European architecture in the 19th century. European architecture of the 17th - early 19th centuries
There are many amazing places on this old continent that still impress tourists and locals alike. Regardless of what it is about, Europe offers its visitors a lot of beauty, and one of the best ways to see the beauty is to get acquainted with modern European architecture.
Many great architects come up with projects, putting all their efforts and imagination to create unusual buildings that will impress viewers for a long time. In many European countries you can see similar modern architectural masterpieces, so as a tourist, there is something to see while traveling in Europe. We have selected ten buildings designed in the spirit of modern architecture. Take a look, you are sure to love something, and the next time you travel, include it in your itinerary!
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10Location: Prague, Czech Republic
"Dancing House" is also known as "Ginger and Fred", named after the famous dancers of the era of golden Hollywood, Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. The building was designed by architects Vlado Milunich and Frank Gehry, construction began in 1992 and was completed in 1996.
During this time, the building was criticized, as it differed significantly from the typical architecture of Prague. The building consists of two parts - one static and one dynamic (dancing part). In fact, they represent the transition of Czechoslovakia from a communist system to a parliamentary democracy.
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9"New Customs" (Der Neue Zollhof)
Location: Dusseldorf, Germany
Der Neue Zollhof or "New Customs" consists of three buildings. All of them are located in the German city of Düsseldorf in the harbor next to the river Rhine. The buildings are unique due to their geometric shapes and unusual window openings. Different materials were used for the facade of these three buildings. The building in the center is covered with metal panels, the east and tallest building is faced with plaster, and the west has a red brick facade.
Thanks to the attractive facades of all three, and especially the metal building, they are popular among tourists. Der Neue Zollhof was designed by Frank Gehry and completed in 1998.
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8
Location: Brussels, Belgium
The Atomium is located in the capital of Belgium, Brussels, and is a fragment of the iron crystal lattice, magnified 165 billion times! The building that now houses the museum was built in 1958 for the World Exhibition in Brussels and represents the belief in scientific progress. The Atomium was designed by architects André and Jean Polak, who worked with engineer André Waterkeyn.
At the end of the exhibition, the building was supposed to be dismantled, but the unique and futuristic architecture won the hearts of many people and is still doing it with success, so it was decided to leave the building.
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7Location: Malmö, Sweden
This unusual building is located in the south of Sweden in the city of Malmö. Turning Torso is an amazing neo-futuristic skyscraper. This house is considered the highest in all of Scandinavia! The project was designed by the famous Spanish architect and sculptor Santiago Calatrava. The idea of such a skyscraper came from one of Calatrava's sculptures, which depicts a twisted human torso.
The building was completed in 2005 and ten years later, it won the "10 Years Award" from the Tall Buildings and Urban Environment Council. The height of "Turning Torso" reaches 190 meters. This is a residential building with 147 apartments. Thanks to this height, its residents can enjoy amazing views of Malmö and Copenhagen across the Øresund Strait.
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6Prince Philip Science Museum
Location: Valencia, Spain
The Prince Philip Science Museum is one of the buildings of the cultural and architectural complex "City of Arts and Sciences" in Valencia. The complex was designed by the Spanish architect and sculptor Santiago Calatrava and opened in 2000. The museum has three floors that cover 8,000 square meters. It hosts several regular exhibitions covering many areas of science, technology, climate and art.
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5cube houses
Location: Rotterdam, Netherlands
Cubic houses are located in Rotterdam, and initially they were built as ordinary residential buildings. But thanks to their unique appearance, the buildings attracted many visitors who were interested in how these cube houses look from the inside. One of the owners decided to open his house to visitors, and his cube is known today as the Kijk-Kubus Museum.
Behind this masterpiece is the architect Pita Bohm, who designed the first series of cubic houses in Helmond in the mid-1970s and then created the second project in Rotterdam in the early 1980s.
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4Kunsthaus
Location: Graz, Austria
The Austrian city of Graz has taken on an alien look thanks to a building that was built in 2003 as part of the European Capital of Culture program. We mean Kunsthaus (Kunsthaus Graz)! With such a modern appearance, the building definitely stands out from its baroque neighbors. The architects of this masterpiece are Colin Fournier and Peter Cook.
Since 2003, Kunsthaus Graz has been an architectural landmark of the city. In fact, now a modern art gallery, visitors can see art exhibits here from the 1960s to the present day, including films, photographs and new media.
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3
Location: Montpellier, France
Located in the French city of Montpellier. This theater really looks like a decorated wooden box! Built in 2013 by architects from A+Architecture, the theater has a very interesting exterior with harlequin-style wood patterns. At night, thanks to the multi-colored illumination built into the facade, the building takes on an even more amazing look.
The theater is named after the famous French novelist Jean-Claude Carrier, which makes this theater really special. In addition, it is built in such a way that it absorbs much less energy than any analogue of the same size.
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2
Location: Gothenburg, Sweden
Kuggen is a colorful, cylindrical building designed by Swedish architects Gert Wingardhom and Jonas Edblad for Wingårdh Arkitektkontor. The building is located in Gothenburg, Sweden's second largest city, and belongs to the Chalmers University of Technology (lucky students!).
