The main ideas of Buddhism briefly. Like other religions, Buddhism promises people deliverance from the most painful aspects of human existence - suffering, adversity, passions, fear of death.

BC, in the middle of the 1st millennium, as a counterbalance to the prevailing Brahminism, Buddhism was born in the northern part of India, which is still considered one of the oldest ideologies in the world. Having taken the main position in philosophy, Buddhism originates from the preaching of the Buddha (Prince Siddhartha Gautama) about the four sublime truths that were revealed to him at the moment of Enlightenment. Buddha, which is translated from Sanskrit as enlightened.

At first, Buddhism was a doctrine, ideology and philosophy, only after that it became a religion. In a rational system of reasonable views on the world around us, on man and knowledge, lies Buddhist philosophy, which has developed within the framework of different trends and schools of Buddhism. The course of events that formed the philosophy of Buddhism and the philosophy of Brahmanism differed in the way of speculation.

The Brahminist worldview was guided by the age-old power of religiosity and mythopoetic traditions, which developed a special concept of a way of life and thinking. The philosophy of Buddhism, on the other hand, determines the nature of human consciousness and psyche during the accumulation of acquired knowledge. The founder of Buddhism reasonably explains the subtle and deep morality that befell him at the moment of Enlightenment, transforming the consciousness of people and changing the structure of their psyche to work in a new order of salvation or liberation. Buddhist philosophy is based on three principles:

1. Anitya or the theory of all-round transformation and instability

Everything that exists is subject to modification and dynamism. “All things are subject to change and decay, everything that exists is created by special conditions, disappearing with their liquidation. Everything that has a beginning has an end,” said the Buddha;

2. Pratitya-samutpada or the theory of dependent arising

The variability inherent in everything that exists is not chaos, for it obeys the rule of the interdependent emergence of dharma. A single and instinctive rule of communication determines all events of the spiritual and material worlds. Without the support of a conscious guide, Dharma operates intuitively. The emerging root cause accompanies the effect. Everything that exists is predetermined and has a reason. Nothing happens without a reason;

3. Anatmavada or the theory of non-existence of the soul

The state of negation of the absolute higher "I" or Atman. The Buddha does not deny the indivisibility of the identical substance (soul) in a person and a single series of flows of situations. The ongoing flow of situations is life, depending on previous conditions that give rise to the following states. The formation of vital unity is most often interpreted as a burning lamp throughout the night, because its flame is subject to the conditions of the moment of burning. The soul, in this theory, is replaced by a continuous stream of consciousness. In this situation, the transmigration of souls into other bodies does not exist.

Ideas of Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama or Shakyamuni was not the Creator or God, he was an ordinary person who found the opportunity to understand life - the source of external and internal difficulties. Having overcome his own difficulties and limitations, he realized an effective opportunity to help other people, becoming a Buddha - completely Enlightened. He proved by his own example that any person can achieve Enlightenment, because he has the abilities, opportunities and factors that allow transformation to take place - “Buddha nature” prevails in everyone.

Everyone has a mind, a capacity for understanding and knowledge; have a heart and a gift for showing feelings towards others. Everyone is gifted with communication and energy, that is, the ability to act. While teaching people individual systems and methods, the Buddha understood that people are not identical and are characterized by different inclinations, therefore he did not put forward any one dogmatic teaching. Encouraged people to accept the faith and test it on their own experience.

Buddhism contains the idea of ​​the equality of all people in terms of their having the same opportunities. In Buddhism, there is no idea of ​​the kingdom of an infinite soul that atones for sins, but human actions will certainly return, causing karma, but not divine punishment. Human actions are the result of thoughts and actions.

The Dalai Lama is the supreme head, the Guru of all the Gurus and the spiritual mentor of all the Buddhists of the world of the present time. According to him, the path to happiness lies through three stages: knowledge, humility and creation. Everyone has the will to choose what is closest to him. Lama chose two paths: knowledge and creation. Buddhism tells people about themselves, arousing true interest, exciting consciousness and reason, helping a person to find harmony with himself and being the shortest way to comprehend his own existence.

Despite this, not everyone is given to understand and achieve full knowledge, only those who see the root of their failures will be able to see the highest plan of the Universe. The desire to establish contact between oneself and the Universe, asking the question “Who are we and where did we come from?” Gives people the opportunity and strength for self-improvement. The main and paramount ideas of Buddhism are:

• The world is a deep ocean of suffering and sorrow that surrounds us everywhere;
• The basis of suffering lies in man's selfish desires;
• Internal work on yourself, getting rid of desires and egoism - allows you to achieve Enlightenment and liberation from suffering or Nirvana - bliss and freedom of thought, which are the primary source of all troubles.

Every person is given the opportunity to follow simple rules that lead to happiness, but in the modern world it is difficult to follow, because there are many temptations that weaken our will. Most adherents of Buddhism leave their homes and go to monasteries, ridding themselves of thoughts of temptations. This is the sure but difficult path to the knowledge of meaning and the attainment of nirvana.

Buddhist Faith - Truths and Foundations

There are basic concepts of the Buddhist creed:

• Karma is a fundamental principle that explains the causes and consequences of events that happen to a person. "What goes around comes around";
• Incarnations - the rule of rebirth of some living beings into others. This rule differs from the "transmigration of souls", as it does not recognize the existence of a permanent soul, as. Karma passes from one living being to another.
• Four noble truths formulated by Shakyamuni.

Achieving Nirvana is one of the basic goals of Buddhism. Nirvana is the highest degree of awareness, achieved by renouncing oneself and comfortable conditions. After long meditations and deep reflections, the Buddha realized self-control over the mind, which led him to the conclusion about people's attachments to worldly goods and immoderate concern about the opinions of other people.

In this regard, the human soul ceases to improve and begins to degrade, but only the achievement of nirvana will help to get away from "slave" behavior. There is a circle of basic beliefs that act as the basics of the Buddhist teachings. These basic considerations contain 4 noble axioms:

1. About suffering. Every person is affected in one way or another by Dukhi - negative thoughts, anger, fears and suffering;
2. The root cause of suffering. Dukhi has a cause conducive to addiction to greed, weak will, lust and other destructive desires;
3. About self-elimination of the root causes of suffering. Everyone is given a chance to get rid of Dukhi;
4. About the path of liberation. Complete liberation from Dukhi lies on the path to Nirvana.

The first truth says that a person exists in suffering, dissatisfaction, disappointment, and happy moments, in the future, also lead to suffering. Suffering or torment is the cause, in the form of a great desire to master something, lying in attachment to people and people to the existing world.

