandrake, Indian hemp, ginger, fern, dandelion, plantain and lotus seeds. Seaweed was used to treat goiter, tung oil was used for skin diseases, betel nuts against worms, camellia flowers for burns, and peach flowers as a diuretic. Of the products of animal origin, musk was used to treat heart diseases, lye cocoons - for childhood illnesses, tortoise shell - for the treatment of scurvy, cod liver - for night blindness. Minerals were widely used - antimony, tin, lead, copper, silver. For the treatment of syphilis, mercury (cinnabar) was used, scabies - sulfur.

great attention in ancient China, it was given to personal and public hygiene. Hot water was widely used to cleanse the body. Laundry was commonplace. The people believed that cleanliness in the house is not only good for health, but is also a source of pleasant emotions. Sports, games, dances were very popular among the Chinese. In Chinese chronicles, the improvement of ancient cities is reported. So, they had pavements, sewerage, water supply.

The main form of training for healers in ancient China was family schools, in which medical knowledge was inherited from generation to generation.

In conclusion, it should be noted that traditional Chinese medicine has long developed in isolation from other cultures of the world. Information about it penetrated into Europe only in the XIII century. The study of the centuries-old heritage of traditional Chinese medicine is important for the development of modern scientific medicine.

Thus, healing and medical knowledge of the countries of the ancient East, including Ancient China, had a great influence on world culture and further development of medicine in European countries.

Many have heard about Indian Ayurveda, but few understand its true description. In Sanskrit, Ayurveda means life and knowledge.

The first in the world began to develop Indian and. The medical knowledge gained since then is applied all over the world. The main principles of medicine are based on Ayurveda - the traditional Indian system of healing. Ayurveda contains knowledge about longevity, health, which is passed down from generation to generation.

Knowledge of Ancient India

The first ideas about science, which has something similar to medicine, appeared in 2000 BC. e. According to literary sources that have survived to this day, people tried to explain the processes occurring in the body through philosophy. This was the beginning of the development of medicine in ancient India and the treatment of ailments. This knowledge was called the Vedas.

The explanation for this was the following interpretation: the human body is a shell of the soul, but it is tied to material wealth. The causes of bodily ailments are to be found in this imperfection of human nature.

The development of medicine in ancient India had a huge impact on Chinese medicine. If we briefly describe the development of medicine in India, then the following information is known: "Rigveda" is the oldest Vedic scripture that describes the treatment of bleeding, leprosy, and consumption. This scripture looked like a collection of magical rituals, and it was necessary to treat the disease by reading prayers and performing rituals.

Formation of Indian Ayurveda

Full medical knowledge was described at the beginning of our era. A system of healing called "Ayurveda" was formed at that time. This system implies "the doctrine of long life». The first experience of healing was received by the Vaidyas, small group people living the "wild life". They lived in the forests, among the mountains.

The history of medicine in Ancient India was based on five elements (air, fire, earth, air, ether), cosmic energy. The Vaidyas were the first to notice the dependence of a person's well-being on the cycles of the moon. By observing, they assumed that the analogues human organs animals have.

Development of Indian medicine

Medicine, alternative medicine in India were characterized by rapid development and received universal recognition. Ayurveda methods began to be used in the East.

Acupuncture, plastic surgery, hirudotherapy (leech treatment), organ transplantation, acupuncture - people have learned about these therapeutic, surgical methods thanks to Ayurvedic knowledge. In India, herbal preparations, infusions, and decoctions were widely used.

In the classical period of history, India dramatically changed its ideas about medicine. Healers began to forget about the supernatural causes of diseases and devoted more time to a person as a particle of the world.

Elements and fluids of Indian medicine

Five elements carry 3 fluids: mucus (located above the heart), bile (responsible for the area between the navel and the heart muscle), wind (the area below the navel). These 3 fluids and 5 elements form the 6 products of the human body:

the seed of a man;
fatty layer;
brain;
bones;
muscles;
blood.

For example, the wind is responsible for metabolism, excretion, blood circulation, and digestion. This is because the wind carries sound, freshness and coolness. Medicine in ancient India was based on peculiar knowledge, some of which may seem unusual and not at all like medical treatises:

Disease of the body begins with a disturbed flow of bile, wind and mucus. The severity and development depends on the degree of imbalance between the 3 primary elements.
Phlegm is a soft substance that acts as a lubricant, they are responsible for vigorous activity.
Bile refers to the fire element. It is responsible for body temperature, heart activity and digestive function.