The facade is made of terracotta panels in six shades of red and two green, which look different depending on the angle you look at them and the amount of natural light at the moment.
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1Kunsthofpassage
Location: Dresden, Germany
At first, you might think that this building doesn't look that unusual compared to the rest on our list, but what makes it unique is that the house plays music every time it rains! Thanks to a system of drains and funnels attached to the facade of the building, the Kunsthofpassage is one of the top attractions in Dresden, Germany. The musical building was designed by sculptor Annette Pawla and designers Christoph Rossner and André Tempel.
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Conclusion
It was an article TOP 10 most unusual modern buildings in Europe. Thank you for your attention!
History of architecture of Western Europe V-XV centuries. In this millennia-old epoch of the emergence, flourishing and decline of feudal relations, rich in upheavals, saturated with sharp socio-economic and cultural-historical contradictions, the main contours of the modern political map of Europe took shape, and prerequisites were created for the rapid development of the national cultures of European peoples.
The crisis of the slave-owning mode of production, the uprising of slaves and peoples oppressed by Rome, the invasion of German and Slavic tribes into the shattered Roman Empire led to the IV-V centuries. to its final collapse and to the emergence on its ruins of a number of "barbarian" state formations that developed under the conditions of the formation of new production relations, which were based on large-scale feudal landownership and the labor of peasants who fell into personal, serf dependence on the feudal lords.
The stormy process of the destruction of the old, slave-owning world and the emergence of a new, feudal world, was directly and vividly reflected in the superstructural sphere of material and spiritual culture. The crisis of the slave system already in the first centuries of our era caused the collapse of Roman ideology and the rapid spread of new beliefs, especially early Christianity, as the religion of slaves and the destitute. A divided public consciousness and a disturbing uncertainty paralyzed the forces that nourished the once opulent art of late antiquity.
The steady decline of the economy and chronic wars completely halted construction. With the disappearance of the political and economic prerequisites for development, one after another, the comfortable Roman cities fell into desolation, which for centuries served as the main hotbeds of Roman civilization in the entire Mediterranean basin. Many of the Roman cities were destroyed by the invasions of the Germanic and Slavic agricultural tribes. This dealt the final blow to ancient culture.
But along with the feudal world that arose on the ruins of the slave system, a new culture was born, fertilized by creative energy and nourished by the young peoples' own traditions. Developing in the course of a fierce struggle between progressive and reactionary forces, it spread east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, far beyond the borders of the former Roman Empire, into countries that had never known either the Roman yoke or Roman civilization. The deeply folk monuments of this culture are among the greatest achievements of mankind.
The emergence of "barbarian" states (V-VI centuries), a short-term heyday (VIII century) and the subsequent collapse (IX century) of the Carolingian empire, devastating raids by the Hungarians and Normans. (IX century), the conquest of England by the Norman barons (XI century), the emergence and development of the states of Eastern Europe (IX-XI centuries), the crusades (XI-XIII centuries), the Spanish reconquista (VIII-XV centuries), peasant uprisings and the struggle of urban communes for their liberties (XI-XIII centuries), feuds between German emperors and popes (XI-XIII centuries), endless feudal wars that exhausted peoples throughout the Middle Ages, already suppressed by the oppression of dominant land relations , like all complex socio-economic processes caused by the constant clash of centrifugal and centripetal forces and the desire of the emerging state to overcome the chaos of feudal fragmentation - all this left its mark on the material and spiritual culture of medieval Europe.
A huge role in the life of medieval society was played by the church, which served as the most important support for feudalism and, according to F. Engels, acted as the most general synthesis and the most general sanction of the existing feudal system. Having subjugated philosophy, science, literature and art, it entangled all aspects of the life of a medieval person, in the mass of ignorant and superstitious. Over the centuries, the Catholic Church has developed both the very system of its doctrine in relation to the requirements of the feudal exploitation of the masses, and the ritual addressed to the psyche, suppressed by superstition.
But “the religion that subjugated the Roman world empire and for 1800 years dominated the most significant part of civilized mankind cannot be dealt with simply by declaring it nonsense concocted by deceivers. To deal with it, it is necessary first to be able to explain its origin and its development, based on those historical conditions under which it arose and achieved dominance "(F. Engels. Bruno Bauer and primitive Christianity. - K. Marx and F. Engels. Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 19, p. 30).
European architecture of the 15th - early 19th centuries
Italian Renaissance and Baroque architecture
In the XIII-XIV centuries. the cities of Northern Italy become the gates of lively maritime trade, depriving Byzantium of the role of an intermediary between Europe and the exotic East. The accumulation of money capital and the development of capitalist production contribute to the rapid formation of bourgeois relations, which are already cramped within the framework of feudalism. A new, bourgeois culture is being created, which has chosen ancient culture as its model; its ideals receive a new life, which gave the name to this powerful social movement - the Renaissance, i.e. Renaissance. The powerful pathos of citizenship, rationalism, the overthrow of church mysticism gave rise to such titans as Dante and Petrarch, Michelangelo Buonarroti and Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas More and Campanella. In architecture, the Renaissance manifested itself by the beginning of the 15th century. Architects are returning to clear logical order systems. Architecture acquires a secular and life-affirming character. Lancet Gothic vaults and arches give way to cylindrical and cross vaults, vaulted structures. Ancient samples are carefully studied, the theory of architecture is being developed. The preceding Gothic had prepared a high level of building technology, especially lifting mechanisms. The process of development of architecture in Italy XV-XVII centuries. conditionally divided into four main stages: Early Renaissance - from 1420 to the end of the 15th century; High Renaissance - the end of the 15th - the first quarter of the 16th century, the Late Renaissance - the 16th century, the baroque period - the 17th century.