The meaning of the first two axioms is overcome by the next two, where they talk about the generation of reasons for suffering and their subordination to the human will - in order to interrupt the vicious circle of suffering and disappointment, it is necessary to give up desires. The key to getting rid of the causes of suffering lies in the fourth axiom, which is confirmed in the eightfold noble path. “The wholesome eightfold path is right outlook, intention, speech, unerring action, lifestyle, right effort, awareness, and concentration.” The Eightfold Path has three main components:

• a culture of behavior (infallible thoughts, words and actions), including the commandments: do not kill, do not steal, do not lie and do not commit adultery; and virtue; generosity, benevolence, humility and purification;
• culture of meditation (conscious concentration) - a set of exercises aimed at achieving inner peace, detachment from the world and pacification of passions;
• culture of wisdom (correct views) - knowledge of the 4 noble truths.

Of all the noble axioms, the eightfold path forms the Buddhist philosophy. But not a single religion in the world recognizes the possibility of man by his own efforts to become a god-like being. You should not rush to extremes, keeping the "middle way" or the "golden" mean of the spiritual and material worlds, you can get closer to God.

A Brief History of the Origin of Buddhism

In the philosophy of ancient India, Buddhism, which allows you to comprehend Zen, is and was in the leading position of society. Considering briefly the origin of Buddhism, we note that its emergence was facilitated by changes in the life situation of the people of India. Tentatively, in the middle of the sixth century BC, society was affected by economic and cultural crises. The generally accepted customs that existed before the emergence of a new religion underwent a transformation.

The most important was the fact that at that time class relations were being formed in society. The appearance of ascetics, who formed their own vision of the world, served as the emergence of Buddhism, which opposed the traditions of the past. Prince Siddhartha Gautama, born in the family of a wealthy ruler of the Shakya tribe, in 560 BC, was the future founder of Buddhism. The rich prince, from childhood to adolescence, did not feel disappointment and need, surrounded by luxury, being ignorant of the existence of disease, old age and death.

Once, while walking outside the palace, the prince encountered a real shock: with old, sick people and a funeral procession. The sight he saw had such a strong influence on Siddhartha that at the young age of 29 he joined the wandering hermits. Since then, he began to search for the truth of being, trying to look at the nature of human problems, looking for ways to eliminate them. In search of answers from the sages to questions of interest, he realized that an endless string of reincarnations is inevitable if one does not free oneself from suffering in the present incarnation.

During the 6 years of pilgrimages, Gautama tried various yoga techniques and practices, moving on to other ways to achieve Enlightenment. The working method was meditation and daily prayers. While meditating under the famous Bodhi tree, he attained Enlightenment and found the long-awaited answers to his questions. For several days he was in one place, after this and unexpected understanding. Then, having gone to the valley of the Ganges River, he received the name "Enlightened One" and began to preach the doctrine for people, starting from the city of Varanasi in the northeast of India.

Hello, dear readers - seekers of knowledge and truth!

As you know, knowledge of any subject begins with the study of its foundations. Therefore, we suggest that today we talk briefly about the main ideas of Buddhism: learn the most important thing about this storehouse of wisdom, go back two and a half thousand years ago, get to know Shakyamuni Buddha and study the main provisions of his philosophical heritage.

Also, this article will tell about the fundamental truths, precepts, scriptures and mark the boundaries between different schools of Buddhism.

A bit of history

The concept of "Buddhism" was introduced not by adherents of this movement, but by European figures about two centuries ago.

Today, Buddhism is known on all continents. He is especially revered in Asian countries, in the Far East. But Buddhists, who number nearly half a billion people, also live in Western countries.

There are Buddhist communities in many major European cities. Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Russia - this is not the whole list of countries where Shakyamuni's legacy is revered.

Key Ideas

It is important to understand that Buddhism is not a religion in the usual sense, but rather a philosophy, a tradition, a system of views on life, the main goal of which is to achieve enlightenment.

There is no God here whose origin is transcendent and whose worship is meek. Buddha is not God, he is a man who managed to reach nirvana, and he tells his students his way.

The emphasis is on the fact that a person himself must have the desire to change, understand the nature of this world, clear the mind of vain thoughts, indulge in deep reflection, achieve harmonious relations with the outside world, get rid of passions, desires and be saved. This is called nirvana - complete liberation from suffering.

Nirvana can be achieved by observing strict ethical precepts, constant meditation, reciting mantras, modest, ascetic behavior, as well as with the support of various bodhisattvas and buddhas - beings who have already achieved Enlightenment.

Nirvana ends the rotation of the wheel of samsara - a series of rebirths. Buddhists do not doubt the idea of ​​reincarnation, and in fact in every life people are born, get sick, die, which in itself is suffering. Coming out, you can get rid of it forever.

An important concept of the Buddhist tradition, known to many, is. Any of our actions, feelings and even thoughts is reflected in the future. They, good or destructive, will leave a karmic imprint and will inevitably lead to consequences.

The laws of cause and effect are inextricably linked with this view. Shakyamuni taught that everything has conditions of appearance and entails certain consequences.

The Buddha said, “A good cause produces a good result. Bad cause, bad result. My cause is my result."

Philosophy defines core values:

• Buddha is a great teacher, and also everyone who has reached the truth by his path is called a buddha;
• - doctrine, its provisions, concepts;
• Sangha is a Buddhist community that teaches the correct following of rules and immutable principles.

On the path to liberation, one must learn to resist difficulties, to brush aside the so-called "three poisons":

• ignorance, departure from the truth;
• indulgence of passions and bodily desires;
• angry, intemperate behavior.

The Buddhist tradition adheres to the main ideas:

• four noble truths;
• five commandments;
• middle way;

Truths

Shakyamuni told his disciples four noble truths:

• there is a lot of suffering in the world - dukkha;
• they have a cause behind them - desires;
• there is a way to get rid of suffering;
• this path leads to nirvana.

Commandments

• do not harm living beings, do not kill them;
• do not steal;
• dont lie;
• do not commit adultery;
• do not use intoxicants.

middle way

The Buddha bequeathed to descendants to adhere to the "middle way". This means that one should not rush to extremes from a life consisting entirely of pleasures to complete asceticism, which can harm a person. It is necessary to find a golden mean that will contribute to spiritual and physical development.