Ayurveda in India: types of people

Depending on 3 liquids, types of people are distinguished according to Ayurveda. They have a different physique and susceptibility to diseases:

Wind or Vata - dominant nervous system They have difficulty gaining weight. They are like fireworks, they can do a powerful start, but quickly fatigue. According to the teachings of Ayurveda, they need to try to see the positive aspects in life. They form early wrinkles, problems with joints and muscles.
Slime or Kapha are tall people with a large physique. They are balanced and calm, optimists in life. Thick skin, excellent health, but negative qualities refers to laziness. They are advised to stop eating bad food, observe the regime of the day and rest. Often there is obesity.
Bile or Pitt - have a normal physique and average height, they are assiduous, enterprising, have a mobile mind, and are active. They know how to defend their position, however, they get annoyed for any reason. People have a loud voice and a pleasant timbre. They need to learn how to direct energy to a useful cause. Suffer from skin pathologies, heart disease.

Description of types of people according to Ayurveda

Ayurveda: benefits for women

The fair sex uses the best Ayurvedic knowledge to improve their health and maintain beauty. Proper nutrition leads to the normalization of the state of mind and body. There is a term "Ayurvedic products", which include:

vegetables;
legumes;
dairy products;
fruits.

Eat different kinds ayurvedic massage. The procedure of treatment with the help of medicinal herbs is called Potli massage. Other massages include:

Abhyanga - massage using vegetable oil.
Nasya - massaging the nose.
During the Shirodhara procedure, a thin stream of oil is poured on the patient's forehead, which stimulates the activity of the brain and is good for the hair.
Foot massage stimulates all the necessary points, which helps the functioning of all body systems.

Oil is poured in a trickle on the "third eye"

An interesting fact: the level of medicine in India is the same as in Europe. Every year this country is visited by more than 270 thousand tourists who come for treatment. At first, in India, medicine was trained on an internship in the United States.

Then all clinics in India received the most respected accreditation - JCI. The undoubted advantage of this country is the cost of the services provided, it is much lower than in European countries, but the quality does not suffer.

League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

In 1919, the national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies united into an international federation - the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (LOCC and KP). Its goal is to promote the development National Societies- members of the federation, coordinate their activities at the international level and promote the creation of new national Societies.

The Union of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies of the USSR (reorganized in 1992) became a member of the LOKK and KP in 1934 and took an active part in the activities of the League and the bodies it created.

Currently, LOCC and KP unite more than 150 National Societies with a total number of members - more than 250 million people.

The main goal of the LOCC and the CP, enshrined in its Charter, is to inspire, support, develop the humanitarian activities of National Societies in order to prevent and alleviate human suffering and, thus, contribute to the maintenance and strengthening of world peace.

The Union of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies of our country provides practical assistance to the health care of various countries of the world; organizes in foreign countries Red Cross hospitals; sends its medical teams and humanitarian aid to the population of the countries suffering from natural disasters, accidents, as well as military operations; carries out work to search for its own and foreign citizens and restore contact with them; participates in the development and improvement of the norms of international humanitarian law.

The World Health Organization (WHO) is one of the largest specialized agencies of the United Nations (UN). April 7, 1948, the day of ratification of the Charter of the Organization by 26 UN member states, is considered the day of the official establishment of WHO. As the main goal of the Organization, the WHO Charter proclaimed service to the humane idea - "the achievement by all peoples of the highest possible level of health."

Emergence of cooperation different countries in the field of healthcare is due to the need for international harmonization of measures for the sanitary protection of the territories of states in connection with recurrent epidemics and pandemics. This was most clearly manifested in the period of the classical Middle Ages, when specific measures against epidemics in Europe began to be applied (quarantines, infirmaries, outposts, etc.). The low efficiency of sanitary and anti-epidemic measures taken at the national level made it necessary to look for a solution to the problem on an interstate basis.

The first Pan American Sanitary Conference took place in December 1902 in Washington. The conference created a permanent body - the International (Pan American) Sanitary Bureau, which since 1958 has been known as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) -Pan-AmericanHealthOrganization (RANO).

Another important step towards the development of international health care was the creation in 1907 in Paris of the International Bureau of Public Hygiene (IBOH) - a permanent international organization whose tasks included: “collecting and bringing to the attention of the participating countries facts and documents of a general nature related to public health, especially infectious diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever, and the collection and dissemination of information on measures to combat these diseases. The MBOG was also involved in the development of international conventions and agreements in the field of health care, monitoring their implementation, issues of ship hygiene, water supply, food hygiene, resolving international quarantine disputes and studying "national sanitary and quarantine legislation. Russia participated in the establishment of the MBOG and had its own permanent So, in 1926, A. N. Sysin was appointed permanent representative of our country in the MBOG.

