Report on Russian culture of the 17th century. Russian culture of the 17th century

In the 17th century The formation of the all-Russian market begins. The development of crafts and trade, the growth of cities is associated with the penetration into Russian culture and the widespread dissemination of secular elements in it. This process is called in the literature the “secularization” of culture (from the word “secular” - secular).

The secularization of Russian culture was opposed by the church, which saw in it Western, “Latin” influence. Moscow rulers of the 17th century, trying to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners arriving in Moscow, forced them to settle away from Muscovites - in a specially designated German settlement (now the area of Baumanskaya Street). However, new ideas and customs penetrated the established life of Muscovite Rus'. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people capable of engaging in diplomacy, understanding the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc. The expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe was facilitated by the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

In the second half of the 17th century. Several public schools were established. There was a school for training employees for central institutions, for the Printing House, the Pharmacy Department, etc. Printing press made it possible to publish uniform manuals for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) within one day of V.F. Burtsev’s Primer, published in a circulation of 2,400 copies. The “Grammar” of Meletius Smotrytsky (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.

In 1687, the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where they taught “from grammar, rhetoric, literature, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sophronius and Ioannikis Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. Lomonosov also studied at this academy.

In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great success were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to accurately measure areas, distances, solids, etc.), in observing nature.

Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev. E.P. Khabarov in 1649 drew up a map and studied the lands along the Amur River, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. At the very end of the 17th century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

Literature

In the 17th century The last official chronicles were created. The “New Chronicler” (30s) outlined the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

Central place in historical literature took over historical stories that had a journalistic character. For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik of clerk Ivan Timofeev”, “The Legend of Abraham Palitsyn”, “Another Legend”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century. genre of satirical story, where fictional characters act. “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazin Petition” contained a parody of church service, the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks were ridiculed, in “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich” - judicial red tape and bribery. New genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed work on history. The Kiev monk Innocent Gisel compiled a “Synopsis” (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint history of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian history.

Theater

A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which lasted only four years. German actors played in it. Male and female roles were played by men. The theater's repertoire included plays on biblical and legendary historical subjects. The court theater did not leave any noticeable mark on Russian culture.

In Russian cities and villages, it has become widespread since the times of Kievan Rus. traveling theater- theater of buffoons and Petrushka ( main character folk puppet shows). The government and church authorities persecuted buffoonery for its cheerful and bold humor, which exposed the vices of those in power.

Architecture

Architectural structures of the 17th century. They are very picturesque. They are asymmetrical both within the same building and in the ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there is both integrity and unity. Buildings from the 17th century multi-colored, decorative. Architects especially loved to decorate the windows of buildings with intricate, dissimilar platbands. Widespread in the 17th century. received multi-colored “solar tiles” - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick. Such an abundance of decorations located on the walls of one building was called stone patterning, marvelous patterning.

These features are clearly visible in the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, and Kostroma boyars of the 17th century that have reached us, and in the New Jerusalem Monastery, built near Moscow by Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - the Church of Elijah the Prophet and the ensembles in Korovniki and Tolchkovo. As an example of the most famous buildings of the 17th century in Moscow. You can name the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (near the Park Kultury metro station), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (near Pushkinskaya Square), the Trinity Church in Nikitniki (near the Kitay-Gorod metro station).

The decorative principle, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. By the middle of the century, the fortresses had lost their military significance, and the hipped roofs, first on Spasskaya and then on other towers of the Moscow Kremlin, gave way to magnificent tents that emphasized the quiet grandeur and solemn power of the heart of the capital of Russia.

In Rostov the Great, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built in the form of a Kremlin. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and its walls were purely decorative. The walls of large Russian monasteries erected after the Polish-Swedish intervention (Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, were also decorated with decorative details.

The development of Old Russian stone architecture culminated in the formation of a style called Naryshkin (after the surnames of the main customers) or Moscow Baroque. Gate churches, the refectory and bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod, etc. were built in this style.

Moscow Baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of floors in buildings, the use of columns, capitals, etc. as decorative decorations are clearly visible. Finally, in almost all Naryshkin Baroque buildings you can see decorative shells in the eaves of the buildings, which were first erected back in the 16th century. Italian craftsmen when decorating the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of the Moscow Baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, indicated that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of pan-European culture.

In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. Contemporaries called the famous palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow the “Eighth Wonder of the World.” This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and small windows. It was built by Russian masters Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and existed until the mid-18th century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation.

Painting

The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The most important artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.

The tendency towards a realistic depiction of a person and the secularization of icon painting, characteristic of the school of S. Ushakov, is closely related to the spread in Russia of portrait painting - parsuna (persona), depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M. V. Skopin-Shuisky, etc. However The artists’ technique was still similar to icon painting, that is, they wrote on boards with egg paints. At the end of the 17th century. The first parsuns appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the flourishing of Russian portrait art in the 18th century.

Essay By academic discipline"Culturology"

on the topic: "Russian culture XVII century."

Plan

1. Introduction.

2. Russian architecture.

3. Painting in the 17th century.

4. Russian literature of the 17th century.

5. Sphere of education.

6. Conclusion.

7. List of references.

1. Introduction.

The 17th century in Russian culture, as well as in the history of the country as a whole, was the stage that completed the Middle Ages. Since the second half of the century, serious changes have been taking place in the socio-economic sphere. The development of economic ties contributed to the elimination of local isolation, the growth of national self-awareness, the strengthening of national traditions and their dissemination. The braking element was serfdom, which chained the peasants to the land.

The main content of the cultural-historical process of this period should be called the secularization of culture, giving it a secular character. This was due to democratic trends in Russian culture, the formation of new ideals, artistic tastes and moral and ethical standards.

In the spiritual life of Russian society, more and more attention was paid to man, and the idea of the value of earthly life with all its sorrows and joys was strengthened. Such sentiments were especially strongly established in historical, socio-political, fiction and art.

The main content of the cultural process of the 17th century was the struggle between two directions: secular and church. Then it looked like a conflict. Today it appears as a conviction that both of these warring tendencies mutually enriched each other. As a result, new original art and culture were born, which today have not lost their attractiveness, relevance, spiritual, historical and aesthetic value.

2. Russian architecture.

The architecture of the 17th century has its own distinctive features, among which the strengthening of secular motifs stands out. Masters strive for external splendor, focusing on picturesqueness and decorative elements. An example of this trend is the Terem Palace in the Moscow Kremlin (1635 - 1636), which has a secular purpose. The architectural forms of this building embodied folk performances about beauty, and also demonstrated the best features folk art in construction. This is evidenced by tiles made in multicolors, attracting the eye with their iridescence; magnificent, pleasing to the eye, paintings. All this gave the Terem Palace a literally fabulous look.

If we talk about church architecture, then tent architecture began to develop here, but the desire for external beauty, festivity. Thus, it began to overlap with domestic architecture. Folk secular traditions are clearly reflected in the buildings of the Assumption Church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich (1628), the church in Medvedkovo near Moscow, which was built by order of Prince D.M. Pozharsky (1578 - 1642). A similar style is observed in the churches of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and the five-tented cathedral in Vyazma.

The development of townsman architecture in Yaroslavl, which was the largest commercial and industrial center in Russia, deserves special attention. The buildings here were built at the expense of merchants, and therefore significantly surpassed the architecture of other cities in their scale and elegance of the interior. Yaroslavl churches amazingly combined the grandeur and grandeur of ancient five-domed cathedrals with the elegance and cheerfulness of folk art. Such are the churches of Elijah the Prophet (1647), John Chrysostom (1654), built in Yaroslavl at the expense of wealthy merchants. But the most beautiful of the churches in Yaroslavl is considered to be the Church of John the Baptist in Tolchkov (1671 - 1678). It is distinguished by its strict monumentality, extraordinary expressiveness of architectural language and the beauty of its fifteen gilded domes. For this reason, it was called “a jubilant symphony of folk fantasy” [Voronin; 75].

Beginning in 1656, near Moscow, construction was carried out on the New Jerusalem Monastery (architects A. Mokeev and Y. Bukhvostov), which was to become the country residence of the patriarch. As the name suggests, the New Jerusalem Monastery was supposed to replicate the main shrines of the Christian world. For example, the Resurrection Cathedral was built according to the drawings of the Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulcher. But Russian builders followed only the general composition, adding specifically Russian national ornaments to the interior.

In the Russian architecture of kremlins and monasteries, despite their overall harsh appearance and protective function, the desire for decorative elegance is very noticeable. This is evidenced by many buildings: the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin stands out for its brick superstructure, on which white stone patterns adorn (architects B. Ogurtsov and H. Galovey). Similar work was continued on other Kremlin towers.

Under the influence of this trend, the harsh appearance of central Russia is also being transformed. The walls of the Novodevichy, Danilov, Donskoy monasteries in Moscow, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, Spaso-Evfimiev in Suzdal were decorated with stone patterns. Almost throughout Russia, the construction of elegantly decorated bell towers, chapels and refectories was carried out in monasteries.