Eightfold Path

You need to go through eight stages on the road to self-improvement, the main reward in which will be the highest step - nirvana. All steps are important, they interact, so it is important to point in the right direction:

• understanding, vision of the world;
• thoughts, intentions;
• words;
• deeds;
• Lifestyle;
• efforts, efforts;
• attention, mental and sensory control;
• concentration, which is achieved by meditation.

Holy books

The main book, like the Bible for Christians, like the Koran for Muslims, for Buddhists is the Tripitaka. It is a collection of scriptures grouped into three different volumes. Hence the name, which translates as "three baskets".

• Vinaya-pitaka. Describes the rules of behavior of monks within the community, about five hundred rituals performed, gives examples from the life of the Awakened One and curious parables about some traditions.
• Sutra-pitaka. Keeps in itself over ten thousand famous sayings of the Teacher, reveals the details of his life.
• Abhidharma-pitaka. A section on the theory of philosophy, which systematizes the concepts, knowledge, fundamental principles of Dharma.

Schools

The Buddhist view over the centuries has spread far beyond the borders of the homeland, drawing thousands of adherents with it. It transformed, changed, flowed from one form to another. The basis of Buddhism remains intact, but still some views on the world order may differ from one direction to another.

In one of them, for example, the personalities of the Buddha are worshiped and deified by bodhisattvas, while in another, no authority other than one's own heart may be recognized. According to one school, only monks who have accepted asceticism can become a Buddhist, the other accepts into its ranks everyone who believes sincerely.

There can be a lot of such examples, therefore it is customary to divide the main currents, which, in turn, are divided into smaller directions.

Theravada

The most ancient school that appeared shortly after Shakyamuni's parinirvana. It is considered the most strict, conservative. According to Theravadins, only a monk can achieve nirvana.

There are no special rituals, a pantheon of saints, images in the form of sculptures. Everything is based on the actions, thoughts and correct behavior of a person.

Mahayana

A school that gives hope even to lay people to break out of the circle of rebirths, which means suffering, and achieve Awakening. It is also known as the "Great Chariot".

This direction represents the images of saints - bodhisattvas, buddhas, so that they help believers in such a difficult matter.

Vajrayana

Known to many also as the "Diamond Chariot", it puts tantra at the center of dharma - the art of self-development, healing through various practices, meditation, self-control, self-awareness.

In our time, the geography of Buddhism is incredibly wide, there are several classifications of its currents, and in their enumeration, many call the average figure eighteen. Among them are Tibetan schools, for example, Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma, as well as Japanese Shingon, Zen , Neo-Buddhism and many other offshoots.

Conclusion

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! The Buddhist world is amazing, we are just starting to discover it. Share this article on social networks, and we will search for the truth together.

Literally in these words lies the whole meaning of the Buddhist teaching, at least in its original form. The founder and main object of worship in Buddhism is Prince Gautama Siddhartha, who lived in 563-483 BC, which indicates that this religion is one of the oldest in the world.

Concept of God in Buddhism

Some individual sects revere the Buddha as God, but the rest of the Buddhists see him as their founder, mentor and enlightener. Buddhists believe that enlightenment can only be achieved through the infinite energy of the universe. Thus, the Buddhist world does not recognize a creator god, omniscient and omnipotent. Every person is a part of God. Buddhists do not have one permanent God, every enlightened one can achieve the title of "Buddha". This understanding of God makes Buddhism different from most Western religions.

The essence of the practice of Buddhism

Buddhists seek to purify clouded states of mind that distort reality. These are anger, fear, ignorance, selfishness, laziness, jealousy, envy, greed, irritation and others. Buddhism cultivates and develops such pure and beneficial qualities of consciousness as kindness, generosity, gratitude, compassion, diligence, wisdom, and others. All this allows you to gradually learn and clear your mind, which leads to a lasting sense of well-being. By making the mind strong and bright, Buddhists reduce the anxiety and irritation that lead to adversity and depression. Ultimately, Buddhism is a necessary condition for the deepest insights that lead to the final liberation of the mind.

Buddhism is not so much a mystical religion as a philosophical one. The Buddhist doctrine contains 4 main "noble truths" about human suffering:

On the nature of suffering;
about the origin and causes of suffering;
about the cessation of suffering and the elimination of its sources;
about ways to end suffering.

The last, fourth truth points to the path to the destruction of suffering and pain, otherwise called the eightfold path to achieve inner peace. This state of mind allows one to plunge into transcendental meditation and achieve wisdom and enlightenment.

Morality and Ethics of Buddhism

Buddhist morality and ethics are built on the principles of doing no harm and moderation. At the same time, a sense of morality, concentration and wisdom is brought up and developed in a person. And with the help of meditation, Buddhists learn the mechanisms of the mind and cause-and-effect relationships between bodily, spiritual and psychological processes. The teachings of Buddhism have become the basis of a number of schools, which are united by the fact that each, at its own level of understanding the life and teachings of the Buddha, is aimed at the all-round development of a person - the meaningful use of the body, speech and mind.

But since the Buddhist teaching is multifaceted and based not on faith, but on experience, it is not enough to confine ourselves to a description of its content. The features of this spiritual path become visible only in comparison with other worldviews and religions. And it is worth approaching the teachings of the Buddha only after the energy of the mind has been released from strict moral standards.

The development of Buddhism in the world

The call for freedom from suffering and faith in the energy of the universe led to the emergence of Western mentalistic doctrines of the 19th and 20th centuries. The first adherents of Buddhism in the West were mainly people from Asia and the East, who were tormented by inner unrest, and then they were joined by agnostics and atheists of all affiliations.

In Tibet, Buddhism was the state religion and before the capture of Tibet by China, the main Buddhist of the country, the Dalai Lama, was also the head of state. After the Chinese invasion in the 50s of the last century, the XIV Dalai Lama was forced to leave the country and go to India in order to bring the light of teaching to his followers from there. He is the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. Worship of the Dalai Lama is banned in Tibet, and even possessing a photo of the Dalai Lama will result in serious penalties for Tibetans.

In the United States and Europe, Buddhism received its large-scale distribution in the form of Zen Buddhism, a trend that arose in Japan in the 12th century. The Buddhist monk Shaku Soen, a representative of this trend, at the World Congress of Religions in Chicago (1893) delivered a stormy speech about the "deity of reason" of Zen Buddhism. After that day, Zen and yoga are the most popular Eastern teachings in the West, where the control of the mind over the body is considered a priority. Zen practices an increased focus on individual meditations and a lack of authority for scriptures, prayers, and teachings. As in Buddhism, in Zen wisdom is attained through experience, and its highest hypostasis is enlightenment (awakening). It is possible that such interest in Zen Buddhism in the West arose because of the simplicity of this teaching. After all, according to the teachings of the Buddha, each person himself is capable of becoming a Buddha, which means that everyone is part of an earthly deity. And you need to look for answers only in yourself.