The Health Organization of the League of Nations (OLN) was created after the First World War in 1923 in connection with sharp deterioration the epidemic situation in Europe and the wide spread of pandemics and epidemics of typhoid, cholera, smallpox and other infectious diseases. The scope of its activities was much wider, . than the range of issues dealt with by the MBOG. The goal of the Health Organization of the League of Nations was "to take all measures of international scope for the prevention and control of disease."

The main areas of work of the OZLN were: coordination and stimulation scientific research on the most urgent problems of public health, the creation of international standards for biological and medicinal products, the development of an international classification of diseases and causes of death, the unification of national pharmacopoeias, the fight against the most dangerous and widespread diseases, as well as the creation and development of organizational foundations for an extensive system of global epidemiological information.

In 1946, the League of Nations, and with it its Health Organization, ceased to exist.

After World War II, the United Nations (UN), established in 1945 on the initiative of the victorious countries, became the leading organization of the international community. In February 1946, the UN conference decided on the need to create a specialized UN agency for health issues. After appropriate preparatory work, in June 1946, the International Conference on Health was convened in New York, which developed and adopted the Charter of the new international health organization - the World Health Organization-WHO (World Health Organization-WHO, Fig. 158).

The WHO Charter proclaimed the basic principles of cooperation between the Member States of the Organization, necessary "for happiness, harmonious relations among all peoples and for their security."

Soviet Union was among the founding states of WHO and actively participated in the creation and implementation of the vast majority of WHO programs, sent specialists as experts, consultants and employees of WHO headquarters and its regional offices. The Soviet Union was the initiator of many important undertakings of the WHO. Thus, in 1958, at the suggestion of the Soviet delegation, the XI World Health Assembly adopted a program for the eradication of smallpox on earth.

Medicine in the countries of the Ancient East. Ancient India and Ancient China.

The ancient and original civilization of India developed in the III millennium BC. e. within the Hindustan subcontinent. In the history of healing in ancient India, three stages are clearly traced:

1) Indian civilization (23-18 century BC, Indus River valley), when the first slave-owning city-states in the history of ancient India were formed on the territory of modern Pakistan;

2) the Vedic period (18-6 in BC, the valley of the Ganges), when with the arrival of the Aryans the center of civilization moved to the eastern part of the subcontinent and the compilation of "sacred texts" transmitted over the course began, long period in oral tradition;

3) Buddhist (5-3 centuries BC) and classical period (2 century BC - 5 AD) - the time of the highest flowering of the traditional culture of ancient INDIA. the development of agriculture, crafts and trade, the rise of an original culture, the establishment and spread of Buddhism, success in various fields of knowledge, the widespread development of India's trade and cultural ties with the countries of the ancient world, which brought her fame as the "Country of the Wise Men".

Sanitation of the period of Indian civilization

In the second half of the III millennium BC. e. in the river basin Indus formed a highly developed urban culture which later became known as the Indian Civilization. Its characteristic features are the high level of sanitary improvement of cities. Drainpipes through the thickness of the wall went into the sewage system of the city. Each street and each alley had its own brick-lined sewage channel. Before entering the canals, sewage and sewage passed through settling tanks and cesspools covered with tightly ground covers. The construction of the sewage system is much more attention than the construction of residential buildings. The high sanitary condition of the ancient cities allows us to conclude that the level of empirical healing is also relatively high.

Medicine in the Vedic period

The center of civilization at this stage in the history of ancient India was the river. Ganges. Indications of medical knowledge have been preserved in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda. Three ailments are mentioned in the Rigveda: leprosy, consumption, and bleeding. Some sections of the Rigveda contain texts on magical healing rites. During the Vedic period, people worshiped medical deities. In ancient Indian mythology, there were also evil demons who brought misfortune, illness, ruin to people, and deprived them of offspring. Thus, in the Atharva Veda, diseases are either associated with evil spirits, or are regarded as a punishment of the gods; the cure of ailments was explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells. At the same time, the Atharvaveda also reflects the practical experience of the people in the use of medicinal plants, the action of which at that time was understood as a healing force that counteracts evil spirits. At the end of the Vedic period, ancient Indian society was finally divided into four main classes: brahmins (i.e., a priest), kshatriyas (i.e., military nobility and members of royal families), vaishyas (i.e., mainly farmers and pastoralists) and sudras (sud-ga - disenfranchised poor). Each of the varnas consisted of many castes and podcasts. there was a fifth, lowest class - pariahs (untouchables), used in the most unpleasant and humiliating jobs.