Early Renaissance architecture
The beginning of the Renaissance in architecture is associated with Florence, which reached by the 15th century. extraordinary economic growth. Here, in 1420, the construction of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore began (Fig. 1, F1 - 23). The work was entrusted to Filippo Brunellechi, who managed to convince the city council of the correctness of his competitive proposal. In 1434, the octahedral lancet dome, 42 m in diameter, was almost completed. It was built without scaffolding - the workers worked in the cavity between the two shells of the dome, only its upper part was erected with the help of suspended scaffolding. The lantern above it, also designed by Brunelleschi, was completed in 1467. With the completion of construction, the height of the building reached 114 m. The chapel was the first experience of work on centric buildings in Renaissance architecture. In 1444, according to the project of Brunelleschi, a large city building was completed - the Educational House (a shelter for orphans). The portico of the Orphanage is interesting as the first example of a combination of columns bearing arches with a large order of framing pilasters. Brunelleschi also built the Pazzi Chapel (1443), one of the finest works of the early Renaissance. The building of the chapel, completed with a dome on a low drum, opens to the viewer with a light Corinthian portico with a wide arch. In the second half of the XV century. many palaces of the city nobility are being built in Florence. Michelozzo in 1452 completes the construction of the Medici Palace (Fig. 2); in the same year, according to the project of Alberti, the construction of the Rucellai Palace was completed, Benedetto da Maiano and Simon Polayola (Kronaka) erected the Palazzo Strozzi. Despite certain differences, these palaces have a common spatial solution scheme: a high three-story building, the premises of which are grouped around the central courtyard, framed by arched galleries. The main artistic motif is a wall decorated with rustication or decorated with a warrant with majestic openings and horizontal rods corresponding to the divisions of the floors. The structure was crowned with a powerful cornice. The walls were made in brickwork, sometimes with concrete filling, and faced with stone. For interfloor ceilings, in addition to vaults, wooden beam structures were used. The arched completions of the windows are replaced by horizontal lintels. Great work on the study of the ancient heritage and the development of the theoretical foundations of architecture was carried out by Leon Batista Alberti (works on the theory of painting and sculpture, Ten Books on Architecture). The largest works of Alberti as a practice are, in addition to the Rucellai Palace, the restructuring of the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence (1480), where volutes, which were widely used in Baroque architecture, were used for the first time in the composition of the facade, the Church of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, the facade of which was solved by superimposing two order systems. Alberti's work is characterized by the active use of the patterns of order divisions of the facade, the development of the idea of a large order covering several tiers of the building. At the end of the XV century. the scope of construction is reduced. The Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453, cut off Italy from the East that traded with it. The country's economy is in decline. Humanism is losing its militant character, art is seen as a means of escape from real life to the idyll, elegance and sophistication are valued in architecture. Venice, in contrast to the restrained architecture of Florence, is characterized by an attractive, open type of city palace, the composition of the facade of which, with subtle, elegant details, retains Moorish-Gothic features. The architecture of Milan retained the features of Gothic and fortified architecture, reflected in civil architecture.
Rice. 1. Florence Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. 1434 Axonometric section of the dome, plan of the cathedral.
Rice. 2. Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence. 1452 Fragment of the facade, plan.
Milan is associated with the activities of the greatest painter and scientist of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci. He developed several projects for palaces and cathedrals; a city project was proposed, in which, anticipating the development of urban science, attention was paid to the arrangement of water supply and sewerage, to the organization of traffic at different levels. Of great importance for the architecture of the Renaissance were his studies of the compositions of centric buildings and the mathematical justification for calculating the forces acting in the structures of buildings. Roman architecture of the late 15th century. replenished with the works of Florentine and Milanese architects, who, during the decline of their cities, moved to Rome to the court of the pope. Here, in 1485, the Palazzo Cancelleria was laid, made in the spirit of Florentine palaces, but devoid of the severity and gloomy asceticism of their facades. The building has graceful architectural details, fine ornamentation of the entrance portal and window frames.
High Renaissance architecture
With the discovery of America (1492) and. sea route to India around Africa (1498), the center of gravity of the European economy moved to Spain and Portugal. The necessary conditions for construction were preserved only in Rome - the capital of the Catholic Church throughout feudal Europe. Here the leading was the construction of unique places of worship. The architecture of gardens, parks, country residences of the nobility is developing. A significant part of the work of the largest architect of the Renaissance, Donato Bramante, is associated with Rome. The tempietto in the courtyard of the church of San Pietro in Montorio was built by Bramante in 1502 (Fig. 3). This small work of mature centric composition was the preparatory stage for Bramante's work on the plan of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome.