Hello dear readers!

Today in our article we will talk about what Buddhism is and give a brief description of this religion.

Buddhism is one of the main world religions along with Christianity and Islam. There are about 500 million "pure" Buddhists in the world who profess only Buddhism. However, this religion does not prohibit adherence to any other faith. Lately Buddhism has become very popular in the Western world, many people come to the desire to join it on their own. Perhaps not the last role in this is played by the peacefulness and tranquility of this religion.

Story

To begin with, let's find out where and how this religious and philosophical trend appeared.

Buddhism originated in the 6th century BC. in India. Buddhism spread from India to other Asian countries. The more popular it became, the more branches formed.

The founder of Buddhism was Prince Gautama Siddhartha. He was born into a wealthy family, and his life was full of luxury and fun.

According to legend, at the age of 29, an insight came to the prince: he realized that he was wasting his life. Deciding to leave the former existence, he becomes an ascetic. For the next six years, Gautama was a hermit: he traveled and practiced yoga.

Legend has it that at more than 30 years old, having achieved spiritual enlightenment, the prince began to be called, which means "enlightened." He sat under a tree and meditated for 49 days, after which his mind became detached and bright. He attained a state of joy and peace.

In the future, the Buddha's disciples called this tree "", or the tree of enlightenment. The Buddha had many followers. The disciples came to him, listened to his talks about the teachings, or dharma, listened to his sermons, meditated in order to become enlightened too.

Buddhism says that anyone can become enlightened by reaching a high awareness of his soul.

Basic concepts in Buddhism

Since there are many philosophical concepts in Buddhism that reflect the essence of this Eastern ideology, let's dwell on the main ideas and analyze their meanings.

One of the main views is the concept. Samsara is the wheel of earthly reincarnations of all living beings. In the process of this life cycle, the soul must “grow”. Samsara depends entirely on your past actions, your karma.

- these are your accomplishments in the past, noble and not very. For example, you can reincarnate into higher forms: a warrior, a person or a deity, or you can reincarnate into lower forms: an animal, a hungry ghost or a resident of hell, i.e. karma directly depends on your actions. Worthy deeds lead to reincarnations in higher forms. The end result of samsara is nirvana.

Nirvana is a state of enlightenment, awareness, the highest spiritual being. Nirvana frees us from karma.

is the teaching of the Buddha. Dharma is the maintenance of world order by all living beings. Everyone has their own path and it is necessary to follow it in accordance with ethical standards. Since Buddhism is a very peaceful religion, this aspect is incredibly important: do not harm another.

Sangha is a community of Buddhists who adhere to the rules and laws of the teachings of the Buddha.

Buddhism is based on four noble truths:

1. Life is suffering. We all suffer, experience anger, anger, fear.
2. Suffering has its causes: envy, greed, lust.
3. Suffering can be stopped.
4. The path to nirvana will help you escape from suffering.

The goal of Buddhism is to get away from this suffering. Stop experiencing negative feelings and emotions, get rid of various addictions. According to the Buddha, the true path, which is also the path to the state of nirvana, is the middle path, it is between excesses and asceticism. This path is called in Buddhism. It must be passed in order to become a noble conscious person.

Stages of the Eightfold Path

1. Correct understanding, worldview. Our actions are the result of our thoughts and conclusions. Wrong actions that bring us pain, not joy, are the result of wrong thoughts, so we need to develop awareness, monitor our thoughts and actions.
2. Right aspirations, desires. You need to limit your selfishness and everything that hurts. Live in peace with all living beings.
3. Correct speech. Do not swear, avoid gossip, evil expressions!
4. Right actions, deeds. Do not harm the world and all living things, do not commit violence.
5. Right way of life. Right actions will lead to a righteous way of life: without lies, intrigue, deceit.
6. Right effort. Focus on the good, monitor your thoughts, move away from the negative image of consciousness.
7. Correct thinking. It comes from right effort.
8. Correct concentration. To achieve peace, to give up disturbing emotions, you need to be conscious, focused.

Concept of God in Buddhism

As we have already seen, Buddhism is a very unusual ideology for our mentality. Since in any religion one of the basic concepts is the concept of God, let's see what this means in Buddhism.

In Buddhism, God is all living things that surrounds us, a divine essence that manifests itself in man, in animals, and in nature. Unlike other religions, there is no humanization of God. God is everything around us.

This religion or even spiritual teaching focuses on the psychological state of a person, his spiritual growth, rather than on ritual or symbolic actions, during which we honor the main deity. Here you yourself can achieve the divine state by working on yourself.

Directions of Buddhism

Buddhism is divided into three main branches, which we will now talk about:

1. Hinayana (Theravada), or the Little Chariot is southern Buddhism, common in southeast Asia: Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam. It is considered the earliest school of this religious teaching. The essence of Theravada lies in individual spiritual enlightenment, i.e. one must pass the eightfold path, become liberated from suffering and, therefore, achieve nirvana.
2. , or Great Vehicle - Northern Buddhism. Has received the distribution in the north of India, in China, Japan. It arose as an opposition to orthodox Theravada. From the point of view of the Mahayana, Theravada is a rather selfish teaching, because provides the path of enlightenment of the individual. Mahayana, on the other hand, preaches helping others to achieve a state of awareness, divinity. Anyone who chooses this path can reach Buddhahood and can count on help.
3. , or Tantric Buddhism was formed within the Mahayana. It is practiced in the Himalayan countries, Mongolia, Kalmykia, Tibet. Ways to achieve enlightened consciousness in the Vajrayana are: yoga, meditation, recitation of mantras and worship of the teacher. Without the help of a guru, it is impossible to begin one's path of realization and practice.

Conclusion

So, dear readers, today we talked about what is included in the concept of Buddhism, about its principles and essence, got acquainted with this teaching. I hope that getting to know him was interesting and useful for you.

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All the best to you and see you soon!

1) Vedas ( Skt. वेद, véda IAST - "knowledge", "teaching") - a collection of the most ancient scriptures of Hinduism, Sanskrit

For many centuries, the Vedas were transmitted orally in poetic form and only much later were they written down.

There are four Vedas:

Rig Veda- consists of hymns-mantras intended for repetition by the main priests.

Yajurveda- contains mantras intended for assistant priests adhvaryu.

Samaveda- contains mantras meant to be chanted by chanting priests udgatri.

