Various types of painting. Examples of painting, genres, styles, various techniques and directions

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Features of painting as a type of fine art

painting belongs a special place among other arts : perhaps no other form of art is able to convey the phenomena of the world seen, human images with such completeness, especially when you consider that most of the information we get from outside world with the help of vision those. visually. art painting portrait landscape still life

It was the art of painting that managed to create the impossible - to stop the moment long before photography: works of this kind Andart through one depicted moment conveys previous subsequent, past and future, conjectured by the viewer.

Painting - this spectacle organized by the artist:

Despite the fact that the painter embodies real images in visible forms, they are not a direct copy of life;

Creating a picture, the artist relies on nature, but at the same time recreates it on the material obtained as a result of his social and professional experience, skills, mastery, imaginative thinking.

Can be found several main types of experience caused by paintings:

Recognition of familiar objects comprehended by sight - on the basis of this, certain associations are born about the depicted;

· Obtaining an aesthetic feeling.

Thus, painting performs pictorial, narrative and decorative functions.

Types of painting and its means of expression

Painting is divided into the following types:

Monumental - decorative - serves to complement and decorate architectural structures(wall paintings, plafonds, panels, mosaics);

· Decorative - used in other arts (cinema or theater);

· Easel;

· Iconography;

· Miniature.

The most independent variety is easel painting.

Painting has special expressive means:

· Drawing;

· Coloring;

· Composition.

Drawing - one of the most important expressive means: it is with the help of it and the components of the drawing lines created plastic images. Sometimes these lines are schematic, they only outline the constructions of volumes.

Color -the leading means of expression in the art of painting. It is in color that a person cognizes the world around him. Color:

Lines up form depicted objects;

· Models space items;

· Creates mood;

Forms a certain rhythm.

Color organization system, hue ratios, with which tasks are solved artistic image, is called color:

In a narrow sense, it is the only true organization of color schemes of this picture;

In a wide - common to most people's laws of color perception, since you can say "warm color", "cold color", etc.

At various periods in the history of painting, there were color systems.

In the early stages it was used local color, excluding the play of colors and shades: the color here is as if uniform and unchanged.

During the Renaissance, there was tone color, Where colorsconditionedposition in space and their illumination. The ability to designate the shape of the depicted object with light is called color plastic.

There are two types of tonal color:

· dramatic - contrast of light and shadow;

· color - color contrast.

For an artist, the ability to use the technique is very important. chiaroscuro, those. maintain the correct gradation of light and dark in the picture, because that is how it is achieved the volume of the depicted object, surrounded by a light-air environment.

Composition in painting in the most general sense - placement of figures, their relationship in the space of the picture. The composition combines a huge variety of details and elements into a single whole. Their causal relationship forms a closed system in which nothing can be changed or added to it. This system reflects a part of the real world, which is realized and felt by the artist, singled out by him from a variety of phenomena.

At the same time, in the field of composition there is concentration of ideological and creative ideas, because it manifests itself through it attitude of the creator to his model. The image becomes an artistic phenomenon only when it is subject to an ideological design, because in otherwise you can only talk about simple copying.

N.N. Volkov draws attention to the difference between the concepts of "structure", "construction", and "composition":

· Structure determined a single character of connections between elements, a single law of shaping. The concept of structure in relation to a work of art is associated with the multi-layeredness of a work of art, that is, in the process of perceiving a picture, we can penetrate into the deeper layers of its structure;

· Construction - is a type of structure in which the elements are related functionally, because its integrity depends on the unity of function. With regard to the picture, we can say that the function of constructive connections in the picture is the creation and strengthening of semantic connections, since usually the constructive center is most often the semantic node;

· Artwork composition is a closed structure with fixed elements, connected by a unity of meaning.

One of the main laws of compositionis a limitation Images, which provides opportunities for the most important in expressing the intent of the picture.

Restriction form also plays a significant role - in artistic practice, such basic shapes:

· Rectangle.

The limitation also applies to What can be depicted, i.e. find external similarity in colors, lines on a plane objects, persons, visible space, etc.

In the practice of fine arts, the following types of compositions are known:

· Stable (static) - the main compositional axes intersect at right angles in the center of the work;

· Dynamic - with dominating diagonals, circles and ovals;

Open - compositional lines seem to diverge from the center4

· Closed - there is a contraction of lines to the center.

Stable and closed composition schemes characteristic of artistic practice renaissance,dynamic and open - For the baroque era.

Techniques and main genres of painting

The expressiveness of the picture and the embodiment of artistic intent depend on what painting technique is used by the artist.

The main types of painting techniques:

· Oil painting;

· Watercolor;

· Tempera;

· Pastel;

Fresco.

Oil painting characterized by the fact that they can be used to obtain complex color solutions - The viscosity and long drying time of oil paints make it possible to mix paints and obtain their various combinations.

The usual basis for oil painting serves as a linen canvas covered semi-oily soil.

Other surfaces are also possible.

Watercolor different from other techniques transparency and color freshness. It does not use white and is used on unprimed white paper, which fulfills their role.

Interesting watercolor, made on raw paper.

Tempera, prepared with casein oil, egg or synthetic binder, is one of the most ancient painting techniques.

Tempera complicates the work of the artist by the fact that it dries quickly enough and cannot be mixed, and also changes color when it dries, But on the other hand color in tempera especially beautiful - calm, velvety, even.

Pastel - painting with colored crayons.

Gives soft, gentle tones. Performed on raw paper or suede.

Works made in pastel, unfortunately, are difficult to preserve due to their flowability.

Watercolor, pastel and gouache sometimes referred to graphics, since these paints are applied to unprimed paper, however, they have a greater basic specific property painting - color.

fresco painting is carried out as follows: the powder of the colorful pigment is diluted with water and applied to wet plaster, which firmly holds the paint layer.

Has a long history.

Especially often this technique is used to decorate the walls of buildings.

Despite the fact that painting is able to reflect almost all phenomena real life, most often it represents images of people, animate and inanimate nature.

That's why The main genres of painting can be considered:

· Portrait;

· Scenery;

· Still life.

Portrait

Portrait in the most general sense is defined as an image of a person or group of people that actually exists or has existed.

Usually these are indicated portrait features in the visual arts:

similarity with the model;

Reflection of social and ethical features through it.

But, of course, the portrait reflects not only this, but also special attitude of the artist to the person being portrayed.

Never confuse the portraits of Rembrandt with the works of Velazquez, Repin with Serov or Tropinin, since two characters are represented in the portrait - the artist and his model.