The development of Russian architecture was very intensive. Among the historical monuments of the 17th century are wooden churches in Kizhi, the Rostov Kremlin, and the Assumption Church in Uglich. In the church architecture of the seventeenth century, the tent reigns, proudly presenting itself in all its glory, in the churches of Zosima and St. Savvaty of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, in the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki.

And yet Russian architecture of the 17th century amazes with its diversity, art and richness of thought. The main types of Russian churches common in that period are: cross-domed, tent-roofed, tiered, rotunda churches, ship-churches - a cubic temple connected to a bell tower by a rectangular building. The latter is an architectural metaphor: the temple is a ship on which you can set sail on the worldly sea full of temptations and dangers. An example of such a temple is the Church of Demetrius on the Blood in Uglich.

So, in the seventeenth century, the type of church buildings changed significantly, architecture underwent a significant evolution: from hipped forms to tiered five-domed structures and further to rotundas and ship churches.

3. Painting inXVIIcentury.

The paintings of the 17th century are primarily church frescoes. Many churches were then built with the money of merchants, therefore, in accordance with the taste of the customers. Thus, the worldly principle is slowly but surely crowding out the strict rules and canons characteristic of ancient Russian temple painting. Disembodied figures and stern faces are replaced by images of earthly people. It turned out that Bible stories are perceived better if presented through familiar scenes and faces.

At the same time, it is obvious that everyday trifles and details do not reduce the significance of the fresco to the level of everyday life and do not obscure the religious content. They only enliven them with the people's worldview. Champions of the old iconography, such as Archpriest Avvakum, sharply condemned these deviations from established traditions, giving rise to heated debates.

The largest representative of church painting of the seventeenth century is Simeon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626 - 1686). A strange paradox prevails in his work: paintings and parsuns resemble icons, and icons resemble paintings. Ushakov even wrote an essay “A Word to a Lover of Icon Painting,” in which he argued that the artist does not have the right to deviate from the truth, but must write “as it happens in life” [Soloviev; 209].

Subsequently, he intended to create a kind of ABC of art that would serve as a useful guide for other artists, but for some reason he was unable to do this. Ushakov himself was an outstanding painter. His works (the icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands”) and images of the Mother of God are distinguished by correct proportions, accurate rendering of chiaroscuro, and a synthesis of the divine and the human.

Thus, Simeon Ushakov was the first to make an attempt to bring iconography closer to painting. Having been brought up on the examples of the old icon-painting school of royal masters, he did not escape the influence Western artists, his drawing is expressive, and in the figures of saints there is a lot of life, which lies in the expressiveness of their faces and wide-open eyes. He drew his material from engravings, illustrated publications, or directly took it from nature. The best works of Ushakov are in the Georgian Church in Moscow.

Magnificent examples of religious painting are the Yaroslavl churches, frescoes of the Ilyinskaya and Tolchkovskaya churches. They display a fabulous wealth of figures, a variety of bright, strong colors. What is noteworthy is the colossal size of the frescoes themselves and the generosity with which the artist paints the entire interior: walls, porches, porches, their vaults, doors, pillars, benches.

These frescoes are a first-class monument of Russian art of the 17th century. I.E. Grabar wrote: “Russian wall painting rose to such a height that it never reached again; in terms of the enormity of the decorative designs and their brilliant solution, the painting of these temples can be compared with the most perfect Italian frescoes” [Grabar; 178].

But not only frescoes characterized the painting of the seventeenth century. Interest in a person's personality was expressed in the creation of parsuns - that was the name of the portraits that arose at that time. The technique for creating them was similar to icons - with tempera paints (based on chicken eggs) and on boards. A.V. Zakharevich writes: “By the end of the century, parsuns lose their convention and more convey individual traits, the personality traits of the person being portrayed” [Zakharevich; 271]. These are exactly the portraits of royalty - Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich.

So, painting of the 17th century is the first step towards the development of secular painting. The work of S. Ushakov and other artists lays the foundation for the further development of unique Russian pictorial art and reveals a tendency towards a realistic depiction of man and life.

4. Russian literatureXVIIcentury.

Since the role of man in the life of society and attention to the individual, its spiritual world increased significantly, literature received a new impetus for its development. In the Middle Ages, the preferred literary genres were the lives of saints, chronicles, and stories on historical subjects. In the 17th century, they were replaced by other literary forms: biographical stories, memoirs, and even democratic satire.

An important point was that in literary works there was now a fictional character, who gave the author the opportunity to more freely express his views on life.

The clergy were subjected to satirical depiction, as evidenced by the following literary works: “The Tale of Priest Savva and His Great Glory”, “The Tale of the Hen and the Fox”, “The Kalyazin Petition” and others.

Officials and their inherent vices at all times also became the object of criticism: bribery, red tape in business, bureaucracy. These were the famous “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”, “Service to the Tavern”.

Completely innovative works appeared in which fictional characters acted, through which the authors analyzed the problem of fathers and sons, relevant in any era. The most striking works of this direction are “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”.

These stories are distinguished by humor and sharp words. It is obvious that in the 17th century literature was approaching life, and if formerly heroes were taken from church sermons, now they were more like mere mortals. In the stories, almost everything happened as in life: some people were lucky, others were not. As is the case with almost all literary monuments of previous centuries, the authors of the sharp satirical stories are unknown.

A masterpiece of the 17th century, which still attracts the attention of researchers, turned out to be the “Life” of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov, who was the leader of the Old Believer movement. Being an opponent of the secular trend in culture, Avvakum, nevertheless, gave rise to the genre of memoirs.

At the same time, the process of transforming hagiographic literature into biographical story. This is the work called “The Tale of Uilyana Osoryina,” the author of which was her son Druzhina.

The innovator of poetry was Simeon of Polotsk (1629 - 1680). He introduced syllabic versification, which was based on ordering the number of syllables in a verse [Rassolov; 8]. Polotsky is the author of two books - “The Wind City of Many Colors” and “Rhythmologion”. In addition, he translated the Psalter into poetic language. His latest work was extremely popular among both adults and children. Simeon of Polotsk himself occupied an important place in public life Russia in the 17th century, since he was a teacher in the royal family (the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich the Quiet, 1645 - 1676).

Also worthy of attention were the large quantities historical songs. People compiled them about personalities or events that became famous for something: Ataman Ermak, the capture of Kazan, Ivan the Terrible’s anger at his son, the death of Tsarevich Dimitri, the Cossacks’ campaign against Azov and, of course, about Stenka Razin. They reflected various incidents, glorified the exploits of the defenders of the Russian land, mourned the fallen, and ridiculed enemies.

Historical songs are valuable because they bring to us little-known facts and names. It happens that new finds by historians and archaeologists confirm the reliability of song information. They preserve people's memory and display the past exactly as their ancestors saw it.

So, Russian literature is receiving a new impetus for development. In addition to the spiritual, secular ones appear, everyday genres with a pronounced satirical overtones.

5. Sphere of education.

City life became increasingly important in the lives of Russian people. This contributed to the emergence of a need for education and literate people. By the beginning of the 17th century, a primary school was already functioning in Russia, thanks to which the level of literacy was quite high. The most literate were two groups of the population: the white clergy (not monks) and the merchants.

The merchants knew both literacy and mathematics, as a result of which they were able to maintain their own documentation. In addition, they made every effort to ensure that their children received an affordable education. Not very well known interesting fact: merchants studied foreign languages, taking their native speakers - overseas guests - as teachers, and even compiled dictionaries.

The education of the white clergy is quite understandable, but among the blacks there were also many educated people(70%). Among the nobility, the percentage of educated representatives of this class was at least 65%. The townspeople and peasants were also not entirely ignorant. Even among the peasantry there were those who possessed literacy and other skills (15%). The largest percentage of literate peasantry was in the territory of the Russian North, since serfdom was not so intensely manifested there. Peasants not only had the opportunity to send their children to schools. They themselves sought knowledge: there are known cases of them writing books, collecting libraries, creating chronicles and economic records. As for the nobles and merchants, they invited teachers to their homes, giving preference to those who spoke foreign languages.

The main textbook used to study in the 17th century was the primer. The Printing House has republished it several times. The primer was a truly universal book and contained grammar, the alphabet, basic mathematics, a code of conduct and moral rules, religious education, and small dictionaries. The students had both alphabet books and arithmetic notebooks in their arsenal.

ABC books (the so-called handwritten collections) covered not only those sciences that were listed in relation to the ABC book, but also information from history, geography, literature, philosophy, and mythology.

Singing was a compulsory subject in elementary school. Knowledge of music was almost the main indicator of literacy. Perhaps this was directly related to church traditions, to temple singing, because the religious side of life was still of great importance.

But even after leaving school, the person continued to study. Worldview person XVII centuries presupposed learning that lasts a lifetime: from nature, from books, because “books are rivers that fill the universe with wisdom” [Vladimirov; 44].