Atharva Veda- is a collection of mantra spells.

Philosophical schools who accept the authority and revelation of the Vedas are called astika. Other traditions, such as Buddhism and Jainism, reject the Vedas and are therefore categorized nastika. Apart from Buddhism and Jainism, the authority of the Vedas does not accept Sikhism either.

The Vedas are considered one of the most ancient sacred scriptures in the world. According to modern Indological science, the Vedas were compiled over a period that lasted about a thousand years. It began with the compilation of the Rig Veda about 16th century BC e.

Due to the fragility of the material on which the Vedas were written (for this, tree bark or palm leaves were used), the age of the manuscripts that have come down to us does not exceed several hundred years.

The philosophical and mystical explanation of the meaning of the Vedas that appeared in Vedantic philosophy is rooted in the Brahman texts.

The six subsidiary disciplines related to the Vedas are traditionally called Vedanga (vedāṅga IAST ) "offshoots of the Vedas". Scholars define these texts as an addition to the Vedas. The Vedangas explain the correct pronunciation and use of mantras in ceremonies, and also assist in the correct interpretation of the Vedic texts. These topics are covered in Sutras, which scientists date from the period that lasted from the end of the Vedic to the appearance Mauryan Empire. They reflected the transition from Vedic Sanskrit to classical Sanskrit. The six main themes of Vedanga are:

Phonetics (Shiksha)

Meter (Chandas)

Grammar (Vyakarana)

Etymology (Nirukta)

Astrology (jyotisha)

Ritual (Kalpa)

Other Vedas

Ayurveda - “medicine”, adjoins the “Atharva Veda”.

Dhanur Veda - "martial arts", adjoins the "Yajur Veda".

Gandharva Veda - music and sacred dances”, adjoins the “Sama Veda”.

2) Upanishads(Skt. उपनिषद्, Upaniṣad IAST ) - ancient Indian treatises of a religious and philosophical nature. They are part of the Vedis and belong to the scriptures of Hinduism of the Shruti category. They mainly discuss philosophy, meditation, and the nature of God. It is believed that the Upanishads set out the main essence of the Vedas - therefore they are also called "Vedanta" (end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism. The Upanishads mainly describe the impersonal Brahman.

according to scientists, arose in the period from the 7th to the 3rd century BC. e., and some appeared only in the Middle Ages.

The Upanishads contain the foundations of Hindu philosophy - the concept of the universal spirit Brahman, the individual soul of atman or jiva, the Supersoul Paramatma and the Supreme God in His personal form Bhagavan or Ishvara. Brahman is described as primordial, transcendent and omnipresent, absolute eternal and infinite, the totality of all that has ever been, is or will be.

The Upanishads also contain the first and most complete explanation of the syllable "Om" as a transcendent, cosmic sound, which is the basis of all being.

3)Karma, Kamma(Sanskrit कर्म, palikamma - “cause-effect, retribution”, ot Sanskrit कर्मन्karman IAST - "deed, action, work") - one of the central concepts in Indian religions and philosophy, the universal law of cause and effect, according to which the righteous or sinful actions of a person determine his fate, the suffering or pleasure he experiences. Karma is the basis of a cause-and-effect series called samsaroy and is mainly used to understand relationships that go beyond one existence.

The law of karma realizes the consequences of human actions, both positive and negative, and thus makes a person responsible for his life, for all the suffering and pleasure that it brings him. The results or "fruits of karma" are called karma-phala

The concept of karma has its roots in the early Upanishads, according to which all living beings are responsible for their karma - their actions and their consequences - and for their liberation from the cycle of birth and death of samsara.

Reincarnation, reincarnation(lat. reincarnatio"re-incarnation") metempsychosis(Greek μετεμψύχωσις, "transmigration of souls") - a group of religious and philosophical doctrines, according to which the immortal essence of a living being (in some variations - only people) reincarnates again and again from one body to another. This immortal essence is called in various traditions the spirit or soul, the "divine spark", the "higher" or "true Self"; in each life a new personality of the individual develops in the physical world, but at the same time a certain part of the “I” of the individual remains unchanged, passing from body to body in a series of reincarnations. In a number of traditions, there are ideas that the chain of reincarnations has some purpose and the soul undergoes evolution in it. The idea of ​​the transmigration of souls is inherent not only in a number of religious systems, but is also found in isolation from some religious system.

Caste(through German Kaste or fr. caste from port. casta- “origin”, originally “pure breed”) - the class or race into which the population of India breaks up. From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature, it is known that the Aryan-speaking peoples during the period of the initial settlement of India (approximately from 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called "varnas" (Skt. "color") : brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors), vaishyas (traders, cattle breeders and farmers) ishudras (servants and laborers).

In the period of the early Middle Ages, although varnas were preserved, they fell into numerous castes (jati), which even more firmly fixed class affiliation.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that those who follow the rules of their caste will rise to a higher caste by birth in a future life, while those who violate these rules will lose their social status.

Buddhism is the oldest world religion, the role of which to this day remains great in a number of countries in Central, South and Southeast Asia, as well as in Europe and America. Buddhism is older than Christianity by five, and Islam by 12 centuries, but to this day, it is a living organism. The importance of Buddhism in the history of each country is not the same: in some - the Buddhist worldview became for many centuries the basis of the moral code of behavior of the people, in others - Buddhism was quite soon supplanted by the most ancient beliefs that revived at a new stage, in the third - it came quite recently, taking an extremely stingy a set of philosophical positions and practices, almost abandoning ritualism.

The ability to profess Buddhism to any person, regardless of race, nationality, country, gender, is inherent in the very essence of religion, which consists in recognizing the equality of people, putting forward the improvement of the consciousness of the individual. The emphasis on the need for the adept to work with his own consciousness in order to change it in the right direction is one of the main philosophical provisions of Buddhism and its differences from other religions.

Already in the first centuries of the history of Buddhism, texts appeared that touched on worldview issues, and “Buddhist philosophy” was created. The impetus for the development of philosophical thought was the need to answer the question: if life is suffering, and the cessation of suffering means an exit from being, then how can one get out of this being. This is how the doctrine of dharmas appeared - some single entities that establish what is perceived as a person, like any other living being, like the surrounding world.