Inexhaustible the main theme of the portrait -Human. However, depending on the characteristics of the artist's perception of the person being portrayed, an idea arises that the artist seeks to convey.

Depending on the idea of ​​a portrait, the following are determined:

· Composition solution;

· Painting technique;

· Coloring, etc.

The idea of ​​the work gives rise to the image of a portrait:

· Documentary-narrative;

Emotionally sensual;

· Psychological;

Philosophical.

For documentary-narrative solution image is characterized by attraction to accurate specification of the portrait.

The desire for documentary similarity here prevails over the author's vision.

Emotional figurative solution achieved decorative pictorial means and documentary authenticity is not required here.

It is not so important how Rubens' women look like their prototypes. The main thing is the admiration for their beauty, health, sensuality, transmitted from the artist to the viewer.

To variety philosophical portrait can be attributed to Rembrandt's "Portrait of an Old Man in Red" (c. 1654). During his creative maturity, such portraits-biographies of older people were very common, which are philosophical reflection artist about that period of human life when the peculiar results of a long and difficult existence are summed up.

Artists often choose as a model of yourself that's why it's so common self-portrait.

In it, the artist seeks to evaluate himself from the outside as a person, to determine his place in society, simply to capture himself for posterity.

Durer, Rembrandt, Velazquez, Van Gogh make an internal conversation with themselves and at the same time with the viewer.

It occupies a special place in painting group portrait.

It is interesting because it is general portrait, and not portraits of several specific personalities depicted on one canvas.

In such a portrait, of course, there is a separate characteristic of each character, but at the same time, an impression is created of a commonality, a unity of the artistic image (“The Regents of the Nursing Home in Haarlem” by F. Hals).

It is sometimes very difficult to draw a line between the group portrait and other genres, since the old masters depicted groups of people often in action.

Scenery

The main subject of the depiction of the landscape genre is nature -either natural or man-made.

This genre much younger than others. If sculptural portraits were created as early as 3,000 BC, and pictorial portraits have a history of about 2,000 years, then the beginning of the biography of the landscape dates back to the 6th century. AD, and they were common in the East, especially in China.

The birth of the European landscape occurred in the 16th century, and it acquired the independence of the genre only from the beginning of the 17th century.

The landscape genre was formed, going from a decorative and auxiliary element in the composition of other works to an independent artistic phenomenon, portraying the natural environment.

It can be real or imaginary views of nature. Some of them have their own names:

The urban architectural landscape is called redoubt (« Opera passage» C. Pissarro;

Sea views - marina ( landscapes by I. Aivazovsky).

landscape genre becomes not only a reflection of nature, but also means of expressing a particular artistic idea.

Moreover, by the nature of his favorite subjects, to a certain extent, one can judge the emotional structure of the artist and the stylistic features of his work.

The figurative meaning of the work depends on the choice of natural species:

· epic start contained in the image of forest distances, mountain panoramas, endless plains (“Kama” by A. Vasnetsov).

Stormy sea or impenetrable wilderness embodies something mysterious sometimes severe (J. Michel "Thunderstorm");

· lyrical types of snow-covered paths, forest edges, small ponds;

Sunny morning or noon can transmit feeling of joy and peace"White water lilies" by C. Monet, "Moscow courtyard" by V. Polenov).

Since the primordial nature is gradually subjected to active intervention by man, the landscape takes on the features of a serious historical document.

The landscape is able to embody even some social sensations of the era, the course of social thought: so in the middle of the 19th century, the aesthetics of the romantic and classical landscape gradually gives way to the national landscape, which often acquires a social meaning; the onset of a new technical era was also recorded in the landscape (“New Moscow by Y. Pimenov”, “Berlin-Potsdam Railway” by A. Menzel).

Scenery is not only an object of knowledge of nature, a monument of art, but also a reflection of the state of culture of a certain era.

Still life

A still life depicts the world of things surrounding a person, which are placed and organized into an integral composition in a real household environment.

Just such organizing things is a component of the figurative system of the genre.

Still life may have independent value, and may become part of a composition of another genre, in order to more fully reveal the semantic content of the work, as, for example, in the paintings "The Merchant" by B. Kustodiev, "The Sick" by V. Polenov, "The Girl with Peaches" by V. Serov.

In the plot thematic paintings although still life has an important, but subordinate meaning, however, as an independent genre of art, it has great expressive power. It presents not only the external, material essence of objects, but in a figurative form the essential aspects of life are transmitted, the era and even important historical events are reflected.

Still life is good creative lab, where the artist improves his skills, individual handwriting,

The still life had periods of decline and development.

played an important role in its formation Dutch painters of the 16th - 17th centuries.

They have developed basic, artistic principles:

· Realism;

· Subtle observations of life;

· A special gift of conveying the aesthetic value of familiar things.

In the favorite "breakfasts" and "shops", the material of objects was transferred with great skill; surface texture of fruits, vegetables, game, fish.

It is especially important that still life emphasizes the inseparable connection of man with the world of things.

Impressionist painters solved the creative problem of a picturesque still life in a slightly different way.

Here the main thing was not a reflection of the properties of objects, their tangibility. A play of light, color, freshness of color (still lifes by C. Monet, masters of the Russian branch french impressionism K. Korovin and I. Grabar).

Not every depiction of the world of things on paper or canvas will be considered a still life. Since each object has its own natural habitat and purpose, placing it in other conditions can cause dissonance in the sound of the picture.

The main thing is that the things combined in the still life composition create harmonious emotionally rich artistic image.

Other genres of painting

Genres occupy a significant place in the art of painting:

· Household;

· Historical;

· Battle;

· Animalistic.

household genre depicts everyday private and public life, usually, contemporary artist.

In the paintings of this genre are presented labor activity people (“The Spinners” by D. Velazquez, “In the Harvest” by A. Venetsianov), holidays (“Peasant Dance” by P. Brueghel), moments of rest, leisure (“Young Couple in the Park” by T. Gaisborough, “Chess Players” by O. Daumier ), national flavor (“Algerian women in their chambers” by E. Delacroix).

Historical genre - capturing important historical events. This genre includes legendary and religious stories.

Among the paintings historical genre can be called "Death of Caesar" by K.T. von Piloty, “Surrender of Breda” by D. Velazquez, “Farewell of Hector to Andromache” by A. Losenko, “Sbinyanok” by Zh.L. David, "Liberty Leading the People" by E Delacroix and others.

Image subjectbattle genre are military campaigns, glorious battles, feats of arms, military operations (“Battle of Angyari” by Leonardo da Vinci, “Tachanka” by M. Grekov, “Defense of Sevastopol” by A. Deineka). Sometimes it is included in the composition of historical painting.