So, education increasingly entered the life of all layers of the population. This was largely due to the strengthening of trade ties with other European countries; the development of new territories, especially the eastern ones, where extraordinary knowledge was spread; the desire of the population to learn science.

6. Conclusion.

Russian culture and art represent an innovative phenomenon, reflecting a turning point in social life, in which religious and secular tendencies came into conflict. This conflict is reflected in all areas: literature, architecture, painting and even the educational process.

The gloomy images of the Middle Ages, suppressing any joy in life, are being replaced by festivity, brightness, multicolor, and the desire to reflect the realistic aspects of life and the ordinary person, i.e. process of secularization. Thus, a person’s natural desire for optimism, for everyday pleasures, and for festivity is manifested. But this did not mean at all that spirituality was rejected by the masters of the 17th century. On the contrary, having organically united, these two directions formed a new quality of art and culture.

In literature, this feature manifested itself in the form of fictional plots and characters, in the appearance of satirical, critical and humorous works, the authors of which were able to express their attitude to what was happening in society.

Changes are also taking place in the field of education: the demand for literate people is growing; At the same time, there is a thirst for knowledge in all layers of society. The role of books, the number of schools and educated people who are also found among the peasantry are increasing.

Thus, the 17th century is characterized not just by the flourishing of culture, but also by the formation of a new type of culture, distinctive feature, which is worldliness and turning to earthly human joys.

7. List of references.

1. Vladimirov L.I. General history of the book/L.I. Vladimirov. - M: Book, 1988. - 312 p.

2. Voronin N.N. Architecture of North-Eastern Rus'. In 2 books / N.N. Voronin. - M.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1962. - 1148 p.

3. Voskoboynikov V.N. World history and national culture: Textbook in 4 parts / V. Voskoboynikov. - M.: MGUK. 1995.

4. Grabar I.E. History of Russian art. Volume 6. Issue 22. History of painting. Pre-Petrine era / I.E. Grabar. - M.: Art, 2004. - 534 p.

5. Zakharevich A.V. History of the Fatherland / A.V. Zakharevich. - M.: ITK "Dashkov and K˚", 2005. - 755 p.

6. Kononenko B.I. Big Dictionary in cultural studies/B.I. Kononenko. - M.: Veche 2000 Publishing House LLC, AST Publishing House LLC, 2003. - 512 p.

7. Lyubimov L.D. Art of Ancient Rus' / L.D. Lyubimov. - M.: Education, 1974. - 336 p.

8. Rassolov M.M. Simeon Polotsky/M.M. Rassolov. - M.: Terra, 2008. - 352 p.

9. Solovyov V.M. Russian culture. From ancient times to the present day / V.M. Solovyov. - M.: White City, 2004. - 736 p.

10. Shmurlo E.F. History of Russia 862 - 1917. / E.F. Shmurlo. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 736 p.

Alexandra II.

The 17th century was a time of anticipation of the changes that were coming to Russia. The change in the type of culture took place in a sharp struggle between the old tradition and new needs and tastes. Contemporaries very acutely and painfully felt the breakdown and revaluation of values and traditions, therefore the entire 17th century passed under the sign of the struggle between two social moods. On the one hand, this is a passionate defense of antiquity to the point of fanaticism, on the other, an understanding of the need and usefulness of change.

At this turning point for culture, the first shoots of renewal appear:

the process of secularization begins in the spiritual life of society, it is slowly but steadily freed from the influence of the church that determines all aspects of its life;

a person begins to realize himself as an individual, people of action appear, energetic, proactive, aware of their place in the destinies of the country. The creative person ceases to be anonymous, the names of such people are well known among contemporaries;

conditions are ripe for the birth of a secular culture, which is free from church dogmas and canons; these processes are only manifesting themselves, therefore it is customary to say that in the 17th century. there is a secularization of culture. Worldliness is a trend, not an end result. In parallel, two cultures coexist, as it were - a religious one and a renewed one, which has not yet broken with the religious basis;

The influence of the West becomes more noticeable, especially after reunification with Ukraine, whose culture was strongly influenced by Poland.

The cultural change could not take place without losses. The art of modern times, winning in detail, lost to the medieval in integrity, in the harmony of ancient depth and spirituality. Moreover, cultural evolution since the 17th century. goes in breadth, not in depth, when the development of new images, plots, styles is not accompanied by the desire to comprehend the ideal. Therefore, the Old Believer criticism of “newness” was not exclusively a retrograde fear of the new as such. Behind this criticism was the fear of losing enduring spiritual values, of losing a saving connection with the past.

Traditionalists and supporters of antiquity reproached this century for its “variegation.” “Variety” is an unprecedented socio-political activity of society compared to previous centuries, which was demonstrated by the Time of Troubles, when humble, noble people came to the fore - petty nobles, townsmen, Cossacks, peasants and even serfs. They forever entered the history of Russia, pushing aside princes, boyars, and generals for a time. This activity, as an awareness of their rights, raised huge masses in town uprisings in the middle of the century and continued throughout the century, not giving the authorities the opportunity to take revenge. And the power retreated.

People who accepted changes contributed to the novelty and optimistically called “petrota” “a marvelous pattern.” It was most clearly manifested in colorfulness, elegance, and decorativeness in painting and architecture; beauty, multicolor, variety in the decoration of everyday life, in the clothes of the townspeople. The art of modern times is a hymn to creation, not to the Creator in classical art Ancient Rus'.

The age of marvelous patterns is the age of secularization, secularization of culture, the growth of secular principles, rationalism and practicality in it.

The 17th century was marked by social needs and a desire to educate not only the upper strata of society, but also the middle strata, especially the urban population.

The increasing complexity of city life with its trade and craft activities, the growth of the government apparatus, and the development of connections with foreign countries placed new demands on education: the need for an increase in the number of educated people grew.

The overall level of literacy in the 17th century. grew significantly in various segments of the population and, according to experts, amounted to: among landowners - 65%, merchants - 96%, townspeople - 40%, peasants - 15%, archers, gunners, Cossacks - 1%.

As before, literacy was most often taught in families, so home education and home education manuals were especially popular. The main teaching aids remained books of religious content, but several secular publications were also published: primers, which were broader in content than their name and included articles on religious doctrine, short dictionaries, and articles with pedagogical content. Vasily Burtsev's primer (1634) was reprinted several times over the course of a century. In the middle of the century, the book warehouse of the Moscow Printing Yard contained up to three thousand copies of Burtsev’s primer. It cost one kopeck, or two money, quite cheap for those times. At the same time, the grammar of Melenty Smotrytsky, a Ukrainian scientist, was published. Mikhailo Lomonosov later studied using it. At the end of the century, the primer of Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin, was published. The primer of Simeon of Polotsk (1679) was popular, according to which the author himself taught the children of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The same Karion Istomin prepared a practical guide for counting (multiplication table) - “Convenient counting, with which every person buying or selling can very conveniently find the number of any thing.”

ABC books and dictionaries began to be printed foreign words, supplemented by information about phonetics, spelling, cases and declensions. In addition, ABC books introduced philosophical concepts (being, nature, quality, etc.), provided brief information about ancient philosophers and writers, contained geographical information and materials on national history. These were rather reference books - encyclopedic manuals providing knowledge on a wide range of problems.

Scientists have found that over the second half of the century the Printing House published 300 thousand primers (different authors) and 150 thousand educational psalters and books of hours.

In 1672, the first bookstore opened in Moscow. It often happened that in a few days thousands of copies of books for various purposes were sold there.

The literacy rate across the country has been steadily increasing. For the townspeople - traders, large owners of craft workshops - knowledge of writing and counting became an urgent need. For others, this knowledge became a profitable business, a kind of trade, to which people of low and low income aspired. It was a clerk's job. In city squares, they offered their services to those who themselves were not able to draw up this or that document, write a letter, appeal, etc.

Many books from the 17th century have survived. Along with church literature (printed and handwritten), secular literature is increasingly appearing: various collections, books of historical, medical, geographical, astronomical and other content. The variety of practical aids and manuals on measuring and surveying land, construction work, making paints, etc. is amazing. Books were valued in society, people with wealth willingly purchased them for personal use, and the circle of home reading grew. Already according to established tradition, the kings and boyar aristocracy had libraries with hundreds of books in different languages.

General needs of economic and political development countries raised the question of systematic schooling. In 1621, in Moscow, in the German settlement, a Lutheran school was opened for the children of foreigners living in the capital. But soon it included Russian students who studied foreign languages and those subjects, the mastery of which gave education a broader character. In the 40s, on the initiative and at the expense of Okolnichy F.M. Rtishchev, the favorite and adviser of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a private school was opened in the St. Andrew's Monastery. In it, boyar-noble youth studied Slavic and Greek languages, philosophy, rhetoric, history and geography. F.M. Rtishchev is a significant figure for his time; he is an innovator, a fan of learning, and a supporter of new beginnings. He convinced the tsar of the need to send the children of boyars and nobles abroad for learning, and to invite foreign scientists to the country. In 1650, another school was opened at the Kremlin Chudov Monastery with patriarchal funds, the program of which was aimed at training enlightened and educated clergy.