The dharmas are divided into five categories, giving a total of 100 different varieties. All these varieties are included in the composition of a conscious living being. Dharmas are impermanent, instantaneous, connecting with each other, they give rise to that movement of states, which is called life. Thus, life is the existence of the real world, the appearance and disappearance of combinations of dharmas. The calming of dharmas, i.e., the non-emergence of any new combinations, was announced as the cessation of suffering and exit from being, i.e., the ultimate goal of the process of life, which is considered world suffering. The more perfect life is, the calmer it is. The extinction of the vanity of life forever is the ultimate distant impersonal ideal, it opposes the impersonal vanity of the world process of life.

With the development of Buddhist philosophy, the concept of dharma became more complex and filled with new additional meanings and meanings, such as “the teachings of the Buddha”, “existing”, “law”, “absolute, truly real”, “object, thing”. Dharma theory is the basis of Buddhist dogma. It has an extremely detailed terminology and makes it possible to describe observations on cognitive phenomena and religious experiences in the most direct way.

Based on the theory of dharmas, Buddhism denies the existence of a single soul, believing that it is only a stream of interchangeable states. There is no unity either in the material or in the spiritual world. As matter consists of atoms of particles, so the soul is composed like a heap of grains, and consists of individual mental phenomena, spiritual elements, or spiritual atoms.

Buddhism included many different concepts, but there was a certain general set of ideas that were accepted by all branches of Buddhism.

First, there is the idea of ​​a "middle way". Buddhism opposed extremes. The idea that extremes should be avoided was, according to legend, expressed by the Buddha in his first sermon. At the same time, both the extremes of worldly love of life and the extremes of ascetic mortification of the flesh were rejected. If we treat our flesh too harshly, said the Buddha, it gets tired and our mind becomes sluggish; if we treat it too gently, then our feelings become pampered and the will weakens. Just as weeds harm a field, so passion is harmful to a person.

Secondly, these are the "Four Noble Truths" and the "Eightfold Path". The Four Noble Truths say:

1. Life in the world is full of suffering;

2. There is a reason for this suffering;

3. You can stop suffering;

4. There is a path leading to the end of suffering.

The first "noble truth" states that life in the world is full of suffering. Birth, old age, illness, death, grief, sadness, desire, despair - everything that is generated by attachment to the earthly is suffering. Suffering is not just random, it exists everywhere; even what appears to be pleasure is actually a source of suffering.

The second "noble truth" states that there is a cause for this suffering. Suffering is the result of birth in this world, because birth is caused by addiction to everything earthly. And our desires ultimately come from ignorance. If we understood the structure of the world and, consequently, understood the causes of suffering, then we would not have an addiction to earthly things. Then birth would stop, and with it suffering.

The third "noble truth" says that if the conditions that give rise to suffering are eliminated, then suffering will also cease. Liberation from suffering is achievable, but under certain conditions. If the necessary conditions are met, a state of liberation will come - nirvana (literally: "attenuation", "destruction") - the extinguishing of passions, and with them suffering. Nirvana - a state of serenity, equanimity and dispassionate self-control - a guarantee against rebirth. But nirvana is not inactivity. The Buddha himself, having reached nirvana, doubted for some time whether he should spread his teaching further, whether he should work for the liberation of his neighbors? And he decided that the raft built with such difficulty, on which he swam across the stream of suffering, should not disappear, should be handed over to others. Hence the conclusion - you need to work for the moral uplift of your neighbors.

The fourth "noble truth" is a description of the path to liberation from suffering. The Buddha's teaching is mainly the answer to one fundamental question: how to reach nirvana? To do this, you need to go through the "eightfold path", which includes the following steps.

1. Right Views - Right Understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

2. Right Determination - the firm intention to transform life. At this stage, a renunciation of attachment to the world, a rejection of bad intentions and enmity towards other people is required.

3. Correct speech - control over speech, refraining from lies, slander, cruel words and frivolous conversations.

4. Right behavior - refusal to destroy the living, from stealing, from wrong sense gratification.

5. The right way of life - getting a livelihood in an honest way.

6. Right Effort - Constant striving to eradicate old bad thoughts and fix good ideas in the mind (otherwise one can go astray).

7. The right line of thought is the knowledge that all things are by their nature transient, therefore there should be no attachment to things and sorrow over their loss.

8. Correct concentration, including 4 stages:

1) enjoying the joy of detachment and pure thinking;

2) joy, peace and inner peace, generating reflection, awareness of joy and peace;

3) an attempt to move to a state of indifference, a transition to perfect equanimity and liberation from the sensation of corporality;

4) an attempt to free oneself even from the consciousness of liberation and equanimity and from all the feelings of joy and enthusiasm that a person previously experienced.

Buddhists assured that the passage of the eightfold path provides a person with complete peace of mind, which can not be violated by anything. The one who has reached this state will no longer incarnate in the world and will not be subject to rebirth and suffering. Buddhists were confident in the unlimited possibilities of man to change his nature and "liberation".

An important aspect of Buddhism is the idea of ​​the inseparability of knowledge and morality. The improvement of knowledge is impossible without morality, that is, without voluntary control over one's passions and prejudices. In one of his discourses, the Buddha established that virtue and wisdom, which purify each other, are inseparable. In nirvana one attains perfect wisdom, perfect virtue, perfect equanimity.

Buddhism emphasizes the importance of such moral qualities as benevolence, compassion, joy, and equanimity. Man must overcome passion and envy, arrogance, pride and ignorance. If benevolence and compassion flourish in the world, then love will awaken in the soul, the whole world will be filled with bright rays of our good thoughts, and these rays, entering the souls of others, will become majestic and incomparable. The Buddha believed that without benevolence and compassion, knowledge is impossible, and if it is possible, then it becomes useless.

Each person must acquire knowledge by his own efforts. “Do not accept as truth what will be presented to you as truth, but everything that you saw and heard yourself, that you understood, will be the truth,” Buddha instructed.

Buddhism comes from the fact that evil, suffering, hardships and sorrows, the expectation of losses and failures, the experience of anxiety and other worldly problems stem from the internal psychological state of the individual, his "blindness", ignorance. Thus, Buddhism called not for the fight against injustice in the world, but for the elimination of human reactions to the world around, for the weakening of the "fire of inner desires." In the state of nirvana, the free spirit is aware of the indifference of all qualities, the insignificance of all differences in the external world, he is freed from dependence on the external world.

Buddhism believes that the highest degree of perfection is not only to come to nirvana yourself, but also to bring others to it, that is, to save not only yourself, but also others.