In picturesanimal genre displayed animal world (" Poultry” by M. de Hondekuter, “Yellow Horses” by F. Mark).

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In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the process of development of European painting became more complicated. National schools were formed in France (J. de Latour, F. Champigne, N. Poussin, A. Watteau, J. B. S. Chardin, J. O. Fragonard, J. L. David), Italy (M. Caravaggio, D. Fetti, J. B. Tiepolo, J. M. Crespi, F. Guardi), Spain (El Greco, D. Velazquez, F. Zurbaran, B. E. Murillo, F. Goya), Flanders (P. P Rubens, J. Jordaens, A. van Dyck, F. Snyders), Holland (F. Hals, Rembrandt, J. Vermeer
, J. van Ruisdael, G. Terborch, K. Fabricius), Great Britain (J. Reynolds, T. Gainsborough, W. Hogarth), Russia (F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky) . Painting proclaimed new social and civil ideals, turned to a more detailed and accurate depiction of real life in its movement and diversity, especially the everyday environment of a person (landscape, interior, household items); deepened psychological problems, embodied the feeling of a conflicting relationship between the individual and the surrounding world. In the 17th century the system of genres expanded and clearly took shape. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Along with monumental and decorative painting (especially in the Baroque style), which was flourishing, existed in close unity with sculpture and architecture and created an emotional environment that actively affected people, easel painting played an important role. Various painting systems were formed, as having a commonality of stylistic features (dynamic baroque painting with its characteristic open, spiral composition; classicism painting with a clear, strict and clear pattern; rococo painting with a play of exquisite nuances of color, light and faded tones), and not within a certain style framework. In an effort to reproduce the brilliance of the world, the light and air environment, many artists improved the system of tonal painting. This caused the individualization of the techniques of multilayer oil painting. The growth of easel art, the growing need for works designed for intimate contemplation, led to the development of chamber, thin and light, painting techniques - pastels, watercolors, ink, various types of portrait miniatures.

In the 19th century new national schools of realistic painting were formed in Europe and America. The connections of painting in Europe and other parts of the world were expanding, where the experience of European realistic painting received an original interpretation, often on the basis of local ancient traditions (in India, China, Japan, and other countries); European painting was influenced by the art of the Far Eastern countries (mainly Japan and China), which affected the renewal of the methods of decorative and rhythmic organization of the picturesque plane. In the 19th century painting solved complex and urgent worldview problems, played an active role in public life; importance in painting acquired a sharp criticism of social reality. Throughout the 19th century in painting, the canons of academism, an abstract idealization of images, were also cultivated; naturalist tendencies arose. In the fight against the abstractness of late classicism and salon academism, romanticism painting developed with its active interest in dramatic events history and modernity, the energy of the pictorial language, the contrast of light and shadow, the saturation of color (T. Gericault, E. Delacroix in France; F. O. Runge and K. D. Friedrich in Germany; in many ways O. A. Kiprensky, Sylvester Shchedrin , K. P. Bryullov, A. A. Ivanov in Russia). Realistic painting, based on direct observation of the characteristic phenomena of reality, comes to a more complete, concretely reliable, visually convincing depiction of life (J. Constable in Great Britain; C. Corot, master of the Barbizon school, O. Daumier in France; A. G. Venetsianov, P. A. Fedotov in Russia). During the period of the rise of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in Europe, the painting of democratic realism (G. Courbet, J. F. Millet in France; M. Munkachi in Hungary, N. Grigorescu and I. Andreescu in Romania, A. Menzel, V. Leibl in Germany, etc.) showed the life and work of the people, their struggle for their rights, turned to the most important events of national history, created vivid images ordinary people and leading public figures; Schools of national realistic landscape emerged in many countries. The painting of the Wanderers and artists close to them - V. G. Perov, I. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. V. Vereshchagin, closely related to the aesthetics of the Russian revolutionary democrats, was distinguished by socio-critical sharpness, I. I. Levitan.

The artistic embodiment of the surrounding world in its naturalness and constant variability comes in the early 1870s. impressionist painting (E. Manet, C. Monet, O. Renoir, C. Pissarro, A. Sisley, E. Degas in France), which updated the technique and methods of organizing the pictorial surface, revealing the beauty of pure color and texture effects. In the 19th century in Europe, oil painting dominated, its technique in many cases acquired an individual, free character, gradually losing its inherent strict systematicity (which was facilitated by the spread of new factory-made paints); the palette expanded (new pigments and binders were created); instead of dark colored primers at the beginning of the 19th century. white soils were again introduced. Monumental and decorative painting, which used in the XIX century. almost exclusively adhesive or oil paints, fell into disrepair. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. attempts are being made to revive monumental painting and the fusion of various types of painting with works of arts and crafts and architecture into a single ensemble (mainly in the art of "modern"); the technical means of monumental and decorative painting are being updated, the technique of silicate painting is being developed.

At the end of XIX - XX centuries. the development of painting becomes especially complex and contradictory; various realist and modernist currents coexist and fight. inspired by ideals October revolution 1917, armed with the method socialist realism, painting is intensively developing in the USSR and other socialist countries. New schools of painting are emerging in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Latin America.

realistic painting late XIX- XX centuries. is distinguished by the desire to know and show the world in all its contradictions, to reveal the essence of the deep processes taking place in social reality, which sometimes do not have a sufficiently visual appearance; the reflection and interpretation of many phenomena of reality often acquired a subjective, symbolic character. Painting of the 20th century along with the visual-visible volumetric-spatial method of depiction, he widely uses new (as well as dating back to antiquity), conditional principles for interpreting the visible world. Already in the painting of post-impressionism (P. Cezanne, V. van Gogh, P. Gauguin, A. Toulouse-Lautrec) and partly in the painting of "modern" features were emerging that determined the features of some trends of the 20th century. (an active expression of the artist's personal relationship to the world, the emotionality and associativity of color, which has little to do with natural color relationships, exaggerated forms, decorativeness). The world was comprehended in a new way in the art of Russian painters of the late XIX - early XX centuries - in the paintings of V. A. Serov, M. A. Vrubel, K. A. Korovin.