In the second half of the 17th century. Several public schools were opened. The school at the Printing Yard had 30 students from different classes, and their number grew from year to year, reaching 232 students by the end of the century. Similar schools were opened under the Pharmacy and Ambassadorial orders. Uniform textbooks on basic disciplines were published for them in small editions.

The provinces did not lag behind Moscow. In cities, schools for their children were opened at the expense of citizens. It is known that in 1685 there was a similar school in Borovsk.

In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy - was opened in the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow for the training of higher clergy and officials civil service. The first teachers here were the Likhud brothers, Greeks who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. The social composition of the academy's students was heterogeneous; representatives of all classes studied: from the sons of a groom to the relatives of the patriarch and the princes of the most ancient Russian families. The national composition was also varied: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, baptized Tatars, Moldovans, Georgians, Greeks.

The Academy was both a higher and secondary educational institution. Her students comprehended all school wisdom from grammar to philosophy. It was assumed that in the future only its graduates would receive government positions. M.V. emerged from the walls of the academy. Lomonosov, P.V. Postnikov, who became a doctor of medicine at the University of Padua in Italy, architect V.I. Bazhenov.

In the 17th century About 600 book titles were published in printing, most of them with religious content. A handwritten newspaper “Chimes” was published (for the royal family and its entourage).

Interest in the historical past, the desire to put it at the service of absolutism led to the creation of a special Record Order, which was charged with collecting materials for the future of Russian history.

In the 17th century Scientific knowledge in Russia retained a predominantly practical, applied character. The intensification of trade caused an increase in the need for applied mathematics: manuals for calculating trade transactions and various computational methods appeared. The accumulation of geometric knowledge occurred during land surveying and construction. During construction work, various mechanisms were used: water wheels, gates, blocks, pulleys, screw wooden jacks, etc. Mechanical devices were used in the first Russian smelting manufactories.

There have also been changes in medicine. Folk healing and folk medicine developed. The doctors had rational medical skills that were passed on through generations. Handwritten “Healers” and “Herbalists” reported on the centuries-old experience of traditional medicine and were very popular. At the same time, the foundations of state medical care were laid in Russia: the first pharmacies and hospitals were opened (under Fyodor Alekseevich in 1668, by order of the pharmacy, the first state hospital was established for treatment of full board“poor, learned and old people..., service ranks, who were mutilated with severe wounds in the sovereign service”).

Russian explorers made a huge contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev reached the strait between Asia and North America. In 1649, E. Khabarov studied and compiled a map of the lands along the Amur River, where Russian settlements were founded. At the end of the 17th century. Siberian Cossack V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. Based on the accumulated geographical knowledge, maps were created Russian state, Siberia and Ukraine.

Social thought of the 17th century. associated with the names of Simeon Polotsk and Yuri Krizhanich. They laid the foundations for the theoretical justification of absolutism. S. Polotsky, a Belarusian and Russian church and public figure, writer and teacher, one of the authors of the project of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, argued that only the sole power of the tsar is capable of establishing order in the country and ensuring the solution of the most important foreign policy problems. J. Krizanich - a Croat, writer, supporter of the idea of "Slavic unity", where Russia played the main role - gave his arguments in favor of "self-rule". Moreover, both were supporters of “enlightened absolutism.”

Literature of the 17th century reflected all aspects of the social life of Russia, it most fully expressed the growth of the national self-awareness of the people, the acute social inconsistency of the century, spiritual aspirations, and most importantly - a critical understanding of life, customs, the common sense of the people, their deep patriotism. Princes and boyars, nobles and townspeople, monks and priests took up the pen. Each of them outlined their vision of the events of the century and gave their assessment of what was happening.

General characteristics of literature of the 17th century. given by Academician D.S. Likhachev: “In short, in a few words, to define the significance of the 17th century. in the history of Russian literature and Russian culture in general, we have to say that the main thing was that this century was the century of a gradual transition from ancient literature to new, according to the transition of Russia from medieval culture to the culture of modern times. XVII century in Russia, took on the function of the Renaissance, but accepted it in special conditions and in difficult circumstances, and therefore he himself was “special”, unrecognized in its meaning.... Russian literature on the verge of the 16th-17th centuries. faced the need to subordinate literature to the personal principle, to develop personal creativity and a stable author's text of works. She faced the need to liberate the entire system of literary genres from their subordination to “business” tasks and create general forms literature with Western European ones. The development of literary trends, theater and poetry, the activation of readers and the liberation of literature from subordination to church and narrow state interests, the manifestation of independence of writers' opinions, assessments, etc. - all this had to appear in the 17th century in order to make possible the final transition in the second quarter of the 18th century. to a new structure of literature, to a new type literary development and to a new type of relationship with the literatures of the European West."

Literature of the 17th century continues to be multi-genre. But the traditions and genre norms mastered by previous generations are violated, acquiring new inter-genre features, new genres appear with their own characteristics, language, manner of presentation, dialogue and description of nature are included in the text.

The 17th century is the time of decline of the ancient form of historical works - chronicles. This last century chronicles. Recent works of this genre include:

In the second half of the century, new vaults appeared. One was commissioned by Patriarch Nikon (1652), the other - on the occasion of the conclusion of the “Eternal Peace” with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. All of them were compiled in Moscow and are of a purely official nature.

New ones have appeared historical works transitional type from the chronicle to a generalizing historical work. A scientist and writer, a graduate of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, Sylvester Medvedev wrote the work “A Brief Contemplation of the Years 7190, 7191 and 7192, in Which They Conducted Citizenship.” This is a kind of monograph that describes events from the end of the reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the Moscow uprising of 1682, and the beginning of the reign of Sophia. Sylvester's work can be called a historical and journalistic work.

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed work on history. The Ukrainian scientist, Archimandrite of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisel wrote “Synopsis”, which gives a brief and popular outline of Russian history with an emphasis on the unity of the destinies of Russia and Ukraine. “Synopsis” was reprinted dozens of times and was used as a textbook on Russian history.

An important step in the development of historical thought was Andrei Lyzlov’s extensive work “Scythian History” (90s of the 17th century), dedicated to the struggle of the Russian people and their neighbors against the Mongol-Tatars and Turks.

The central place in literature was occupied by historical plot stories that were of a journalistic nature. A group of such stories - “Vremennik of clerk Ivan Timofeev”, “The Legend of Abraham Palitsin”, “Another Legend”, etc. - were a response to the events of the Time of Troubles.

“The Legend of the cellarer of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra Abraham Palitsin” is an extensive work, it has 77 chapters. The author sets out his understanding of the causes of the Troubles and subsequent events. Statesmen are portrayed in “The Tale” as complex, contradictory personalities, in which good is combined with evil (Boris Godunov), insidious and helpless (Vasily Shuisky). This was an innovation compared to the principles of medieval literature, where the hero was clearly positive and where he was opposed just as clearly negative character. Another innovation was the bold introduction of the author’s personality into the fabric of the narrative, emphasizing his personal participation in the events.

Deacon I. Timofeev, Prince I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky and numerous other famous and anonymous authors left to their descendants many stories, legends, words, and visions about the tragic Time of Troubles. Each of them tried in their own way to explain the causes of the Russian disaster. For some, this is God’s punishment for human sins, for others it is a violation of justice, punishment for electing a child-killer tsar (Godunov) to the throne, others spoke in the spirit of feudal ideology that the reason for everything is disobedience and rebellion of the “master’s slaves.”

The people persistently comprehended the events of the century and gave their assessment. “Cossack writing” was compiled by participants in Ermak’s campaign, where the initiative of the campaign was given to the Cossacks themselves, and not to the Stroganovs. Another original writer of the 17th century. the fugitive slave Fyodor Poroshin, who became a clerk in the Don Army, created in the 40s “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks.” The “Tale” is written in vivid language, the heroic struggle of the Don people with the Turks is unfolded as an epic and dramatic narrative. Experts consider it one of the best literary monuments era.

The everyday story, along with the historical story, is becoming widespread. An example of this is “The Tale of Misfortune,” written by an unknown author. Its hero, a young man from a merchant family, leaves his father's house and tries to live by his own wits, but constantly fails. For the first time in Russian literature, the hero becomes an “unfortunate” person, a loser who evokes the author’s sympathy. The author's sympathy for this sinful man revealed a new humanistic tendency for that time: before it was impossible to sympathize with such a hero.

Full of social conflicts of the 17th century. brought to life new genre- democratic satire. Satirical stories were created among the townspeople, clerks, and lower clergy. These are parodies of legal proceedings (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”), of hagiographic works (“The Tale of Hawkmoth”), of the decline of morals in the church (“Kalyazin Petition”) and city (“Service to the Tavern”) ") environment.