Buddhism was formed as an ethical teaching. When the Buddha was asked questions about whether the soul is different from the body, whether it is immortal, the world is finite or infinite, etc., he refused to answer. The Buddha believed that there are 10 useless questions:

1. Is the world eternal?

2. Or is it not eternal?

3. Is the world finite?

4. Or is it infinite?

5. Is the soul identical with the body?

6. Is the soul different from the body?

7. Is he who knows the truth immortal?

8. Or is he mortal?

9. Will he who knows the truth be both immortal and mortal at the same time?

10. Will he be neither immortal nor mortal?

Man, from the point of view of Buddhists, is the totality of the material body and the non-material mind and consciousness. The combination of several physical elements (earth, water, fire, air) creates a body. The combination of our mental states we call the soul. The soul is not some kind of independent substance, but only a series of successive mental states. One state passes into another, just as one flame is kindled from another. But at the same time, it is emphasized that there is some inner force that ensures the integrity of the personality, keeps its physical and mental properties in balance.

Since the soul is not some special substance, rebirth is illustrated by a figurative comparison: when a moving ball collides with another ball, it transfers its movement to it, and stops itself. During rebirth, the extinction of one mental state, as it were, kindles another mental state.

The attitude towards women has also changed. Women, along with men, listened to the sermons of the Buddha; in addition to communities of monks, communities of nuns arose. Laity women were allowed to remarry in the event of the death of their husband. This was the radical difference between Buddhism and Brahminism, which denied women the right to any independent spiritual life.

Buddhism assumed tolerance towards other philosophies. It was believed that their adherents also possessed a particle of "true knowledge"; the task of the Buddhist preacher is to enable them to receive full knowledge. It should be noted that Brahmanism recognized only Sanskrit as the language of religious texts; Buddhists, on the other hand, believed that their views could be propagated and recorded in any language. This moment also contributed to the rise in popularity of Buddhism.

The Vedas are the sacred books of the Brahmins, who believe that the texts came to people thanks to supernatural forces, since, according to the Indians, they appeared from nowhere and have always been. The Vedas are divided into four collections: 1) Rig Veda (veda of hymns). 2) Samaveda (sacrificial songs). 3) Yajurveda (sacrificial sayings). 4) Atharvaveda (songs-spells). In the Vedas, for the first time, an attempt is made to approach the philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world surrounding a person, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works, in which attempts are made to philosophize, that is, the interpretation of the world surrounding a person, could not be different in their content.

Ancient Vedic mythology is a pre-philosophical form of worldview, reflecting the various stages in the development of tribal relations in the eras of matriarchy and patriarchy. At the same time, due to the identity of man and nature (the unity of the nature-generic organism), the collective ideas of tribal life were fixed as properties of things in nature and the human body, accessible to sensory perception. Simple things of nature, as if carrying “generic ideas”, became semantic signs for a person of a generic society, since the ideas of generic consciousness were fixed in things of nature and the human body, this gave the effect of sensory perception of the entire generic ideology. For example, we find a fixation of the tribal ideology in the anthropomorphic body of the first man Purusha: “From it, sacrificed, sacrificial oil was obtained, He was turned into those creatures that live in the air, in the forest and villages. From him, sacrificed, arose rigs and adobes, poetic meters arose from him, yajus arose from him. Since the ideas of the generic consciousness are fixed not only in nature, but also in the generic body, they can be reproduced to life only by the action of the entire collective. And in order to pass on the traditions and experience of tribal life from generation to generation, effective methods must be used based on its task, based on the physical abilities of a person. Such means are: the word-myth, when a person in collective communication pronounces (sings) in loud speech the generic rules of life, thus passing them on to the younger generations; ritual-gesture, movement (dance), when a person, pronouncing the rules, simultaneously makes movements of their practical implementation; taboo as rhythm, order, duration of words and movements. Myth, ritual, taboo produce order, orderliness, "decency" in the functioning of a single natural-clan organism up to the era of patriarchy and the subsequent decomposition of tribal relations.

Buddhism: basic ideas

Buddhism is based on four basic truths: 1. Duhka (suffering). 2. Cause of suffering. 3. Suffering can be ended. 4. There is a path leading to the cessation of suffering. Thus, suffering is the main idea contained in Buddhism. The main provisions of this religion say that suffering can be not only physical, but also mental. Already birth is suffering. And illness, and death, and even unsatisfied desire. Suffering is a constant component of human life and, rather, even a form of human existence. However, suffering is unnatural, and therefore it is necessary to get rid of it.

Another idea of ​​Buddhism follows from this: in order to get rid of suffering, it is necessary to comprehend the causes of its occurrence. Buddhism, whose main ideas are the desire for enlightenment and self-knowledge, believes that the cause of suffering is ignorance. It is ignorance that triggers the chain of events that lead to suffering. And ignorance consists in a misconception about one's own "I". One of the key theories of Buddhism is the denial of the individual self. This theory says that it is impossible to understand what our personality (i.e., "I") is, because our feelings, intellect, interests are fickle. And our "I" is a complex of various states, without which the soul does not exist. The Buddha does not give any answer to the question of the existence of the soul, which allowed representatives of different schools of Buddhism to draw completely opposite conclusions in this regard. The so-called “middle path” leads to knowledge, and therefore liberation from suffering (nirvana). The essence of the "middle way" is to avoid any extremes, to rise above opposites, to look at the problem as a whole. Thus, a person achieves liberation by giving up any opinions and inclinations, giving up his "I". As a result, it turns out that Buddhism, whose main ideas are based on suffering, says that all life is suffering, which means that it is wrong to cling to life and cherish it. A person who seeks to prolong his life (i.e., suffering) is an ignoramus. In order to avoid ignorance, it is necessary to destroy any desire, and this is possible only through the destruction of ignorance, which consists in the isolation of one's "I". So, we come to the conclusion that the essence of Buddhism is the rejection of one's "I".

pre-philosophy

China is a civilization of a special type. Social ethics and administrative practice have always played a much greater role here than mystical abstractions and individualistic searches for salvation. A sober and rationalistically thinking Chinese never thought too much about the mysteries of being and the problems of life and death, but he always saw before him the standard of the highest virtue and considered it his sacred duty to imitate him. If the characteristic ethnopsychological feature of the Indian is his introversion, which in its extreme expression leads to asceticism, yoga, monasticism of a strict style, to the desire of the individual to dissolve in the Absolute and thereby save his immortal soul from the material shell that binds it, then the true Chinese valued the material shell above all else. shell, i.e. your life. The greatest and generally recognized prophets here were considered, first of all, those who taught to live with dignity and in accordance with the accepted norm, to live for the sake of life, and not in the name of bliss in the other world or salvation from suffering. At the same time, ethically determined rationalism was the dominant feature that determined the norms of the social and family life of the Chinese.