Rice. 3. Tempietto in the courtyard of the Church of San Pietro in Montorio. Rome. 1502 General view. Section, plan.
The courtyard with a circular gallery was not realized. One of the significant works on the development of the idea of centric composition was the construction of the church of Santa Maria del Consoliazione in Todi, which has the utmost clarity of design and the integrity of the internal space, decided according to the Byzantine scheme, but using frame ribs in the domes. Here, part of the spacer forces is balanced by metal puffs under the heels of the spring arches of the sail. In 1503, Bramante began work on the courtyards of the Vatican: the courtyard of the Loggias, the Pigny garden and the Belvedere courtyard. He creates this grandiose ensemble in collaboration with Raphael. Design of the Cathedral of St. Peter (Fig. 111), begun in 1452 by Bernardo Rossolino, was continued in 1505. According to Bramante, the cathedral was to have the shape of a Greek cross with additional spaces in the corners, which gave the plan a square silhouette. The overall solution is based on a simple and clear pyramidal-centric composition crowned with a grandiose spherical dome. The construction, begun according to this plan, was stopped with the death of Bramante in 1514. From his successor, Rafael Santi, they demanded an extension of the entrance part of the cathedral. The plan in the form of a Latin cross was more in line with the symbolism of the Catholic cult. Of the architectural works of Raphael, the Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence (1517), the partially built "Villa Madama" - the estate of Cardinal G. Medici, the Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli, the Villa Farnesina in Rome (1511), the project of which is also attributed to Raphael, have been preserved.
Rice. 4. Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. Plans:
a - D. Bramante, 1505; b - Raphael Santi, 1514; c - A, yes Sangallo, 1536; d - Minel Angelo, 1547
In 1527, Rome was captured and plundered by the troops of the Spanish king. The cathedral under construction acquired new owners, who demanded a revision of the project. Antonio da Sangallo Jr. in 1536 returns to the plan in the form of a Latin cross. According to his project, the main facade of the cathedral is flanked by two high towers; the dome has a higher rise, it is placed on two drums, which makes it visible from afar with the facade part strongly advanced forward and the huge scale of the building. Of the other works of Sangallo Jr., the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (begun in 1514) is of great interest. The third floor with a magnificent cornice and decorative processing of the courtyard was completed by Michelangelo after the death of Sangallo in 1546. In Venice, a number of projects were carried out by Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti): the library of San Marco, the reconstruction of Piazzetta. Giorgio Vasari, a well-known biographer of outstanding artists, created the Uffizi Street in Florence, which completed the composition of the Piazza della Signoria ensemble.
Architecture of Western Europe At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the First World War, and the Great October Socialist Revolution, the art of the dominant artistic trends in the countries of developed capitalism began to move to anti-realist positions. However, with the growth of the revolutionary movement, a transition is planned to a new stage in the development of realism, imbued with anti-bourgeois ideas, and then associated with socialist ideals. The process of its development is complex and contradictory, marked by the emergence of various stylistic forms and trends. Eiffel Tower, 1889, Built for the centenary of the French Revolution 
Gaudi.
Sagrada Familia Church Built since 1884, Barcelona Architecture. In the era of imperialism, the development of various types of art proceeds unevenly. While painting is going through a deep crisis, architecture is getting relatively favorable conditions compared to the 19th century. The social nature of production, the rapid growth of technology, the need for mass construction, the active struggle of the working class for their rights compel the capitalist states to intervene in the planning of architectural construction, and make it necessary to solve the problems of urban planning and ensembles. Architecture, unlike painting, is an art form that is inextricably linked with material production, with technical progress, with the satisfaction of the practical needs of society. It cannot be divorced from the solution of the tasks set by life. The eclecticism of the 19th century is being replaced by the search for an integral style based on the use of new structures and materials introduced into building practice since the 1840s (steel, cement, concrete, reinforced concrete, frame system, huge roofs of the vaulted-dome system, hanging roofs, trusses , peaks). The technical capabilities of the new architecture, its aesthetic strengths reflected not only the social nature of production in the era of imperialism, but also created the material prerequisites for the flourishing of architecture in the future under the conditions of the elimination of private property and exploitation.
Private property, competition led to the manifestation of subjective arbitrariness. Hence the pursuit of fashionable, deliberately extravagant solutions. The architecture of bourgeois society is characterized by a contradictory interweaving of false and aesthetically progressive tendencies.
The harbinger of a new stage in the development of architecture was the Eiffel Tower (312 m high), erected from prefabricated steel parts for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1889, designed by engineer Gustave Eiffel as a sign of entering a new era of the machine age. Deprived of utilitarian meaning, the openwork tower easily and smoothly takes off to the sky, embodying the power of technology. Its dynamic vertical plays an important role in the skyline of the city. The grandiose arch of the base of the tower, as it were, unites the distant vistas of the urban landscape seen through it.