In the XX century. reality is contradictory, and often deeply subjective, is realized and translated into painting major artists capitalist countries: P. Picasso, A. Matisse, F. Leger, A. Marquet, A. Derain in France; D. Rivera, J. C. Orozco, D. Siqueiros in Mexico; R. Guttuso in Italy; J. Bellows, R. Kent in the USA. In paintings, wall paintings, picturesque panels, a truthful understanding of the tragic contradictions of reality has found expression, often turning into a denunciation of the deformities of the capitalist system. With the aesthetic understanding of the new, "technical" era, the reflection of the pathos of the industrialization of life is connected, the penetration into painting of geometric, "machine" forms, to which organic forms are often reduced, the search for those that meet the worldview modern man new forms that can be used in decorative arts, architecture and industry. Widespread in painting, mainly capitalist countries, since the beginning of the 20th century. received various modernist trends, reflecting the general crisis of the culture of bourgeois society; however, the "sick" problems of our time are also indirectly reflected in modernist painting. In the painting of many modernist movements (fauvism, cubism, futurism, dadaism, later surrealism), individual more or less easily recognizable elements of the visible world are fragmented or geometrized, appear in unexpected, sometimes illogical combinations that give rise to many associations, merge with purely abstract forms. The further evolution of many of these trends led to a complete rejection of figurativeness, to the emergence of abstract painting (see. Abstract art), which marked the collapse of painting as a means of reflecting and cognizing reality. Since the mid 60s. in Western Europe and America, painting sometimes becomes one of the elements of pop art.

In the XX century. the role of monumental-decorative painting, both pictorial (for example, revolutionary-democratic monumental painting in Mexico) and non-pictorial, usually planar, in harmony with the geometrized forms of modern architecture, is growing.

In the XX century. there is a growing interest in research in the field of painting techniques (including wax and tempera; new paints are invented for monumental painting - silicone, on organosilicon resins, etc.), but oil painting still prevails.

multinational Soviet painting is closely connected with the communist ideology, with the principles of party spirit and folk art, it represents qualitatively new stage development of painting, which is determined by the triumph of the method of socialist realism. In the USSR, painting is developing in all the Union and Autonomous Republics, and new national schools of painting are emerging. Soviet painting is characterized by a keen sense of reality, the materiality of the world, and the spiritual richness of images. The desire to embrace socialist reality in all its complexity and completeness led to the use of many genre forms, which are filled with new content. Already since the 20s. the historical and revolutionary theme is of particular importance (paintings by M. B. Grekov, A. A. Deineka, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, B. V. Ioganson, I. I. Brodsky, A. M. Gerasimov). Then patriotic canvases appear, telling about the heroic past of Russia, showing the historical drama of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, the spiritual stamina of the Soviet people.

A large role in the development of Soviet painting is played by the portrait: collective images of people from the people, participants in the revolutionary reorganization of life (A. E. Arkhipov, G. G. Rizhsky and others); psychological portraits showing the inner world, the spiritual warehouse of the Soviet person (M. V. Nesterov, S. V. Malyutin, P. D. Korin, etc.).

Typical way of life Soviet people is reflected in genre painting, which gives a poetically vivid image of new people and a new way of life. Soviet painting is characterized by large canvases imbued with the pathos of socialist construction (S. V. Gerasimov, A. A. Plastov, Yu. I. Pimenov, T. N. Yablonskaya, and others). Aesthetic affirmation different forms life of the union and autonomous republics underlies the national schools that have developed in Soviet painting (M. S. Saryan, L. Gudiashvili, S. A. Chuikov, U. Tansykbaev, T. Salakhov, E. Iltner, M. A. Savitsky, A Gudaitis, A. A. Shovkunenko, G. Aitiev, and others), representing the integral parts of the unified artistic culture of the Soviet socialist society.

In landscape painting, as in other genres, national artistic traditions are combined with the search for something new, with a modern sense of nature. The lyrical line of Russian landscape painting (V. N. Baksheev, N. P. Krymov, N. M. Romadin, etc.) is supplemented by the development industrial landscape with its rapid rhythms, with the motives of a transformed nature (B. N. Yakovlev, G. G. Nissky). reached a high level still life painting(I. I. Mashkov, P. P. Konchalovsky, M. S. Saryan).

The evolution of the social functions of painting is accompanied common development picturesque culture. Within the bounds of a single realistic method Soviet painting achieves a variety of artistic forms, techniques, individual styles. The wide scope of construction, the creation of large public buildings and memorial ensembles contributed to the development monumental and decorative painting (works by V. A. Favorsky, E. E. Lansere, P. D. Korin), the revival of the technique of tempera painting, frescoes and mosaics. In the 60s - early 80s. the mutual influence of monumental and easel painting intensified, the desire to make the most of and enrich the expressive means of painting increased (see also the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and articles on the Soviet union republics).

Lit .: VII, vol. 1-6, M., 1956-66; IRI, vol. 1-13, M., 1953-69; K. Yuon, On painting, [M.-L.], 1937; D. I. Kiplik, Painting technique, M.-L., 1950; A. Kamensky, To the viewer about painting, M., 1959; B. Slansky, Painting technique, trans. from Czech., M., 1962; G. A. Nedoshivin, Conversations about painting, , M., 1964; B. R. Vipper, Articles about art, M., 1970; Ward J., History and methods of ancient and modern painting, v. 1-4, L., 1913-21; Fosca F., La peinture, qu "est-ce que c" est, Porrentruy-Brux.-P., 1947; Venturi L., Painting and painters, Cleveland, 1963; R. Cogniat, Histoire de la peinture, t. 1-2, P., 1964; Barron J. N., The language of painting, Cleveland, ; Nicolaus K., DuMont's Handbuch der Gemaldekunde, Köln, 1979.

In the process of the formation of fine arts, genres of painting were also formed. If in pictures cavemen it was possible to see only what surrounded them, then over time, painting became more and more multifaceted and acquired a broad meaning. Artists conveyed their vision of the world in pictures. Historians identify the following genres of painting that have formed over the entire history of this art.

. The name came from latin word animal, which means animal. This genre includes paintings, the center of which are animals.

allegorical genre. Allegoria means "allegory". Such pictures contain secret meaning. With the help of images of symbols, people, living or mythical creatures, the artist tries to convey this or that idea.

Battle genre. Image of battles, battles, military campaigns. These paintings are characterized by versatility, the presence of many characters.

Epic and mythological genres. The plots of folklore works, the themes of ancient legends, epics and ancient Greek myths were depicted.

Image of simple scenes from everyday life. This genre is characterized by simplicity and realism.

Vanitas. The genre originated in the Baroque era. This is a kind of still life, in the center of which there is always a skull. Artists tried to draw a parallel with the frailty of all things.

Veduta. The birthplace of this genre is Venice. It represents an urban panorama, in compliance with architectural forms and proportions.

Image interior decoration premises.

Ippian genre. The name speaks for itself. These are pictures of horses.

historical genre. Canvases depicting historical events. A multifaceted and important genre of painting.