Memoirs became a new genre. This genre was mastered by the ideologist of the Schism, Archpriest Avvakum (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself”). Get an idea of the ideology of the Schism of the 17th century. Other works of Avvakum, where he appears as a bright Old Believer publicist, also allow: “The Book of Conversations” and “The Book of Reproofs.”

Book poetry is another innovation Russian literature XVII century Poems were known already in the first third of the century, but the heyday of syllabic poetry was its second half - these are rhymed verses and drama. Their founders are Simeon Polotsky and his students - Karion Istomin and Sylvester Medvedev. The first theatrical performances took place in 1672 in the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. For the theater S. Polotsky wrote several plays where serious moral, political and philosophical problems, reflecting a complex and eventful time.

Thus, Russian literature of the 17th century. began to free itself from medieval traditions; The church-scholastic worldview was undermined and replaced by a more realistic vision of reality. The transition of Russian literature from the Middle Ages to the New Age was prepared.

The general process of “secularization” of culture most clearly and consistently captured such spheres of culture as architecture and painting:

folk tastes are being introduced in architecture, sometimes leading the architect far from traditional models consecrated by antiquity;

civil engineering is acquiring an unprecedented scope, competing with cult construction, which was hitherto the main line of development of architectural art;

at the same time, church and civil architecture lose their sharp contrast;

a stream of realism and free interpretation of church subjects breaks through in painting.

Stone architectural structures are distinguished by great picturesqueness, intricacy, asymmetrical grouping of masses, stacked brick platbands, multi-colored “solar slabs” - tiles. In the development of this style, a large role was played by the fact that the customers of religious buildings were increasingly merchants and townspeople, whose tastes expressed the secular principle in temple architecture.

Of course, the temple remained the leading structure of stone architecture. His “wonderful patterning” was achieved by a more complicated “play of volumes” (compared to the previous period) with a combination of various decorative means, giving a lot of detail. As a result, churches become richer and more elegant externally and internally. But this is achieved by partial loss of the integrity of the architectural image. However, in their best creations, the architects of the 17th century. they know how to balance beauty and monumentality, to achieve a harmonious combination of the whole and details.

After foreign intervention at the beginning of the century, masonry construction resumed in the 1920s. The restoration of the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin was carried out. The towers lost their military purpose: hipped roofs gave way to hipped roofs. Architects Bazhen Ogurtsov and the Englishman Christopher Galovey erected a tent over the Spasskaya Tower (1624-1625).

The most remarkable building of civil architecture of the first half of the century is the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, built for the royal children by B. Ogurtsov, A. Konstantinov, T. Shaturin, L. Ushakov. In the architecture of the palace, the influence of wooden buildings of the mansion type is noticeable. Gradually, civil stone construction gained scope and was carried out in various cities (the three-story chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya embankment in Moscow, the merchant Pogankin chambers in Pskov, 1st half of the 17th century).

One of the favorite architectural forms is still the tent. At the end of the 20s, the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary was built on the estate of Prince D. Pozharsky in Medvedkovo. This is a kind of repetition of the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square (St. Basil's). Another example of hipped-roof architecture is the refectory church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich (1628), popularly nicknamed “Wonderful”. The last tented church in Moscow is the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki (1649-1652). The parishioners began to build it with their own funds, but they were not enough. I had to turn to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich for help. He helped, but the temple ended up costing 500 rubles - a huge amount for that time (a pound of meat then cost 5 kopecks). Patriarch Nikon in 1652 forbade the construction of tented churches as not corresponding to Greek models, but since the ban did not apply to bell towers, the hipped bell towers, beloved by Russians, were erected next to the officially approved domed churches. Far from the patriarchal eyes, local architects continued to erect wooden tent-roofed churches.

Cathedral church of the 17th century. presented in a classical form in monastery architecture. It is distinguished by its monumentality and laconic decor. Examples include the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Moscow Novospassky Monastery (1642-1647), the Cathedral of the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma (1650s), and the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna (1672-1682).

A characteristic feature of cathedral architecture throughout the 17th century. - increase in the height of cathedrals. This expressed the general tendency of the century's architecture towards vertical composition.

The development of ancient Russian architecture ended in the 90s. the emergence of a new style - “Naryshkin” or “Moscow Baroque”. The main compositional principles of this architecture are tiered, centric, symmetry, balance of masses. Decorative decoration, usually made of carved white stone, looked unusually beautiful against the backdrop of smooth brick walls. The windows, oval or octagonal, were framed by small columns (Church of the Intercession in Fili, 1690-1693; Savior in the village of Ubory near Moscow, 1693-1697, architect Y. Bukhvostov). Decorative forms of the “Moscow Baroque” were also used in five-domed cathedral-type churches (Assumption Cathedral in Ryazan, late 17th century, Y. Bukhvostov; Moscow Church of the Resurrection in Kadashi, 1687-1713).

It should be noted that despite the name - Baroque, this is a completely original national style. We can only talk about the borrowing of individual elements of European Baroque, which also came from Ukraine, where, in turn, they came not directly from the West, but from Poland and Lithuania.

In the 17th century Wooden architecture is flourishing. Contemporaries called the palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye “the eighth wonder of the world.” It had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows. It was built by an artel of Russian craftsmen led by slave Semyon Petrov and archer Ivan Mikhailov. Wooden multi-domed churches were skillful (the 22-domed Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi, late century).

The century of “family nests” - famous Russian estates - is usually considered to be the 18th century. However, the word itself and many estates knew it already in the previous century.

Our description of the pre-Petrine estate of the 17th century. is an abstract of an article by art critic R. Baiburova “Ancient Russian estate”, published in the 10th issue of the magazine “Science and Life” for 1992 (pp. 70-78; in No. 4 of the same magazine for the same year, her article about Tsaritsyno estate, former Black Mud).

The central core of the estate was a spacious courtyard, usually surrounded by a strong fence made of logs. Its main “front” gate with a wicket was elegantly decorated. The main mansions were located opposite the gate. As a rule, they were made on the basement, in which various supplies were stored. To get into the mansion, you had to go up to the porch, also called the front porch and lavishly decorated with a hipped “cover” and carved railings. Ceremonial meetings and farewells of guests by the owners took place on the porch. On ordinary days, the gates and mansions were tightly locked. If they send a servant good people, “Domostroy” instructed, “he had to “beat lightly at the gate,” and after passing through the courtyard to the mansions, “wipe his dirty feet, blow his nose and cough, and skillfully say a prayer,” but if even after the third prayer “answer They won’t give you up, otherwise you’ll just jostle lightly,” until they let you in.”

The front porch led into the “front porch.” In rich houses there was a boundary between the living part of the house and the large dining room for guests, where there were feasts on holidays. Above the dining room, tiers of pyramidally decreasing attics could be built.

But feasts were held only on holidays, and on weekdays the visitor was escorted from the front hallway to the living half of the choir, to the first room, called the “anteroom.” The owner of the house came out to see his guest here. Only a person close to the family could go further.

Behind the “front” there was a “room” where they spent daytime. She often occupied a corner position, since it was the corner room that gave a wider view of the estate. The owners had meals in the room on weekdays, and often slept in it. From the “room” there was a transition to “another room”, often already in the back half of the house. Sometimes an additional everyday dining room was added to these premises, as well as a special “cross” room, more chambers and another canopy.

In rich mansions there was a “soaphouse” with a special canopy in front of it. The “rear porch” was respectively facing the “back porch”. In the entryway there were closets (storage rooms), rooms for janitors, and sometimes latrines were fenced off.

The mansions had two and sometimes three tiers. At the top there were “light rooms” - the women’s part of the house.

For practical reasons, the windows were made “recumbent”, choosing a small opening from horizontal logs. They provided only the minimum necessary light. Only the so-called “red” windows were made large; in rich mansions they were filled with glass, and more often with cheaper glass in the 17th century. mica.

The limited number of rooms in the mansions, their isolation and isolation from outside world, according to R. Baiburova, is explained both by the “closed way of life of the Russian people of that time” and by the Christian worldview, which required preserving the soul from the temptations of the sinful world and internal concentration.

The living quarters were small - from 12 to 25 square meters. This size of the room was determined structurally - by the size of the logs, and even more so - by the socially secluded life of the owners. There is no place in mansions for later enfilades, when space flows freely from room to room. Even if the doors were made on the same axis, they were not supposed to be left open at all.

In the front hallways and living quarters, in the red corner, holy images were placed, in front of which the owners read the prayer rule. Everyone who came to the house, before greeting those present, no matter how noble they were, first made the sign of the cross and bowed to the icons, and only then, in order of nobility and seniority, to everyone in the room.

The perimeter of the room was surrounded by originally built-in benches. One of them - “konik” - served as a bed itself. A European bed was unknown in a classic Russian house. Even during construction, a chest locker was built under the bunk. There could be shelves on the walls.

In the soapbox there was a large stove with a heater, “filled with round, hot stones from the field.” The heat was treated with kvass, and they were doused with it when they began to steam. There were also “shelves” and benches along the walls for “rest.”