This building had a stimulating effect on the further development of architecture. An interesting monument of this time was the Gallery of Machinery made of metal trusses with a glass ceiling of 112.5 m, built for the same World Exhibition (the gallery was dismantled in 1910), which had no equal in terms of perfection of design. The first residential building, in which a new building material was used - reinforced concrete, was built in Paris (1903) by O. Perret. The design of the building, which determined its light logical composition, was first revealed on the facade. Of great importance for the further development of architecture were the hangars of the Parisian suburb of Orly (1916-1924) with folded vaults of parabolic outlines. According to the type of their strong structures, diverse systems of reinforced concrete coatings were created - folded vaults and domes several centimeters thick with spans of about 100 m.
However, at first, even in purely engineering buildings, eclectic tendencies often manifested themselves - new materials and new designs were not comprehended aesthetically, they were combined with elements of old styles. Art Nouveau architectureMuseum of Art 1912-1920, HelsinkiSagrada Familia Cathedral Since 1884, BarcelonaCasa Mila 1905-1910, BarcelonaDwelling house 1918-1919, Turku Modern style. In the years 1890-1900, a direction spread in different countries, which received the name Art Nouveau style from the French word "modern". Its creators, on the one hand, strove for rational constructions, using reinforced concrete, glass, facing ceramics, etc. On the other hand, the modernist architects of Austria and Germany, Italy and France aspired to overcome the dry rationalism of building technology.
They turned to whimsical decorativism and symbols in the ornamentation of scenery, in paintings, sculpture of interiors and facades, to the deliberate emphasis of streamlined and curving, sliding shapes and lines. Winding patterns of metal bindings of railings and mid-flight stairs, balcony railings, roof bends, curvilinear forms of openings, a stylized ornament of climbing algae and women's heads with flowing hair were often combined with freely processed forms of historical styles of the past (mainly the styles of the East or the Middle Ages - bay windows, Romanesque turrets, etc.), giving the structures a somewhat romantic character. The most complete Art Nouveau expressed itself in the individual construction of palaces, mansions and in the type of apartment building, preferring asymmetry in the grouping of building volumes and in the location of window and door openings. Art Nouveau had an impact on arts and crafts, on the culture of everyday life. At the beginning of the 20th century, the expressiveness of the main structural elements in the architecture of Art Nouveau increased, there was a desire to identify in the composition of buildings their purpose and features of building materials.
The decisive turning point in the development of architecture came, however, after the First World War. History of foreign art Art of France. Parisian painters, sculptors, architects, engravers. History of foreign art.
From the era of the Romanesque style and Gothic of the Middle Ages to the present.
The development of European architecture of the late XVI - early XIX century. Baroque and Classicism
With the previous architecture of the Renaissance, the new historical stage of architecture under consideration constitutes organically connected links in the complex development of the branched whole of European architecture of modern times. In the 17th and 18th centuries further creative development of this architecture takes on other forms in the first third of the 19th century. comes to its historical end. If the Renaissance spiritually liberated the personality and with the great cultural upheaval that came, the collective mind and the age-old craft experience of architecture of the Middle Ages receded before the power of individual creative genius, then the era following the Renaissance was in the architecture of European countries a time of genuine brilliance of creative individuals phenomenal in brightness. If the Renaissance returned to architecture the subtle and flexible tool of its art - the classical order - and thus opened the way from the still epic grandeur of the Gothic to the new beauty of the “heroic” image, then the subsequent era can least of all be reproached for damaging this tool. In the 17th and 18th centuries, not only did perfect mastery of the classical order become universal, but its very principle was creatively modernized so that in the face of other tasks, a different era, the order could become an effective weapon of architecture in a new way.
Italian architecture of the late 16th - early 19th centuries.
Chapter "Architecture of Italy at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 19th century." section "Europe" from the book "The General History of Architecture. Volume VII. Western Europe and Latin America. XVII - the first half of the XIX centuries. edited by A.V. Bunina (responsible editor), A.I. Kaplun, P.N. Maksimov.
The emergence of the Baroque in Italy
Italy, which occupied in the XII-XIV centuries. leading place in Europe, by the beginning of the XVII century. found itself on the outskirts of its economic and political life. The decline of handicraft production and trade, and at the same time the weakening of the role of the urban bourgeoisie, led to the strengthening of the landed aristocracy and the church, without the support of which no social force could do at that time. The contrast between the unbridled luxury of the nobility and the hard life of the impoverished peasant masses and artisans reached an unprecedented sharpness. The economic decline of the country was exacerbated by political intrigues and internecine wars that tore apart the small Italian principalities, and the oppression of landowners and absolutist rulers was intensified by the oppression of foreign conquerors who repeatedly invaded Italy throughout the 18th century. At the end of the 17th century, Habsburg Spain dominated Milan in the north, Naples and Sicily in the south, controlling the states located between them (the duchies of Mantua and Modena, Tuscany, Parma and papal possessions). Control was exercised both through dynastic ties and through police measures, justified by increased robbery and vagrancy (direct consequences of the extreme impoverishment of the village). The few states that retained their independence - these are the maritime republics of Genoa (with Corsica) and Venice (with its possessions in Istria, Dalmatia and the Ionian Islands) and the Duchy of Savoy, which extended to Nice - experienced a clear decline. The transfer of Milan, Naples and Sardinia into the possession of Austria (1713) marked the end of the political independence of Italy.