Capriccio. Fantasy architectural landscape.

The name is of French origin, and means that in the center of the image is an inanimate object. The artists depicted mainly flowers, household items, household utensils.

nude. Image of a naked human body. Initially, this genre was closely associated with the mythological and historical genre.

Blende. A genre in which artists used special techniques to create an illusion.

Pastoral. A genre that elevates simple rural life to a different form, embellishing it and deifying it.

A genre in which pictures of nature are depicted on the canvas. This is a three-dimensional direction, which includes the urban landscape, seascape, and other similar topics.

. In the center of the picture is the image of a man. The artist uses techniques to convey not only the appearance, but also the inner world of his hero. The portrait can be group, individual, front. You can also highlight a self-portrait in which the artist depicts himself.

Religious genre. This includes, and other paintings on religious themes.

Caricature. A genre whose purpose is to emphasize certain shortcomings of the personality, through a comic effect. For this, exaggeration, distortion of facial features and proportions, symbolism and elements of fantasy are used.

Genres of painting can merge and closely interact with each other. Some genres lose their relevance over time, while many, on the contrary, continue to develop along with life.

GENRES OF PAINTING(French genre - genus, species) - a historical division of works of art in accordance with the themes and objects of the image. IN modern painting there are the following genres: portrait, historical, mythological, battle, everyday life, landscape, still life, animalistic genre.

Although the concept of “genre” appeared in painting relatively recently, certain genre differences have existed since ancient times: images of animals in caves of the Paleolithic era, portraits of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from 3000 BC, landscapes and still lifes in Hellenistic and Roman mosaics and frescoes. The formation of the genre as a system in easel painting began in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. and ended mainly in the 17th century, when, in addition to the division of fine art into genres, the concept of the so-called. "high" and "low" genres, depending on the subject of the image, theme, plot. The “high” genre included historical and mythological genres, while the “low” genre included portrait, landscape, and still life. This gradation of genres lasted until the 19th century. albeit with exceptions.

So, in the 17th century. in Holland, it was precisely the “low” genres (landscape, everyday genre, still life) that became the leading ones in painting, and the ceremonial portrait, which formally belonged to the “low” genre of portraiture, did not belong to such. Having become a form of reflection of life, the genres of painting, with all the stability of common features, are not invariable, they develop along with life, changing as art develops. Some genres die off or acquire a new meaning (for example, the mythological genre), new ones arise, usually within pre-existing ones (for example, within the landscape genre, architectural landscape And marina). There are works that combine various genres(for example, a combination of everyday genre with a landscape, a group portrait with a historical genre).

A genre of fine art that reflects the external and internal appearance of a person or group of people is called portrait. This genre is widespread not only in painting, but also in sculpture, graphics, etc. The main requirements for a portrait are the transfer of external similarity and the disclosure of the inner world, the essence of a person's character. By the nature of the image, two main groups are distinguished: ceremonial and chamber portraits. Ceremonial portrait shows a person full height(on a horse, standing or sitting), on an architectural or landscape background. In a chamber portrait, a half-length or chest image is used on a neutral background. There are double and group portraits. Paired are called portraits painted on different canvases, but coordinated among themselves in composition, format and color. Portraits can form ensembles - portrait galleries united according to professional, family and other characteristics (galleries of portraits of members of a corporation, guild, regimental officers, etc.). A self-portrait stands out in a special group - an image by the artist of himself.

The portrait is one of the oldest genres of fine art, originally it had a cult purpose, it was identified with the soul of the deceased. In the ancient world, the portrait developed more in sculpture, as well as in pictorial portraits - Faiyum portraits of the 1st-3rd centuries. In the Middle Ages, the concept of a portrait was replaced by generalized images, although there are some individual features in the depiction of historical figures on frescoes, mosaics, icons, and miniatures. Late Gothic and the Renaissance is a turbulent period in the development of the portrait, when the portrait genre is emerging, reaching the heights of humanistic faith in man and understanding of his spiritual life. In the 16th century the following types of portrait appear: traditional (half-length or full-length), allegorical (with attributes of the divine), symbolic (based on a literary work), self-portrait and group portrait: Giotto Enrico Scrovegni(c. 1305, Padua), Jan van Eyck Portrait of the Arnolfini couple(1434, London, National Gallery), Leonardo da Vinci Mona Lisa(c. 1508, Paris, Louvre), Raphael lady with a veil(c. 1516, Florence, Pitti Gallery), Titian Portrait of a young man with a glove(1515–1520, Paris, Louvre), A. Durer Portrait of a young human(1500, Munich, Alte Pinakothek), H. Holbein Messengers(London, National Gallery), Rembrandt The night Watch (1642, Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum), Self-portrait with Saskia on his knees(c. 1636, Dresden, Art Gallery). Thanks to Van Dyck, Rubens and Velazquez, a type of royal, court portrait appears: the model is shown full-length against the background of drapery, landscape, architectural motif (Van Dyck Portrait of Charles I, OK. 1653, Paris, Louvre).

In parallel, there is a line of psychological portrait, portrait-character, group portrait: F. Hals Group portrait of the St. Adriana(1633, Haarlem, Frans Hals Museum), Rembrandt Syndics(1662, Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum), El Greco Portrait of Niño de Guevara(1601, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art), D. Velasquez Portrait of Philip IV(1628, Madrid, Prado), F. Goya Milkmaid from Bordeaux(1827, Madrid, Prado), T. Gainsborough Portrait of actress Sarah Siddons(1784–1785, London, National Gallery), F.S. Rokotov Maikov's portrait(c. 1765, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), D. G. Levitsky Portrait of M.A. Dyakova(1778, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery). An interesting and varied portrait of the 19th–20th centuries: D. Ingres Portrait of Madame Recamier(1800, Paris, Louvre), E. Manet Flutist(1866, Paris, Louvre), O. Renoir Portrait of Jeanne Samary(1877, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), V. Van Gogh Self portrait with bandaged ear(1889, Chicago, Block collection), O.A. Kiprensky Portrait of a poet Pushkin(1827, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), I.N. Kramskoy Portrait of the writer Leo Tolstoy(1873, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), I.E. Repin Mussorgsky(1881, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery).

The genre of fine art dedicated to historical events and characters is called historical genre. The historical genre, which is characterized by monumentality, has long developed in wall painting. From the Renaissance to the 19th century. artists used the plots of ancient mythology, Christian legends. Often the real historical events depicted in the picture were saturated with mythological or biblical allegorical characters. The historical genre is intertwined with others - the everyday genre (historical and everyday scenes), portrait (image of historical figures of the past, portrait-historical compositions), landscape ("historical landscape"), merges with the battle genre.