Everyone in the mansion tried to “cover and cover” - they covered the walls, doors, sometimes floors, covered the windows and rare mirrors in everyday life, even covered the window sills. The “veil” was also used to cover the images “for the sake of deanery and care.”

The owners loved bright colors: red and green cloth, Persian carpets, golden silks, painted ceilings. In city mansions on the walls in the 17th century. have already appeared picturesque portraits. And of course, interior decoration the mansion cannot be imagined without stoves in bright mural (green) or tsenin (colored) patterned tiles. In a word, everything is bright, elegant, colorful in the mansions of the 17th century.

The house of this time is not bound by any rules of “regularity.” The family grew, and additional basement rooms or a group of them were added to it. Therefore, as noted by I.E. Zabelin, they speak of a house in the plural: mansions, its walls are only the shell of the totality of mansions.

Parts of the house also had various finishes: in addition to pitched roofs, tents, cubes, tents, and barrels were erected over the mansions. The main residential mansions were placed opposite the front gate, and near them they built a “front hut,” a kind of gatehouse. Along the perimeter of the yard or in the yard itself there were cellars with a burial ground, glaciers, barns, drying sheds, granaries, stables, stables, servants' huts, etc. All these outbuildings in more modest estates were located in one or two courtyards: front and back. In rich estates there could be several courtyards behind separate fences: stables, oxen, mill, etc.

The most important economic structure of the estate was the mill, where the owner's and peasant's bread was ground. There were “windmills”, but more often the mills were placed on the river. To increase the rotation of the mill wheel, and behind it the millstones, it was necessary to increase the water pressure. For this purpose, dams were built and estate ponds were dug. They bred valuable fish. At the Golitsyn estate near Moscow, Chernye Gryazi, there were sturgeon, catfish, sterlet, and pike in the pond. Like ponds, gardens in Ancient Rus' were created for purely practical purposes. Some estates of the 17th century. They also had manor churches.

The process of “secularization” was reflected with particular force in painting. The entire 17th century permeated by the struggle of two creative methods, two directions - old and new.

Painting of the first half of the 17th century. largely freed from the complex symbolism characteristic of the 16th century, the compositions became simpler and more lifelike; they develop storytelling. However, the icons and miniatures of this time did not go beyond the old tradition.

In icon painting, two schools that emerged in the 16th century continue to develop:

In the middle of the 17th century. these two schools merge in the works of some masters.

In the second half of the 17th century. The Armory Chamber becomes the artistic center not only of Moscow, but of the entire country. The best artistic forces were concentrated here. The masters of the Armory Chamber were tasked with renovating and repainting palace chambers and churches, painting icons and miniatures. At the chamber there was a whole workshop of “flag bearers”, i.e. draftsmen who created designs for icons, church banners, regimental banners, sewing, and jewelry.

In addition, the Armory served as something of a higher art school. Artists came here to improve their skills. All painting works were headed by the royal isographer Simon Ushakov. The most significant of the icon painters of the Armory Chamber were

The parsuna genre originated at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. But this first purely secular genre received its development in the second half of the 17th century. There are known portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, which are in the State Historical Museum. A portrait of the young Tsarevich Peter is also kept there.

The most significant works of parsun painting were written at the end of the century (portraits of the steward V. Lyutkin, uncle and mother of Peter I - L.K. and N.K. Naryshkins). In these parsun portraits one can already see those artistic features that became the basis and feature of the Russian portrait school of the 18th century, namely: attention to inner world of the person being portrayed, poeticization of the image, subtle coloring.

Thus, for the cultural process of the 17th century. In general, it is characterized by a departure from traditional and the formation of a new, secular culture. This transition is associated with profound socio-economic and political changes in the country. Cultural evolution of the 17th century. paved the way for the transformations of the coming century.

22. Russian culture in the 17th century.

In the 17th century the process of development in secular culture begins..

This process was called in the literature of that time the “secularization” of culture (from the word “secular” - secular).

However, new ideas and customs penetrated the established life of Muscovite Rus'. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people capable of engaging in diplomacy, understanding the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc. The expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe was facilitated by the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

According to Platonov, the desire for originality and contentment with inertia developed in Russia somehow in parallel with a certain desire to imitate someone else's. The influence of Western European education arose in Russia from the practical needs of the country, which they could not satisfy with their own means.

Need forced the government to invite foreigners. acquaintance with foreigners was still a source of “innovation.” The superiority of their culture irresistibly influenced our ancestors, and the educational movement appeared in Rus' back in the 16th century, albeit on individual individuals (Vassian Patrikeev and others). Ivan the Terrible himself could not help but feel the need for education; His political opponent, Prince Kurbsky, Boris Godunov, also stands firmly for education - in the 17th century. A lot of military, commercial and industrial foreigners appeared in Moscow, enjoying great trade privileges and enormous economic influence in the country. During the Troubles, it affected acquaintance and rapprochement with the Russian people and the Europeans. This influence, already noticeable under Tsar Alexei in the middle of the 17th century, of course, formed gradually. A typical bearer of alien influences in their early days was Prince Yves. Andr, Khvorostinin (died 1625) - “heretic”

In the middle of the 17th century. Along with cultured Western Europeans, Kiev scholastics appeared in Moscow and Byzantine learned monks settled.

Of the practical figures we named, advocates of education, the first place belongs to Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin (about him, see Ikonnikov’s article in “Russian Starina” for 1883, X and XI).

Much more interested in the West than Nashchokin was Artamon Sergeevich Matveev, a friend of Tsar Alexei and also a diplomat of the 17th century. In Orthodox Moscow, he decided to start a home theater and taught his courtyard people “the art of comedy.”

But alongside the “German” influence, the influence of Greek and Kiev theological education developed. Scientists of Kiev in the second half of the 17th century. became very influential at court (of them, the most prominent first was Epiphanius Slavinetsky, then Simeon of Polotsk). Entirely under their influence was the Tsar's bed-keeper Fyodor Mikhailovich Rtishchev, who was very friendly with the people of Kiev.

Moscow not only looked closely at the customs of Western European life, but in the 17th century. began to be interested in Western literature, however, from the point of view of practical needs. In the Ambassadorial Prikaz, the most educated institution of that time, entire books, mostly manuals of applied knowledge, were translated along with political news from Western newspapers for the sovereign.

So, we have outlined two main currents of social thought under Alexei Mikhailovich: one is national-conservative, directed against reforms both in the church sphere and in the civil sphere and equally hostile to both the Greeks and the Germans as a foreign, alien element. The other direction was Westernizing, moving towards Greek and Kyiv science and Western culture.

Education. In the second half of the 17th century. Several public schools were established. There was a school for training employees for central institutions, for the Printing House. Pharmacy order, etc. The printing press made it possible to publish uniform manuals for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass quantities. Moscow - “ABC book” by V.F. Burtsev, and the “Grammar” of Meletius Smotripky (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.

In 1687, the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where they taught “from grammar, rhetoric, literature, dialectics, philosophy... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sophronius and Ioannikis Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here.

In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great strides have been made in the field of medicine. Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev.

E.P. Khabarov in 1649 drew up a map and studied the lands along the Amur River, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk bears his name. At the very end of the 16th century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

Literature. In the 17th century the last chronicle works were created.

The “New Chronicler” (30s) outlined the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

The central place in historical literature was occupied by historical stories that had a journalistic character. For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik of clerk Ivan Timofeev”, “The Legend of Abraham Palipyn”, “Another Legend”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the emergence in the 17th century of the genre of satirical stories, where fictional characters act. In “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazin Petition”.

Theater. A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which lasted only four years. German actors played in it. Male and female roles were performed by men. The theater's repertoire included plays on biblical and legendary historical subjects.

In Russian cities and villages, a traveling theater - the theater of buffoons and Petrushka (the main character of folk puppet shows) - has become widespread since the times of Kievan Rus. The government and church authorities persecuted buffoonery for its cheerful and bold humor, which exposed the vices of those in power.

Architecture. Architectural structures of the 17th century. They are very picturesque. They are asymmetrical both within the same building and in the ensemble. Buildings from the 17th century multi-colored, decorative. Architects especially loved to decorate the windows of buildings with intricate, dissimilar platbands. Widespread in the 17th century. received multi-colored “solar tiles” - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick (“marvelous patterns”).

The decorative principle, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. (saving) In Rostov the Great, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built in the form of a Kremlin. The walls of large Russian monasteries, erected after the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention (Troipe-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, were decorated with decorative details.

The development of ancient Russian stone architecture culminated in the formation of a style called “Naryshkinsky” (after the names of the main customers), or Moscow baroque. The gate churches, refectory and bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad were built in this style.

Moscow Baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of floors of buildings, the use of columns, capitals 138, etc. as decorative decorations are clearly visible. Finally, in almost all Naryshkin Baroque buildings you can see decorative shells in the eaves of the buildings. The appearance of the Moscow Baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, indicated that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of pan-European culture.