In China, too, there is a higher divine principle - Heaven. But the Chinese Sky is not Yahweh, not Jesus, not Allah, not Brahman, and not Buddha. This is the highest supreme universality, abstract and cold, strict and indifferent to man. You cannot love her, you cannot merge with her, it is impossible to imitate her, just as there is no point in admiring her. True, in the system of Chinese religious and philosophical thought, there existed, in addition to Heaven, Buddha (the idea of ​​him penetrated China along with Buddhism from India at the beginning of our era), and Tao ”(the main category of religious and philosophical Taoism), and Tao in its Taoist interpretation (there was another interpretation, the Confucian one, which perceived Tao as the Great Way of Truth and Virtue) is close to the Indian Brahman. However, neither Buddha nor Tao, but precisely the Sky has always been the central category of the supreme universality in China. philosophy china confucianism buddhism

The most important feature of the ancient Chinese religion was the very insignificant role of mythology. Unlike all other early societies and corresponding religious systems, in which it was mythological legends and legends that determined the whole face of spiritual culture, in China, from ancient times, the place of myths was taken by historicized legends about wise and just rulers. The legendary sages Yao, Shun and Yu, and then cultural heroes such as Huangdi and Shennong, who became their first ancestors and first rulers in the minds of the ancient Chinese, replaced numerous revered gods. Closely associated with all these figures, the cult of ethical norms (justice, wisdom, virtue, striving for social harmony, etc.) pushed into the background purely religious ideas of sacred power, supernatural power and mystical unknowability of higher powers. In other words, in ancient China, from a very early time, there was a noticeable process of demythologization and desacralization of the religious perception of the world. The deities, as it were, descended to earth and turned into wise and just figures, whose cult in China grew over the centuries. And although from the Han era (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD), the situation in this regard began to change (many new deities and mythological traditions associated with them appeared, and this was partly due to the emergence of and the recording of popular beliefs and numerous superstitions, which until then remained as if in the shadows or existed among the national minorities included in the empire), this had little effect on the character of Chinese religions. Ethically determined rationalism, framed by desacralized ritual, has become the foundation of the Chinese way of life since ancient times. It was not religion as such, but primarily ritualized ethics that shaped the face of Chinese traditional culture. All this affected the character of Chinese religions, beginning with the ancient Chinese.

For example, the circumstance that the religious structure of China has always been characterized by an insignificant and socially insignificant role of the clergy, the priesthood, deserves attention. The Chinese have never known anything like the class of the ulema or the influential castes of the Brahmins. They usually treated Buddhist and especially Taoist monks with poorly concealed disdain, without proper respect and reverence. As for the Confucian scholars, who most often performed the most important functions of priests (during cult celebrations in honor of Heaven, the most important deities, spirits and ancestors), it was they who were a respected and privileged estate in China; however, they were not so much priests as officials, so that their proper religious functions always remained in the background.

7. Confucianism - an ethical and political doctrine that arose in ancient China and had a huge impact on the development of spiritual culture, political life and the social system of China for over two thousand years. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century. BC e. Confucius and then developed by his followers Men-tzu, Xun-tzu and others. From the very beginning, Confucianism, expressing the interests of a part of the ruling class (hereditary aristocracy), was an active participant in the socio-political struggle. It called for the strengthening of the social order and established forms of government through strict observance of the ancient traditions idealized by the Confucians and certain principles of relationships between people in the family and society. Confucianism was considered the universal law of justice, the existence of exploiters and the exploited, in its terminology, people of mental and physical labor, the former dominate, while the latter obey them and support them with their labor, is natural and justified. In ancient China, there were various directions between which a struggle was waged, which was a reflection of the acute social and political struggle of various social forces of that time. In this regard, there are conflicting interpretations by Confucian thinkers of the main problems of Confucianism (about the concept of "heaven" and its role, about human nature, about the connection between ethical principles and law, etc.). Central to Confucianism were issues of ethics, morality, and government. The main principle of Confucian ethics is the concept of jen (“humanity”) as the highest law of the relationship between people in society and the family. Confucianism briefly. Ren is achieved through moral self-improvement based on the observance of li (“etiquette”) - norms of behavior based on respect and respect for elders in age and position, honoring parents, devotion to the sovereign, courtesy, etc. According to Confucianism, only the elite can comprehend ren , so-called junzi ("noble men"), i.e. representatives of the upper strata of society; common people - xiaozhen (literally - "small people") are not able to comprehend ren. This opposition of the "noble" to the common people and the assertion of the superiority of the former over the latter, often found in Confucius and his followers, is a vivid expression of the social orientation, the class character of Confucianism. Confucianism paid great attention to the issues of the so-called. humane governance, based on the idea of ​​deifying the power of the ruler, which existed before Confucianism, but developed and substantiated by him. The sovereign was declared the "son of heaven" (tianzi), who ruled at the command of heaven and carried out his will. The power of the ruler recognized Confucianism as sacred, bestowed from above, by heaven. Considering that “managing means correcting,” Confucianism attached great importance to the teachings of zheng ming (about “correcting names”), which called for putting everyone in society in their place, strictly and accurately defining the duties of everyone, which was expressed in the words of Confucius: “Sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject a subject, a father a father, a son a son. Confucianism called on sovereigns to rule the people not on the basis of laws and punishments, but with the help of virtue, an example of highly moral behavior, on the basis of customary law, not to burden the people with heavy taxes and duties. One of the most prominent followers of Confucius, Mencius (4th-3rd centuries BC), in his statements even admitted the idea that the people have the right to overthrow a cruel ruler through an uprising. This idea was ultimately determined by the complexity of the socio-political conditions, the presence of strong remnants of primitive communal relations, the sharp class struggle and strife between the kingdoms that existed then in China. In such an environment, Confucianism, aimed at strengthening the existing social system, sometimes allowed criticism of individual rulers, opposing them to the “wise” and “virtuous” sovereigns of distant times (i.e., tribal leaders) - Yao, Shun, Wen Wang, etc.

A new stage in the development of Confucianism belongs to the Song era (960-1279) and is associated with the name of Zhu Xi (1130-1200), a famous historian, philologist and philosopher, who is the creator of the updated Confucianism, the philosophical system of neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism adopted and preserved the basic principles of ancient Confucianism, its reactionary positions on the inviolability of social orders, on the natural nature of the division of people into higher and lower, noble and vile, on the dominant role of the "son of heaven" - the ruler of the universe.