The historical genre is embodied in easel and monumental forms, in miniatures and illustrations. Originating in antiquity, the historical genre combined real historical events with myths. In countries ancient east there were even types of symbolic compositions (the apotheosis of the military victories of the monarch, the transfer of power to him by the deity) and narrative cycles of murals and reliefs.

In ancient Greece, there were sculptural images of historical heroes ( Tyrannicide, 477 BC), reliefs were created in Ancient Rome with scenes of military campaigns and triumphs ( Trajan's column in Rome, ca. 111-114). In the Middle Ages in Europe, historical events were reflected in the miniatures of the chronicles, in icons. The historical genre in easel painting began to take shape in Europe during the Renaissance, in the 17th and 18th centuries. it was considered as a "high" genre, bringing to the fore (religious, mythological, allegorical, actually historical plots). One of the first realistic easel paintings was Surrender of Breda Velazquez (1629-1631, Madrid, Prado). Pictures of the historical genre filled with dramatic content, high aesthetic ideals, depth of human relations: Tintoretto Battle of Zara(c. 1585, Venice, Doge's Palace), N. Poussin The Generosity of Scipio(1643, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), J. L. David Oath of the Horatii(1784, Paris, Louvre), E. Manet Execution Emperor Maximilian(1871, Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts). Early 19th century - a new stage in the development of the historical genre, which began with the emergence of romanticism, the rise of utopian expectations: E. Delacroix Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders(1840, Paris, Louvre), K. Bryullov The last day of Pompeii(1830–1833, St. Petersburg, Russian Museum), A.A. Ivanov Appearance of Christ to the People(1837–1857, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery). Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century. refers to the understanding of the historical tragedies of peoples and individuals: I.E. Repin Ivan Grozny and his son Ivan(1885, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), V.I. Surikov Menshikov in Berezov(1883, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery). In the art of the 20th century there is an interest in antiquity as a source of beauty and poetry: V.A. Serov Peter I(1907, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), artists of the "World of Art" association. Historical-revolutionary composition occupied a leading place in Soviet art: B.M. Kustodiev Bolshevik(1920, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery).

The genre of fine art dedicated to the heroes and events that the myths of ancient peoples tell about is called mythological genre(from the Greek. mythos - tradition). The mythological genre comes into contact with the historical and took shape in the Renaissance, when ancient legends provided the richest opportunities for the embodiment of stories and characters with complex ethical, often allegorical overtones: S. Botticelli Birth of Venus(c. 1484, Florence, Uffizi), A. Mantegna Parnassus(1497, Paris, Louvre), Giorgione sleeping Venus(c. 1508–1510, Dresden, Art Gallery), Raphael Athenian school(1509–1510, Rome, Vatican). In the 17th century - early 19th century in works mythological genre the circle of moral, aesthetic problems is expanding, which are embodied in high artistic ideals and either come close to life, or create a festive spectacle: N. Poussin Sleeping Venus(1620s, Dresden, Art Gallery), P.P. Rubens Bacchanalia(1619–1620, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), D. Velasquez Bacchus (Drunkards) (1628–1629, Madrid, Prado), Rembrandt Danae(1636, St. Petersburg, Hermitage), G. B. Tiepolo Triumph of Amphitrite(c. 1740, Dresden, Art Gallery). From the 19th–20th centuries the themes of Germanic, Celtic, Indian, Slavic myths became popular.

battle genre(from French bataille - battle) is a genre of painting that is part of the historical, mythological genre and specializes in depicting battles, military exploits, military operations, glorifying military prowess, the fury of battle, the triumph of victory. The battle may include elements of other genres - everyday, portrait, landscape, animalistic, still life. Artists regularly turned to the battle genre: Leonardo da Vinci Battle of Anghiari(not preserved), Michelangelo Battle of Kashin(not preserved), Tintoretto Battle of Zara(c. 1585, Venice, Doge's Palace), N. Poussin, A. Watteau The hardships of war(c. 1716, St. Petersburg, Hermitage), F. Goya Disasters of war(1810–1820), T. Gericault Wounded cuirassier(1814, Paris, Louvre), E. Delacroix Massacre in Chios(1824, Paris, Louvre), V.M. Vasnetsov After the battle of Igor Svyatoslavovich with Cumans(1880, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery).

A genre of fine art that shows scenes of everyday, personal life of a person, everyday life from peasant and urban life, is called everyday genre. An appeal to the life and customs of people is already found in the paintings and reliefs of the Ancient East, in ancient vase painting and sculpture, in medieval icons and hour books. But stood out and acquired characteristic forms everyday genre only as a phenomenon of secular easel art. Its main features began to take shape in the 14th-15th centuries. in altar paintings, reliefs, tapestries, miniatures in the Netherlands, Germany, France. In the 16th century in the Netherlands, the household genre began to develop rapidly and became isolated. One of its founders was I. Bosch ( Seven deadly sins, Madrid, Prado). The development of the everyday genre in Europe is very big influence had the work of P. Brueghel: he moves to a pure everyday genre, shows that everyday life can be an object of study and a source of beauty ( peasant dance, peasant wedding- OK. 1568, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum). 17th century can be called the age of "genre" in all the schools of painting in Europe: Michelangelo da Caravaggio fortune teller(Paris, Louvre), P.P. Rubens Peasant dance(1636–1640, Madrid, Prado), J. Jordanes Bean King Festival(c. 1638, St. Petersburg, Hermitage), A. van Ostade Flutist(c. 1660, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), Jan Steen Patient and doctor(c. 1660, Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum), F. Hals Gypsy(c. 1630, Paris, Louvre), Jan Vermeer of Delft Girl with a letter(late 1650s, Dresden, Art Gallery). In the 18th century in France, genre painting is associated with the image of gallant scenes, "pastorals", becomes refined and graceful, ironic: A. Watteau Bivouac(c. 1710, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), J.B. Chardin Prayer before dinner(c. 1737, St. Petersburg, Hermitage). The works of the everyday genre are diverse: they showed the warmth of domestic life and the exoticism of distant lands, sentimental experiences and romantic passions. Household genre in the 19th century. in painting, he asserted democratic ideals, often with critical overtones: O. Daumier Laundress(1863, Paris, Louvre), G. Courbet Artist's workshop(1855, Paris, Musee d'Orsay). Household genre, show-oriented peasant life and the life of a city dweller, developed vividly in Russian painting of the 19th century: A.G. Venetsianov On the arable land. Spring(1820s, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), P.A. Fedotov Major's matchmaking(1848, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), V.G. Perov The last tavern at the outpost(1868, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), I.E. Repin Didn't wait(1884, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery).