doctoring classical period

The main directions of traditional ancient Indian medicine of the classical period are reflected in two outstanding monuments of ancient Ayurvedic literature: Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samkhnta. The earlier Charaka Samhita is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains information on more than 600 medicines vegetable, animal and mineral origin. Their use is reported in eight sections: treatment of wounds; treatment of diseases of the head area; treatment of diseases of the whole organism; treatment mental illness; treatment of childhood diseases; antidotes; elixirs against senile decrepitude; drugs that increase sexual activity. "Sushruta-samhita" is mainly devoted to surgical treatment; it describes more than 300 operations, over 120 surgical instruments and at least 650 medicines. The knowledge of Indian healers about the structure of the human body was the most complete in ancient world The ancient Indians distinguished: membranes, ligaments, bones and their classification, tendons, joints, organs, nerves. During this period, elements of natural scientific knowledge were also revealed. Man was considered in close connection with the surrounding world from the five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The different quality of objects was explained by the different combination of the smallest particles of anu ("atoms"). The vital activity of orgaism was considered through the interaction of three substances: air, fire and water (the carriers of which in the body were considered prana, bile and mucus). Health was understood as the result of a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, the normal state of the sense organs and clarity of mind, and illness was understood as a violation of these correct ratios and the negative impact on a person of the five elements. Sushruta divided all diseases into natural, associated with nature, and supernatural, sent by the gods.

Diagnosis of diseases was based on a detailed questioning of the patient and the study of body heat, skin color and tongue, secretions, noises in the lungs, voices, etc. Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine. Sushruta's treatise describes three stages of inflammation, the signs of which he considered: in the first period - minor pains; in the second - shooting pains, swelling, local heat, redness and dysfunction; in the third, the reduction of "swelling and the formation of pus. For the treatment of inflammation, Sushruta suggested local medicines and surgical methods.

The treatment was aimed at balancing the disturbed ratio of fluids (substances), which was achieved, firstly, by diet, secondly, by drug therapy (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics, etc.), and thirdly, by surgical methods of treatment, in which the ancient Indians reached a high perfection. Only healers were engaged in the preparation of medicines, poisons and antidotes (for snake bites).

Obstetrics in ancient India was considered an independent field of healing. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on maintaining cleanliness and a proper lifestyle, describes deviations from the normal course of childbirth, fetal deformity, embryotomy (which was recommended in cases where it was impossible to turn the fetus on a leg or head), caesarean section (used after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby ) and turning the fetus on the leg.

The art of surgical treatment (surgery) in ancient India was the highest in the ancient world. Sushruta considered surgery “the first and best of all medical sciences, a precious work of heaven. Still having no idea about antiseptics and asepsis, Indian healers, following the customs of their country, achieved careful cleanliness during operations. Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which in India they learned to produce in ancient times, sharpened so that they could easily cut hair. The healers of ancient India carried out amputations of limbs, lithotomy, hernia repair, and plastic surgery. They “knew how to restore noses, ears and lips lost or crippled in battle or by court order. The method of rhinoplasty, described in detail in the treatise of Sushruta, went down in history under the name of the "Indian method". A skin flap for the formation of the future nose was cut on the vascular pedicle from the skin of the forehead or cheek.

In India, hygienic traditions have long been developed. Great importance was given to personal hygiene, beauty and neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home, the influence of climate and seasons on people's health. Hygienic skills are enshrined in the "Regulations of Mlnu". Hygienic traditions contributed to the development of medical science. In the Mauryan Empire (IV-II centuries BC), there were strict rules that prohibited the discharge of sewage into the streets of the city and regulated the place and methods of burning the corpses of the dead; in doubtful cases of human death, an autopsy was ordered; the body of the deceased was examined and covered with special oil in order to prevent decomposition. Severe penalties were also established for mixing poisons in food, medicines and incense. During the time of Ashoka, almshouses and rooms for the sick were built.

A little later, they began to build special houses for the crippled, the crippled, widows, orphans and the sick.