Urban planning in Italy during the Baroque period
Baroque architecture cannot be understood in isolation from the urban planning of this era, since the tendencies characteristic of it, and above all a new understanding of the ensemble, established new relationships between the space of a square, street or garden with a building, which radically affected the composition of the latter. The economic crisis, which engulfed the country's trade and handicraft production, had the greatest effect on the advanced Italian cities, slowing down their growth and greatly hindering the implementation of broad urban planning initiatives. And yet, the need to update the cities that spontaneously developed in the Middle Ages required the continuation of those begun at the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th century. measures to streamline the street network, clearing cluttered areas, building wastelands and urban water supply. These utilitarian requirements, driven by direct necessity, combined with the ideological and political aspirations of the Catholic Church and secular rulers, who attracted the best craftsmen to carry out their tasks, brought up on the achievements of two centuries of development of the advanced architectural and artistic culture of Italy, led to a remarkable development of urban planning art.
Early Baroque period in Italian architecture (late 16th - early 17th century)
Baroque in architecture, as in other arts, did not take shape immediately and developed unevenly, acquiring a different character depending on local conditions and characteristics. The cradle of architecture was Rome, where an architecture that was deeper in ideological and emotional content of images and powerful in form was formed. Intensive building activity has never ceased here (since the war and the sack of Rome in 1527). Talented craftsmen from various cities of Italy continued to come here, and the church and its princes spared no expense for the reconstruction of the city, the construction of new buildings, for the decoration and decoration of churches and palaces with precious materials, gilding, painting and sculpture. A more refined, festive character of the Baroque acquired in Genoa, Turin and Venice, which in the XVIII century. remains one of the most important artistic centers of Italy and has a significant impact on the development of European culture as a whole. Florence - the cradle of the Renaissance - remains less receptive to the features of the new style. On the other hand, in Naples and Sicily, the baroque flourishes rapidly and in a peculiar way, although belatedly: the most striking works of the baroque here date back to the 18th century, and Spanish influence is noticeable in many of them.
The heyday of the Baroque in the architecture of Italy (2nd third of the 17th - early 18th centuries)
From the 2nd third of the 17th century, the Baroque enters a period of full maturity, reaching its highest flowering in the architecture of papal Rome. This period is characterized by clear changes in the nature of architecture, which is now distinguished by an unprecedentedly wide scope and impressive representativeness of the compositions, the solemn grandeur of the external appearance and the splendor of the interiors. The restraining influence of the architectural treatises of the late Renaissance, with their characteristic academic rigor, noticeably weakened, as did the religious intolerance characteristic of the first decades of the Counter-Reformation. Along with the work to complete the cathedral and St. Peter, which were supposed to serve to strengthen the prestige of the Catholic Church and give new brilliance to the halo surrounding its high priest and papal curia, extensive private construction was also carried out in Rome. Representatives of the most powerful families of the Italian nobility, who occupied the papal throne in the middle of the 17th century. (Urban VIII Barberini, 1633-1644; Innocent X Pamphili, 1644-1655, and Alexander VII of the Chigi banker family, 1655-1667), their numerous relatives and other major building customers of Rome frankly strove for the luxury and splendor of their palaces and villas, which, half a century earlier, would probably have been severely condemned.
Classicism in the architecture of Italy (mid-18th - early 19th century)
In the middle of the XVIII century in the architecture of Italy begins a turn from baroque to classicism. Signs of fundamental changes in the thinking of architects appear first in theoretical works and affect practice only towards the end of the century. This temporary gap between theory and practice, which developed inextricably in Italy over the course of three centuries, shows, on the one hand, the narrowed economic opportunities that led to a sharp reduction in building activity in the country, and on the other hand, the peculiar origins of Italian classicism, significantly different from the classicism of absolutist France and England. The first consistent and very principled criticism of baroque architecture was launched by the Franciscan monk Carlo Lodolli at the school for young Venetian nobles at the end of 1750 and at the very beginning of 1760. The thoughts of Lodolli, who criticized the baroque for unjustified excesses and formalism, clearly demanded that architecture return to sober functionalism, were consistently presented only a quarter of a century after his death in a treatise by Andrea Memmo, but undoubtedly had a wide influence long before that. So, one of Lodolli's students, Algarotti, an adherent of traditional, that is, baroque, architecture, expounds and criticizes the views of his teacher in works published in 1760. * In them, Lodolli appears as a "purist" and "rigorist", fighting against excessive decorations and illusionistic tricks.
The architecture of France in the era of absolute monarchy of the XVII-XVIII centuries.
The chapter on the architecture of France has two sections. Section I is devoted to the time of the absolute monarchy of the 17th-18th centuries, section II - to the architecture of the period of the Great French Revolution and the formation of bourgeois domination at the beginning of the 19th century. Section I, covering two centuries, the heyday and decline of absolutism, is in turn divided into four periods. These periods, almost identical in duration, each fit into approximately 50 years and more or less correspond to the dates of the life and reign of the French kings. The division into periods is due to the fact that France changed direction in architecture four times during these two centuries. The stylistic changes that took place in all arts, including architecture, were closely related to the social changes that were taking place in France. Architecture reflected the spiritual aspirations and demands of various classes and estates of French society. It is significant that during this period the language of architectural forms did not lag behind the development of society. This is understandable, because architecture was deliberately used to prove the progressiveness of the feudal-absolutist order, on the one hand, and the freedom of the human person, on the other. Through all four periods, there is a complex struggle between the state system and the individual human personality, which is widely and deeply reflected in architecture. This is how majestic ensembles arise, reflecting the idea of absolutism in artistic images, and along with this, small exquisite architectural structures, in their volumes and proportions commensurate with a person.