Genre of fine arts, where the main thing is the image of nature, environment, views of the countryside, cities, historical monuments, is called a landscape (fr. paysage). There are rural, urban landscape (including veduta), architectural, industrial, images of the water element - sea (marina) and river landscape

In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, the landscape appears in the paintings of temples, palaces, icons and miniatures. IN European art the first to turn to the image of nature were the Venetian painters of the Renaissance (A. Canaletto). From the 16th century the landscape becomes an independent genre, its varieties and directions are formed: lyrical, heroic, documentary landscape: P. Brueghel It's a nasty day (spring eve) (1565, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum), P.P. Rubens lion hunting(c. 1615, Munich, Alte Pinakothek), Rembrandt Landscape with a pond and an arched bridge(1638, Berlin-Dahlem), J. van Ruisdael forest swamp(1660s, Dresden, Art Gallery), N. Poussin Landscape with Polyphemus(1649, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), C. Lorrain Noon(1651, St. Petersburg, Hermitage), F. Guardi Piazza San Marco, view of the Basilica(c. 1760–1765, London, National Gallery). In the 19th century the creative discoveries of the masters of the landscape, its saturation with social issues, the development of the plein air (image of the natural environment) culminated in the achievements of impressionism, which gave new opportunities in the picturesque transmission of spatial depth, the variability of the light and air environment, the complexity of colors: Barbizons, C. Corot Morning in Venice(c. 1834, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), A.K. Savrasov The Rooks Have Arrived(1871, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), I.I. Shishkin Rye V.D. Polenov Moscow courtyard(1878, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), I.I. Levitan Golden autumn(1895, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), E. Manet Breakfast on the grass(1863, Paris, Louvre), C. Monet Boulevard Capuchin in Paris(1873, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), O. Renoir Paddling pool(1869, Stockholm, National Museum).

Marina(it. marina, from lat. marinus - sea) - one of the types of landscape, the object of which is the sea. The marina was formed as an independent genre in Holland at the beginning of the 17th century: J. Porsellis, S. de Vlieger, V. van de Velle, J. Vernet, W. Turner Funeral at sea(1842, London, Tate Gallery), C. Monet impression, sunrise sun(1873, Paris, Marmottan Museum), S.F. Shchedrin Small harbor in Sorrento(1826, Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery).

architectural landscape- a kind of landscape, one of the types of perspective painting, an image of real or imaginary architecture in the natural environment. big role in architectural landscape plays a linear and aerial perspective, linking nature and architecture. In the architectural landscape, urban perspective views are distinguished, which were called in the 18th century. vedutami (A. Canaletto, B. Bellotto, F. Guardi in Venice), views of estates, park ensembles with buildings, landscapes with ancient or medieval ruins (J. Robert; K. D. Friedrich Abbey in Oak grove, 1809–1810, Berlin, State Museum; S.F. Shchedrin), landscapes with imaginary buildings and ruins (D.B. Piranesi, D. Pannini).

Veduta(it. veduta, lit. - seen) - a landscape that accurately depicts a documented view of the area, city, one of the origins of panorama art. The term appeared in the 18th century, when a camera obscura was used to reproduce views. The leading artist who worked in this genre was A. Canaletto: Piazza San Marco(1727-1728, Washington, National Gallery).

A genre of fine art that shows household items, labor, creativity, flowers, fruits, slaughtered game, caught fish, placed in a real household environment, is called still life (fr. nature morte - dead nature). Still life can be endowed with a complex symbolic meaning, play the role of a decorative panel, be the so-called. "deceit", which gives an illusory reproduction of real objects or figures, causing the effect of the presence of genuine nature.

The image of objects is known in the art of antiquity and the Middle Ages. But the first still life in easel painting is considered to be a painting by the artist from Venice Jacopo de Barbari Partridge with arrow and gloves(1504, Munich, Alte Pinakothek). Already in the 16th century. still life is divided into many types: the interior of a kitchen with or without people, a laid table in a rural setting, "vanitas" with symbolic objects (a vase of flowers, an extinguished candle, musical instruments). In the 17th century the genre of still life is flourishing: the monumentality of the paintings by F. Snyders ( Still life with a swan, Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts), F. Zurbaran, who was simple compositions from a few items Still life with four vessels, 1632-1634, Madrid, Prado). He was especially rich dutch still life, modest in color and in the things depicted, but exquisite in the expressive texture of objects, in the play of color and light (P. Klas, V. Heda, V. Kalf, A. Beyeren). In the 18th century in the laconic still lifes of J.B. Chardin, the value and dignity hidden in everyday life: Art attributes(1766, St. Petersburg, Hermitage). Still lifes of the 19th century are varied: social overtones in the canvases of O. Daumier; transparency, airiness in the paintings of E. Manet; monumentality, constructiveness, accurate molding of the form with color by P. Cezanne. In the 20th century new possibilities of still life open up: P. Picasso, J. Braque made the subject the main object of an artistic experiment, studying and dissecting its geometric structure.

A genre of fine art depicting animals is called animal genre(from lat. animal - animal). The animal artist pays attention to the artistic and figurative characteristics of the animal, its habits, decorative expressiveness of the figure, silhouette. Often animals are endowed with traits inherent in people, actions and experiences. Images of animals are often found in ancient sculpture, vase painting.

Nina Bayor

Literature:

Suzdalev P. On the genres of painting.- magazine "Creativity", 1964, No. 2, 3
History of foreign art. M., Visual arts, 1984
Vipper B.R. Introduction to the historical study of art. M., Visual arts, 1985
History of world art. BMM AO, M., 1998

Painting is a type of fine art, the works of which are created using paints applied to a hard surface. IN works of art, created by painting, color and pattern, chiaroscuro, expressiveness of strokes, textures and compositions are used, which allows you to reproduce on the plane the colorful richness of the world, the volume of objects, their qualitative, material originality, spatial depth and light-air environment, can convey a state of static and a sense of temporary development, peace and emotional and spiritual richness, the transient instantaneousness of the situation, the effect of movement, etc.; in painting, a detailed narrative and a complex plot are possible. This allows painting not only to visually embody the visible phenomena of the real world, to show a broad picture of people's lives, but also to strive to reveal the essence historical processes, the inner world of man, to the expression of abstract ideas. Due to its vast ideological and artistic possibilities, painting is an important means of artistic reflection and interpretation of reality, has significant social content and various ideological functions.