The medicine of ancient India was closely connected with yoga. Much attention in yoga is paid to the purity of the body and a peculiar way of life. The doctrine of yoga consists of two levels: hatha yoga (physical yoga) and raja yoga (mastery of the spirit).

Important role monasteries and monks, among whom there were many knowledgeable healers, played in the development of healing in ancient India. All the monks had some knowledge in the field of medicine, since it was considered a high virtue to provide medical assistance to the laity.

Among the centers of medical education, the city of Taxila (ind. Takshashila) occupies a special place. A student of medicine had to master all facets of the art of medicine. This sermon carries character traits of its time, however, in its main provisions, it is very similar to the Oath of the ancient Greek healers.

The medical ethics of ancient India strictly demanded that the healer, “who wishes to be successful in practice, be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently brushed, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, leave the house only with a stick and an umbrella, in particular he avoided chatter ... ". Remuneration for treatment was forbidden to demand from the disadvantaged, friends of the doctor and brahmins; and the traditional Chinese art of healing, on the contrary, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the healer was awarded all their property. For improper treatment, the healer paid a fine depending on the social status of the patient.

India is one of the oldest centers of civilization that emerged at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. in the valley of the Indus River. Its original culture is not inferior to the culture of Ancient Egypt and the states of Mesopotamia.

Ancient India is often called the country of sages, and this is a great merit of healers, whose fame has spread far beyond the borders of the country. Buddhist traditions have preserved the glory of the three most famous healers of antiquity - Jivak, Charak and Sushruta.

The art of healing called "Ayurveda" (which means "the doctrine of long life") reached its greatest perfection in that period of history, when the center of ancient Indian civilization moved from the Indus River valley to the Gangang River valley. At the end of this period, outstanding monuments of Ayurvedic literature were written - "Charvaka-samhita" and "Sushruta-samhita". An earlier first book is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains information on more than 600 Indian medicines. The second is a treatise on surgery, which describes more than 300 operations, more than 120 medical instruments and more than 650 medicines.

The art of surgical treatment in India was the highest in the history of the ancient world - not a single people of antiquity achieved such perfection in this area. Information about the structure of the human body in India was the most complete in the ancient world, because it was the only country where there were no religious prohibitions on the autopsy of the dead. The knowledge of doctors in the field of anatomy was therefore very significant and played big role in the formation and development of ancient Indian surgery.

Indian surgeons, having no idea about asepsis and antiseptics, managed to achieve meticulous cleanliness during operations. They were distinguished by courage, dexterity and excellent command of tools. Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which they learned to produce in India in ancient times. The tools were kept in special wooden boxes and sharpened so sharply that they could cut hair.

According to the medical texts that have come down to us, the doctors of ancient India performed amputations, stone cuts, herniotomies, and plastic surgeries on the face. They knew how to restore ears, noses, lips, lost or crippled in battle or by court order. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European surgery until the 18th century, and European surgeons even learned from Indians the art of rhinoplasty (i.e., the restoration of a lost nose). This method, described in detail in the treatise of Sushruta, went down in history under the name of the “Indian method”.

The operation to remove a cataract, i.e., a clouded lens of the eye, was just as jewelry. I must say that the lens in ancient India was considered one of the most important parts of the body, so this operation was given special importance. In addition to cataracts, 75 more eye diseases and methods of their treatment were described in Sushruta's treatise.

The ancient Indians considered man in close connection with the surrounding world, which, in their opinion, consisted of "five elements" - earth, air, fire, water, esrir. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of "three substances" - air, fire, water, the carriers of which in the body were considered "three fluids" (mucus, bile and air). In accordance with this, health was understood as the result of a uniform mixing of fluids and a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, the normal state of the senses and clarity of mind, and illness - as a violation of these correct ratios; accordingly, the tactics of treatment was aimed primarily at restoring the disturbed balance. For this purpose, diet, evacuating agents (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics) and surgical methods of treatment were widely used.

Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine and which was not known even to the ancient Greeks.

Obstetrics was considered a special area of healing among the Indians. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on maintaining cleanliness and a proper lifestyle, describes deviations from the normal course of childbirth, fetal deformity, methods for extracting the fetus in its wrong position, a caesarean section (which was used only after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby).

Great importance in ancient India was given to hygiene, both public (beautification of dwellings and populated areas, the creation of water supply, sewerage and other sanitary facilities), and personal (beauty and neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home). Hygienic habits were enshrined in the "Regulations of Manu":

"... You should never eat the food of the sick, neither one on which hair or insects turned out, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.