In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. Contemporaries called the famous palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow the “Eighth Wonder of the World.” It was built by Russian masters Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and existed until the middle of the 18th century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation.

Painting. The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The most important artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.

Portraiture - “parsuns” (persons) - is widespread in Russia, depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky and others. However, the artists’ technique was still similar to icon painting, i.e. They wrote on boards with egg paints. At the end of the 17th century. The first parsuns appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the flourishing of Russian portrait art in the 18th century.

Preliminary remarks

XVII century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture, since it was in this century that: a) the process of formation of the Russian nation and the rise of national self-awareness began, and b) the process of destruction of the medieval religious worldview, and with it the secularization or secularization of culture, more clearly emerged.

At the same time, a number of authors (D. Likhachev, A. Panchenko) argue that it was the Baroque (Fig. 1) that fulfilled the same historical mission in Russia as the culture of the Renaissance in Europe. Baroque, which in Europe became the antithesis of the Renaissance, in Russia turned out to be close to Renaissance traditions and ideals, since it carried an educational beginning and contributed to the processes of “secularization” of culture and religious worldview.

Folklore

In the 17th century Oral folk art received further development and the first literary records of folklore appeared, in particular numerous proverbs and sayings: “you can’t feed a nightingale with fables,” “if you take up a tug, don’t say it’s not strong,” “some are sick, and some are sick,” “where thinly, it breaks there”, “Pray to God, but don’t make a mistake yourself”, “a husband loves a healthy wife, and a brother loves a rich sister”, “the law is that the drawbar, as you turn, so it turns out”, “God punished the people - sent the governor “,” “Our laws are holy, but the executors are dashing adversaries,” etc.

Traditional genre oral folklore remained folk songs, which reflected the entire diverse palette of people's aspirations and feelings. This tendency was especially evident in numerous songs, the main character of which was Stepan Razin, the leader of the most powerful Peasant War of the “rebellious century” (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Lubok about the uprising of S. Razin ()

Literacy and writing

The main innovations in this area of culture were:

1. Publication of the first printed textbooks: “ABCs” by Vasily Burtsev (1634), “Grammars” by Melenty Smotrytsky (1648) (Fig. 3) , “The lexicon of sayings in Slavic and Greek and other languages... for the learning and understanding of students” (1650) Epiphany of Slavenetsky and numerous educational “Psalms” and “Books of Hours”.

Rice. 3. Grammar of Melenty Smotritsky ()

2. Creation of the first private schools at the Miracle Monastery (Filaret, 1633), St. Andrew's Monastery (F. Rtishchev, 1646), Zaikono-Spassky Monastery (S. Polotsky, 1664), Church of St. John the Evangelist (Joseph, 1667), Moscow Printing Yard (Timofey , 1680), etc.

3. Creation of the first higher educational institution- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (1687), headed by Ioannikis and Sophronius Likhud. 1694 due to the intrigues of the Jerusalem Patriarch Dosifei, they were forced to leave Moscow, and the academy was headed by their students, Nikolai Semenov and Fyodor Polikarpov . IN 1699 it was transformed into the Moscow Theological Academy, the first rector of which was Pallady Rogovsky.

4. The emergence of the first library collections of printed publications in Russian, Latin, Greek and Polish from Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince V.V. Golitsyna, A.L. Ordina-Nashchokina, A.S. Matveev and others.

5. Publication of the first handwritten newspaper "Chimes" (1621), which was an anthology of translated printed publications published in different European countries.

Scientific knowledge

XVII century became a time of accumulation scientific knowledge, there was a noticeable increase in interest in the scientific literature of the European Renaissance with its secular approach to explaining many natural phenomena. It was during this period that translations of a number of works by major European thinkers and scientists appeared in Russia: “On the structure human body"(E. Slavinetsky, 1658), "Six Days" (A. Kholomogorsky, 1663), "Cool Vertograd" (A. Nikiforov, 1672) and others.

At the same time, original scientific treatises by Russian authors appeared: “The Charter of Military, Cannon and Other Affairs Concerning Military Science” (O. Radyshevsky, 1621), “The Book of Soshnogo Writing” (1629), “Pharmocopoeia” (I. Venedikttov, 1682) and others.

In the 17th century special interest began to be shown in the accumulation and development of geographical knowledge, and the “Book of the Great Drawing” (1627), “Drawing of Russian and Swedish cities to the Varangian Sea” (1656) “Painting of Siberian cities and stockades” (1640), “Painting of the sea route” appeared along the Sea of Okhotsk" (1649), "Godunov's drawing" (1667) and others.

Historical knowledge and socio-political thought

In the 17th century the ideology of providentialism characteristic of the Middle Ages, which explained historical process as the implementation of divine providence, gradually began to be diluted with attempts at rational interpretation historical events and search real reasons their occurrence.

Rice. 4. Moscow in the 17th century ()

The focus of attention of Russian historians and publicists of the first half of the 17th century. were the tragic events of the Time of Troubles, to which were dedicated: “A new story about the glorious Russian kingdom and the Great State of Moscow”, “A lament about the captivity and the final ruin of the highest and most illustrious Moscow state for the benefit and punishment of those listening”, “The story of what sins God allowed for God is our righteous punishment”, “Scripture about the death and burial of Prince Mikhail Vasilyevich Skopin”, “The story of how Boris Godunov deceived the royal throne in Moscow by untruth”, “The Tale of Grishka Otrepiev and his adventure”, created in the 1610s.

Then in 1620s XVII century were created “Vremennik” by Ivan Timofeev, “Legend” or “History in memory of previous families” by Abraham Palitsyn, “On the Pskov ruin”, “On troubles, sorrows and misfortunes”, “Words” by Prince Ivan Andreevich Khvorostin and “The Tale” by Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Katyrev-Rostovsky.

IN 1630s The “New Chronicler” or “Chronicle of Many Rebellions” and “The Siberian Kingdom and the Reign and the Capture”, written by the clerk of the Siberian Archbishop Savva Esipov, were born.

A special place in the development of historical knowledge was played by the famous “Synopsis” of the rector of the Kiev-Mohyla Theological Academy and abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisel, published in three editions in 1674, 1678 and 1680.

In the second half of the 17th century. came out yet whole line interesting historical treatises, in particular “Thoughts are Political” (1663) by Yuri Krizhanich, “In Memory” by Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin, “Brief Contemplation” (1682) by Sylvester Medvedev and “Scythian History” (1692) by Andrei Lyzlov.

Literature

According to many authors (I. Eremin, V. Andrianova-Peretz, D. Likhachev), the most important innovations in Russian literature of that period were: a) the spread of the secular, personal principle in literature and its liberation from traditional providential ideology and b) the formation and the development of new literary genres.

In the genre of democratic satire, “The Tale of the Hen and the Fox”, “Service for the Tavern”, “The Kalyazin Petition”, “The Tale of Karp Sutulov”, “The Tale of the Priest Savva and His Glory”, “The Tale of Hawkmoth”, “The Tale of Shemyakin Court" "The Tale of Ersha Ershovich, Shchetinnikov's son."

In the genre of everyday realistic stories, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, “The Tale of Thomas and Erem”, “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, “The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”, “The Tale of Uliana Osorina”, “The Tale of Martha and Mary” were created. and “The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery.”

In the genre of Cossack stories, “Writing about Ermak Timofeevich’s campaign in Siberia” (1623) and “The Tale of the Azov capture and sitting” appeared. (1641). “About Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich” were created in the genre of memoir literature. (1664), written by the clerk of the Ambassadorial Prikaz G.K. Katoshikhin and “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself” (1680), the author of which was Avvakum Petrov

A new phenomenon in literature was the development of syllabic versification or verses. The most prominent representatives of this genre were:

1. Simeon of Polotsk (1629-1680), the author of such poetry collections as “Spiritual Dinner”, “Spiritual Supper”, “Crown of Faith”, “Russian Eagle”, “Good Glasle Gusl”, “Multi-Colored Vertograd”, “Rhymelogion, or Verses” and “Rhyming Psalter”, and also two plays “Comedy-parable about prodigal son" and "About Novokhudonosar the Tsar."

2. Sylvester Medvedev (1641-1691), who wrote the verses “Epitafion”, “Marriage Greetings to Fyodor Alekseevich”, “Crying and Consolation on the Death of Fyodor Alekseevich”, “Captions for the Portrait of Princess Sophia”, “Virshas for Holy Saturday”, “Congratulations to Princess Sophia on the Occasion of Easter” and polemical and historical treatises “Animal Bread” and “True News”, “Brief Contemplation...” and “Table of Contents of Books and Who Compiled Them.”

3. Karion Istomin (1640-1717), author of such works as “Catechism”, “Chronicle of the Great Russian Land”, “Book of Admonition”, “Eden”, “Ecclesia”, “Poems on the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ”, “Book of the Spirit-Bearing Stamna” and an encyclopedic treatise in verse “City of the Kingdom” heavenly" or "Polis".