The architecture of France during the reign of Henry IV - Louis XIII (1594-1643)
The reign of Henry IV of Bourbon (ruled 1594-1610) sought to centralize state power. To raise the economy, the government builds large manufactories and encourages private enterprises to produce silk fabrics, tapestries, gilded wallpaper skins, morocco, and porcelain. It gives privileges to foreign craftsmen and subsidies to domestic manufacturers. Much attention was paid to the construction of new houses, bridges and especially canals. After the end of the religious wars, the country changed a lot. Concentrated in cities and castles, life goes out into wide open spaces. New settlements appear without fortifications. The nature of architecture itself is changing, in which, in this period, along with new trends, Gothic and Renaissance-classical architectural forms and structures still coexist.
Urban planning of France in the first half of the 17th century.
French cities had very dense buildings, as if merged into a single stone massif; however, this did not prevent the adaptation of old cities to new living conditions: they are being rebuilt, breaking down medieval buildings, in order to strengthen their defenses, fight epidemics and fires, while striving for the architectural organization of the city as a whole. The development of the "ideal city" plan continues. However, in this French architects, like their contemporaries in other countries, are completely dependent on the urgent needs of defense. New cities arise both as fortified outposts (but now mainly on the outskirts of the state), and as industrial centers, and as residence cities. The latter are being built in a complex with a residential palace, part of which is the city itself, planning subordinate to the palace.
Palaces and castles of France in the first half of the 17th century.
In the 17th century there is a process of degeneration of the fortified castle into an unfortified palace. During this period, the palace is already included in the general structure of the city, and outside the city is associated with a vast park. At the end of the XVI and beginning of the XVII century. close ties with Italy, a deep interest in its culture and art, the luxury of its palaces and villas caused natural imitation in the highest French circles. But the art of the Baroque was not widely developed throughout France. We can only talk about isolated baroque buildings, although for a number of French provinces and cities certain baroque motifs became deeply national: Languedoc, Montpellier, Ec, and others. French architects went through a harsh school of practice. As a rule, they came from building artels or families of hereditary masons, united in corporations, who strictly kept their professional techniques, dating back to medieval Gothic traditions. The constructive principles of the Gothic were superbly owned by French architects, who were at the same time designers, practical builders and contractors. Hence the critical attitude to everything brought in from the outside, including the Baroque. The interweaving of late Renaissance, Gothic and Baroque features with features of classicism is very characteristic of France in the first half of the 17th century. However, classicism from the end of the XVI century. up to the middle of the 19th century. is the main direction, all others accompany it.
Residential buildings in Paris in the first half of the 17th century.
At the beginning of the XVII century. in Paris, the growing need for housing caused widespread construction and settlement of new areas. However, almost nothing has come down to us from ordinary urban development and hotels of this period - we know about them from the theoretical works of the 1st half of the 17th century. By the end of the XVI century. in Paris there was a type of hotel that dominated French architecture for two centuries, with a residential building between the courtyard and the garden. The courtyard, limited by services, went out onto the street, and the residential building was located in the depths, separating the courtyard from the garden, as in the Carnavale hotel arch. Lesko (mid-16th century), rebuilt 100 years later by Mansart (Fig. 14). The same principle of planning in hotels of the early 17th century: Sully in Paris (1600-1620) on Antoine street, architect. Jacques I Androuet-Ducerso; Tubef on Rue Petit-Champ. This layout had an inconvenience: the only courtyard was both front and utility. In the further development of this type, the residential and economic parts of the house are demarcated. In front of the windows of the residential building there is a front yard, and to the side of it is a second, utility yard. The Liancourt Hotel (architect Lemuet) has such a courtyard.
Architecture of urban public buildings in France in the first half of the 17th century.
There were few purely administrative buildings at that time: they were mainly town halls and palaces of justice. In France, where the royal power was strong, and the municipal service in the 17th century. still small, public buildings were small - they consisted of an assembly hall, several bureaus, an archive, a church, a hall for guards and police, and a prison. Rich residential buildings adapted as town halls stood along the street next to other residential buildings. Such are the town halls in Avignon, Solier, Poiret in Burgundy. New town halls in France were built on large areas, like the town hall in Larochelle (1595-1606). This magnificent building with statues on the facade, an open staircase and a small turret, can serve as an example of the provincial French "Baroque", whose origins come from the pattern. Stricter than the form of the town hall in Trouet (1616, architect Louis Noble). The town hall in Reims (1627) is still a completely medieval building. The Senate of Paris overlooking Tournon Street is magnificent. Drawings of the interior of the palaces of Justice in Paris and the city of Rennes (S. de Brosse) have been preserved.
Architecture of places of worship in France in the first half of the 17th century.