It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing the feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing ceremonies far from the dwelling.

In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth, wipe your eyes and honor the gods.

In practice, he was healthy, neat, modest, patient, wore a short-cropped beard, diligently cleaned, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, left the house only with a stick or an umbrella, and especially avoided chatter ... "

Incorrect treatment was especially severely pursued. According to the “Regulations of Manu” that existed at that time, a doctor paid a low fine for improper treatment of animals, an average fine for improper treatment of middle-class people, and a high fine for royal officials. It was forbidden to demand a reward for treatment from the disadvantaged, friends of the healer and brahmins (clergymen); and vice versa, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the doctor was awarded all their property.

So, what is new in the medicine of the slave-owning society in comparison with the medicine of the primitive communal system?

* On the basis of traditional medicine, temple medicine arises

* ethnoscience develops into a professional

professional doctors occupy a prominent place in society and receive recognition from the state

* The first family medical schools appear, in which the head of the family, who has medical experience, passes it on to his children. Each school has its own secret medicines and medical practices. The material accumulates, it becomes more and more difficult to keep it in the head, and therefore it is written on papyri and clay tablets, which can be considered the first medical literature in the history of mankind.

* There is an accumulation of data on the structure of the human body

* Completely new ideas about the causes of diseases appear

* There is a birth theoretical foundations medicine

* Ideas about human nature are changing

* Improving the treatment of internal diseases

* Develops hygiene activities

Thus, the peoples inhabiting the territory of the Ancient East possessed considerable knowledge and practical skills in the field of therapy, surgery, obstetrics, hygiene, and the medicinal use of medicinal plants. Ancient physicians received new information about the structure of the human body, changed their ideas about human nature, developed unique forms of medical care, and thus had a great influence on the further development of medicine.

The art of healing called “Ayurveda” (which means “the doctrine of long life”) reached its greatest perfection at that period of history, when the center of ancient Indian civilization moved from the Indus River valley to the Ganges River valley. At the end of this period, outstanding monuments of Ayurvedic literature were written - "Charvaka-samhita" and "Sushruta-samhita". The earlier first book is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains information on more than
600 Indian medicines. The second is a treatise on surgery, which describes more than 300 operations, more than 120 medical instruments and more than 650 medicines.

The art of surgical treatment in India was the highest in the history of the ancient world - not a single people of antiquity achieved such perfection in this area. Information about the structure of the human body in India was the most complete in the ancient world, because it was the only country where there were no religious prohibitions on the autopsy of the dead. Therefore, the knowledge of doctors in the field of anatomy was very significant and played a big role in the formation and development of ancient Indian surgery.

The ancient Indians considered man in close connection with the surrounding world, which, in their opinion, consisted of the "five elements" - earth, air, fire, water, ether. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of "three substances" - air, fire, water, the carriers of which in the body were considered "three fluids" (mucus, bile and air). In accordance with this, health was understood as the result of a uniform mixing of fluids and a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, the normal state of the senses and clarity of mind, and illness - as a violation of these correct ratios; accordingly, the tactics of treatment was aimed primarily at restoring the disturbed balance. For this purpose, diet, evacuating agents (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics) and surgical methods of treatment were widely used.

Diagnosis of ancient Indian doctors was based on a survey of the patient, the study of body temperature, skin color and tongue, the nature of the discharge, the timbre of the voice, and noises in the lungs. Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine and which was not known even to the ancient Greeks.

“... You should never eat the food of the sick, neither one on which hair or insects turned out, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.

It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing the feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing ceremonies far from the dwelling.

In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth, wipe your eyes and honor the gods.

The traditions of ancient Indian medicine are enshrined in the rules of medical ethics. The Raja gave the right to practice medicine in India. He closely followed the activities of doctors and the observance of medical ethics, which required that the healer, “who wants to be successful in practice, be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, carefully cleaned, trimmed nails, white, perfumed with incense. clothes, left the house only with a stick or an umbrella, in particular, he avoided chatter ... ".

So, what is new in the medicine of the slave-owning society in comparison with the medicine of the primitive communal system?

* On the basis of traditional medicine, temple medicine arises

* Traditional medicine develops into a professional one, professional doctors occupy a prominent place in society and receive recognition from the state

* There is an accumulation of data on the structure of the human body

* Completely new ideas about the causes of diseases appear

* The theoretical foundations of medicine are born

* Ideas about human nature are changing

* Improving the treatment of internal diseases

* Develops hygiene activities