Architecture

The outstanding works of Russian wooden architecture were the royal palace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (Fig. 5), built in 1667-1678. under the leadership of Semyon Petrov, Ivan Mikhailov and Savva Dementyev, and the tented churches of the Church of John the Baptist on the Shirokov Pogost near Vologda, the Ascension Church in Torzhok and the Trinity Cathedral near Arkhangelsk.

Rice. 5. Royal Palace in Kolomenskoye ()

XVII century became a time of further development of stone architecture, which was caused by: a) the military-defensive needs of the state and b) the strengthening of royal power, the authority and greatness of which required special expression in monumental stone architecture. Therefore, even under Boris Godunov, the Order of Stone Affairs was created.

IN 1624-1625 under the leadership of the English architect Christopher Galovey and the Russian architect Bazhen Ogurtsov, hipped ceilings were erected on the Spasskaya and Nikolskaya towers. Then, in 1672-1686, similar ceilings were erected over the remaining towers of the Moscow Kremlin. Then the towers and walls of Kalyazinsky, Trinity-Sergius, Spaso-Evfimiye, Kirillo-Belozersky, Simonov, Novodevichy, Donskoy and many other monasteries underwent a similar restructuring. IN 1670-1683 under the leadership of Rostov Metropolitan Jonah Sysoevich, a unique ensemble of the Rostov Metropolitan Court (Rostov Kremlin) was erected, which is rightfully considered a masterpiece of Russian religious and fortress architecture of the 17th century.

Outstanding secular buildings of the 17th century. were the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin (1635-1636), built under the leadership of Russian architects Bazhen Ogurtsov, Trefil Sharutin, Antip Konstantinov and Larion Ushakov, the Patriarchal Palace in the Moscow Kremlin, erected in 1642-1656. under the leadership of Dmitry Okhlebnin and Averky Mokeev, the Tsarina Chamber of the Savvino-Storozhevoy Monastery near Zvenigorod (1650-1652), the Amusement Palace in the Moscow Kremlin (1651-1652), the Patriarchal Chambers and the refectory of the Valdai Iversky Monastery (1552-1556), Khamovny Dvor in Moscow (1658-1661), Gostiny Dvors in Moscow (1661-1665) and Arkhangelsk (1668-1684), Zemsky Prikaz in Moscow (1683), Patriarchal Refectory of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1692) and the Bishop's House in Suzdal (1694).

Stone religious architecture was represented by three main styles: A) cross-domed, b) tent and V) Naryshkinsky.

Among the cross-domed churches, especially noteworthy are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Medvedkovo near Moscow (1619-1621), the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow (1626), the Assumption Church of the Alekseev Monastery in Uglich (1628), the Trinity Church in Nikitniki (1628-1651) , Church of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1635-1638), Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki (1649-1652), Ascension Cathedral in Ustyug (1648) and Trinity Church in Moscow (1642-1648), Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker on Bersenevka (1657). But, of course, among these buildings, a special place is occupied by the favorite brainchild of Patriarch Nikon, the New Jerusalem Monastery (1656-1694) and its Cathedral of the Resurrection (1685).

Despite the strict ban, the “posad” direction in religious architecture continued to develop successfully, the distinctive feature of which was hipped ceilings and various “patterns”. The most interesting monuments of this style are rightfully considered the Church of the Nativity in Medvedkovo (1635), the Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Ostrov near Moscow (1646), the Church of the Resurrection in Kostroma (1652), the Church of Cosmas and Domian in Sadovniki (1657-1662), the Church of the Ascension in Romanov-Borisov (1678), the Trinity Church in the village of Ostankino near Moscow (1678-1683), the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (1679), the Church of St. John Chrysostom in Korovniki (1679) and many others.

According to a number of scientists (N. Voronin, A. Sakharov, A. Muravyov), the secular principle was especially visible in Yaroslavl religious architecture, where the customers of the temples were wealthy merchant corporations (Skripins, Nezhdanovskys). Characteristic monuments of Yaroslavl architecture are the Church of Elijah the Prophet (1647-1650), the Church of St. John Chrysostom on Kotorosl (1649-1654), the Church of St. Nicholas the Mokroy (1665-1672) and the grandiose Church of St. John the Baptist in Tolchkovo (1671-1689), which, according to the expression N. Voronin, was a “jubilant symphony of folk fantasy.”

In the 1670s. A new architectural style arose, called the Naryshkin style or Moscow Baroque. The most significant buildings of this style, included in the treasury of Russian culture, were: the refectory of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1689), the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent (1690), the Assumption Cathedral of Joseph-Volotsky (1688-1696) and the Great Cathedral of the Donskoy (1698) monasteries, building Moscow Printing House (1676), Church of the Ascension in the village of Ubory (Yakov Bukhvostov, 1694-1697), Trinity Church in Trinity-Lykovo (Yakov Bukhvostov, 1698-1704), Krutitsky courtyard in Moscow (Osip Startsev, 1693), chambers of the Duma clerk Averkiya Kirillov in Moscow (1657-1672), the Sukharev Tower (Mikhail Choglokov, 1692-1701) and the standard masterpiece of the Moscow Baroque, the Church of the Intercession in Fili (1690-1694), commissioned by Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin (Fig. 6) .

Rice. 6. Church of the Intercession in Fili ()

Painting

In the 17th century The technique of fresco and tempera painting was further developed. Among the most famous works of this direction are the frescoes of the Princess Monastery in Vladimir. (1648), Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1652 ), Transfiguration Cathedral of the Spaso-Euphemy Monastery in Suzdal (1689) and others.

Traditions were still strong in icon painting « Stroganov school,” but there was a significant coarsening of writing technique and simplification of artistic compositions. At the same time, certain innovations also appeared: painters began to depict space more accurately and began to actively use lighting techniques. According to most authors (I. Grabar, A. Muravyov), the highest stage in the development of painting in the 17th century. associated with the name of the outstanding Russian artist Semyon Fedorovich Ushakov, who headed the artel of painters of the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, which was led by the boyar Bogdan Matveevich Khitrovo.

S. Ushakov paid tribute to fresco painting, taking an active part in the painting of the Faceted Chamber, the Archangel and Assumption Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin (1660). But S. Ushakov nevertheless entered the history of Russian art as a brilliant master of easel painting. His most famous icons are “Savior the Great Bishop” (1656-1657), “Savior Not Made by Hands” (1657-1658), “Trinity” (1671), “Planting the Tree of the Russian State” or “Our Lady of Vladimir” (1668), “Archangel Michael trampling the devil" (1676) (Fig. 7) and "The Last Supper" (1685). S. Ushakov had a huge influence on the development of Russian painting and created a brilliant school of painters, the prominent representatives of which were his students Grigory Zinoviev, Tikhon Filatiev, Nikita Polovets, Fyodor Zubov and many others.

Rice. 7. “Archangel Michael trampling on the devil” ()

In addition, S. Ushakov entered the history of Russian art as a major theorist, who wrote two treatises “A Word for Careful Icon Painting” (1667) and “The Alphabet of Arts” (1673).

Along with traditional forms of fine art at the beginning of the 17th century. The genre of parsun portraits was born. It was in this picturesque manner that parsuns depicting Ivan the Terrible, Mikhail Vasilyevich Skopin-Shuisky, Alexei Mikhailovich (Erofeey Elin, 1675), Fyodor Alekseevich (Luka Smolyanin, 1686), Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin, Grigory Petrovich Godunov, Boris were painted Ivanovich Repnin and a number of others.

Music and theater

In musical art, along with traditional polyphony: A) appeared "edges" - extra-church musical works And b)“parthenos singing” for three voices arose, taking its traditions from distant Venice.

IN theater arts, along with the traditional “bear” circus, the theater of buffoons and the puppet theater of Petrushka, the Court Khoromina (1672-1676) appears, directed by Johann Gregory and Stepan Chizhevsky. The most notable productions of this theater were “The Act of Artaxerxes”, “Judith”, “Tobius”, “About the Prodigal Son”, “About Yegor the Brave”, “The Fall of Adam”, “The Complaintful Comedy about Adam and Eve”, “David and Solomon” “Small Comedy about Bayazet and Tamerlane”, “Comedy about Bacchus with Venus” and others.

List of literature for studying the topic "Russian culture of the 17th century":

Bryusova V.G. Russian painting of the 17th century. - M., 1984.
Eremin I.P. Lectures and articles on the history of Russian literature. - M., 1987.
Andrianova-Peretz V.A. Russian democratic satire of the 17th century. - M., 1977.
Likhachev D.S. The origins of Russian fiction. - L., 1970.
Ovchinnikova E.A. Portrait in Russian art of the 17th century. - M., 1955.
Panchenko A.M. Russian culture on the eve of Peter's reforms. - L., 1984.
Pushkarev L.N. Socio-political thought in Russia in the 17th century. - M., 1982.

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