With the end of the religious wars, the restoration of the destroyed churches and the construction of new ones immediately began. In Paris alone in the first half of the 17th century. more than 20 of them were erected. .In the cult architecture of France of this time, very diverse, the traditions of Gothic and Renaissance are still strong: Notre Dame in Le Havre (1606-1608), Saint-Étienne-du-Mont in Paris, Saint Pierre in Auxerre and others. Baroque was not widely reflected in church architecture, although it paid tribute to it to some extent. The French Jesuits considered the baroque church of Il Gesu in Rome to be the ideal of beauty. French Jesuit architects, working first in Italy (Etienne Martellange and Tournelle), introduced churches like Il Gesú in France. The influence of this Italian building certainly took place (the church in Rueli, in the city of Richelieu, etc.), but the degree of this influence is exaggerated. A number of churches built according to the plan of Il Gesu have a completely different architectural appearance, differently organized facades. Such are the churches Saint Paul Saint Louis in Paris, Jesuits in Blois built by Martellange, church in Avignon- Tournelle (1620-1655), Saint Gervais in Paris- S. de Brossom and Metezo.
French architecture during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715)
The absolutism of France, brilliantly reflected in the architecture of the second half of the 17th century, had a reverse side of the medal. The costs of royal buildings and the maintenance of the court of Louis XIV - the "Sun King" - were completely unbearable for the budget of France. During the wars (1667, 1672, 1687) France lost a number of lands, and economically gave way to England in first place. By the end of the reign of Louis XIV, the public debt reached fabulous figures, ten times higher than the annual budget of the country. During the youth of the monarch, the surintendent Colbert manages to strengthen and raise the French economy. Colbert pays great attention to the construction of cities and new industrial centers, the creation of the Academy of Architecture (1677). Francois Blondel was appointed director of the Academy, the first members were Liberal Bruant, Daniel Guittard, Antoine Lepotre, Francois Leveau, Pierre Mignard, Francois d'Orbe. In 1675 he received the title of academician J.A. Mansart, and in 1685 - Pierre Bullet.
Urban planning in France during the reign of Louis XIV
The largest urban planner and military engineer of the 17th century. in France was arch. Vauban who built 150 fortress cities. Some of them, like Brest, have been further developed. Vauban contributed a lot to the science of fortification. Before him, fortified cities were defended by artillery, which could fire at the enemy even from the city center due to the presence of straight streets. Vauban improved the protection of the city with a system of ditches, bastions, curtain walls. The fortified city, as a rule, had the shape of a regular polygon, covered by large loops of fortifications. In the city of Yuning (1679), the area of defensive structures is equal to eight times the area of the residential part of the city. The cities of Longwyn (1679) and Neuf-Brizac in Alsace (1698) were built by Vauban in the form of a regular octagon with a checkerboard layout; in the center there was a square square with entrances at the corners. The city of Rocroix was rebuilt by Vauban with the preservation of the radial-ring system of streets and the boulevards surrounding it. The system of new powerful fortifications gave the city the shape of an irregular pentagon.
Palaces and castles of France during the reign of Louis XIV
The Vaux-le-Viscount castle was built in 1661 by Louis Levo (interiors - architect Ch. Lebrun; park - Andre Le Nôtre). There is still a lot of earlier architecture in this building: high roofs, separate above each volume; in the central part of the building, along the main facade, there is a floor order of rusticated columns. The entrance portal with a pediment decorated with reclining sculptures is reminiscent of the works of S. de Brosse or Ducerceau. The interiors of the castle are magnificent. In the park, Le Nôtre first outlined an axial system of composition of flat parterres, subordinate to the palace. However, here the heavy palace has not yet merged into a single organism with the park, and the axial development of the park from the palace, into the distance, to infinity, is disturbed by the transverse arrangement of the pool at the end of the garden. These problems will be solved by Le Nôtre at Versailles. However, all this does not reduce the enormous artistic merit of this outstanding work of France.
Paris hotels during the reign of Louis XIV
In the rich residential buildings of the court nobility, as well as the financial elite, the number of rooms increases, the layout becomes more complicated. During this period, there are several options for planning mansions according to the type of house between the courtyard and the garden. In a number of properties, the layout is asymmetrical, with the courtyard and garden located on one side, and residential and outbuildings on the other. These are the hotels of Paris: Ezelen - L. Levo (Fig. 47, 1), houses on the street. Clery (Fig. 47, 2) and Jougs Consul - Jean Richet, hotels of Amelo de Bezey - D. Gottar (Fig. 48.1), Montmorency - Jacques Moreau (Fig. 47.5). An example of a symmetrical solution is the Hotel Jaba - L. Bruant. But, as a rule, with an asymmetric plan, symmetry is maintained in the facade, often created by artificial techniques. In many hotels of the middle of the XVII century. there are noticeable features of the still unfinished development of the type (hotels Amelo, Louvois, Chamois, etc.), there is no clear interconnection of the parts in the plans. Searches in this direction (the hotels of Toad and Beauvais - Antoine Le Nôtre, Fig. 48.2) receive full permission in the works of J. A. Mansart: hotels Lorge, Noel in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Mansart's house on the street. Tournel and house offered by Mansart as a model.