The breadth and completeness of the coverage of reality are reflected in the abundance of genres inherent in painting (Historical genre, everyday genre, battle genre, portrait, landscape, still life). There are paintings: monumental-decorative (wall paintings, plafonds, panels), designed to decorate architecture and play an important role in the ideological and figurative interpretation of an architectural building; easel (paintings), usually not associated with any particular place in the artistic ensemble; scenery (sketches of theatrical and film scenery and costumes); iconography; miniature. Diorama and panorama also belong to the varieties of painting. According to the nature of the substances that bind the pigment (dye), according to the technological methods of fixing the pigment on the surface, oil painting differs. paints on water on plaster - raw (fresco) and dry (a secco), tempera, glue painting, wax painting, enamels, painting with ceramic and silicate paints, etc. and monumental painting are artistic tasks. Watercolor, gouache, pastel, and ink are also used to perform paintings.

Color is the most specific means of expression for painting. Its expression, the ability to evoke various sensual associations, enhances the emotionality of the image, determines the pictorial, expressive and decorative possibilities of painting. In works of painting, color forms an integral system (colour). Usually a series of interrelated colors and their shades is used (gamut colorful), although there is also painting with shades of the same color (monochrome). The color composition provides a certain coloristic unity of the work, affects the course of its perception by the viewer, being an essential part of its artistic structure. Another expressive means of painting is drawing (line and chiaroscuro), together with color, rhythmically and compositionally organizes the image; the line delimits volumes from each other, is often the constructive basis of the pictorial form, allows generalized or detailed reproduction of the outlines of objects and their smallest elements. Chiaroscuro allows not only to create the illusion of three-dimensional images, to convey the degree of illumination or darkness of objects, but also creates the impression of the movement of air, light and shadow. An important role in painting is also played by a colorful spot or stroke of the artist, which is his main technique and allows him to convey many aspects. The brushstroke contributes to the plastic, voluminous molding of the form, the transfer of its material character and texture, in combination with color, recreates the coloristic richness of the real world. The nature of the stroke (smooth, continuous or pasty, separate, nervous, etc.) also contributes to the creation of the emotional atmosphere of the work, the transfer of the immediate feeling and mood of the artist, his attitude to the depicted.

Conventionally, two types of pictorial representation are distinguished: linear-planar and volumetric-spatial, but there are no clear boundaries between them. Linear-planar painting is characterized by flat spots of local color, outlined by expressive contours, clear and rhythmic lines; in ancient and partly in modern painting, there are conditional methods of spatial construction and reproduction of objects that reveal to the viewer the semantic logic of the image, the placement of objects in space, but almost do not violate the two-dimensionality of the picturesque plane. The desire to reproduce the real world as a person sees it, which arose in ancient art, caused the appearance of volumetric-spatial images in painting. In painting of this type, spatial relationships can be reproduced by color, the illusion of deep three-dimensional space can be created, the pictorial plane can be visually destroyed with the help of tonal gradations, airy and linear perspective, by distributing warm and cold colors; volumetric forms are modeled by color and chiaroscuro. In volume-spatial and linear-planar images, the expressiveness of line and color is used, and the effect of volume, even sculpture, is achieved by gradation of light and dark tones distributed in a clearly limited color spot; at the same time, the coloring is often colorful, figures and objects do not merge with the surrounding space into a single whole. Tonal painting, with the help of a complex and dynamic development of color, shows the subtlest changes in both color and its tone depending on the lighting, as well as on the interaction of adjacent colors; the general tone unites objects with the surrounding light and air environment and space. In the painting of China, Japan, Korea, a special type of spatial image has developed, in which there is a feeling of an infinite space seen from above, with parallel lines going into the distance and not converging in depth; figures and objects are almost devoid of volume; their position in space is shown mainly by the ratio of tones.

A painting consists of a base (canvas, wood, paper, cardboard, stone, glass, metal, etc.), usually covered with a primer, and a paint layer, sometimes protected by a protective film of varnish. Fine and expressive possibilities painting, the features of the writing technique largely depend on the properties of paints, which are due to the degree of grinding of pigments and the nature of the binders, on the tool the artist works with, on the diluents used by him; the smooth or rough surface of the base and ground affects the methods of applying paints, the texture of paintings, and the translucent color of the base or ground affects color; sometimes paint-free parts of the base or ground can play a role in the color construction. The surface of the paint layer of a painting, that is, its texture, is glossy and matte, continuous or intermittent, smooth or uneven. The required color, shade is achieved both by mixing colors on the palette, and by glazing. The process of creating a picture or wall painting can be divided into several stages, especially clear and consistent in medieval tempera and classical oil painting (drawing on the ground, underpainting, glazing). There is painting of a more impulsive nature, which allows the artist to directly and dynamically embody his life impressions through the simultaneous work on drawing, composition, modeling of forms and color.

Painting arose in the late Paleolithic era (40-8 thousand years ago). Rock paintings have been preserved (in southern France, northern Spain, etc.), painted with earthen paints (ocher), black soot, and charcoal using split sticks, pieces of fur, and fingers (images of individual animals, and then hunting scenes). In Paleolithic painting, there are both linear-silhouette images and simple modeling of volumes, but the compositional principle in it is still poorly expressed. More developed, abstractly generalized ideas about the world were reflected in Neolithic painting, in which images are linked into narrative cycles, the image of a person appears.

The painting of the slave-owning society had an already developed figurative system, rich technical means. IN Ancient Egypt, and also in ancient America there was monumental painting, acting in synthesis with architecture. Associated mainly with the funeral cult, it had a detailed narrative character; the main place in it was occupied by a generalized and often schematic representation of a person. The strict canonization of images, which manifested itself in the features of the composition, the ratio of figures and reflected the rigid hierarchy that prevailed in society, was combined with bold and accurate life observations and an abundance of details drawn from the surrounding world (landscape, household utensils, images of animals and birds). Ancient painting, the main artistic and expressive means of which were the contour line and the color spot, had decorative qualities, its flatness was emphasized by the surface of the wall. M., 1997.

In ancient times, painting, acting in artistic unity with architecture and sculpture and decorating temples, dwellings, tombs, and other structures, served not only religious, but also secular purposes. New, specific possibilities of painting were revealed, giving a reflection of reality that is broad in terms of subject matter. In antiquity, the principles of chiaroscuro were born, peculiar variants of linear and aerial perspective. Along with the mythological, everyday and historical scenes, landscapes, portraits, still lifes were created. An antique fresco (on multi-layer plaster with an admixture of marble dust in the upper layers) had a shiny, glossy surface. In ancient Greece, there arose almost no preserved easel painting (on boards, less often on canvas), mainly in the encaustic technique; Faiyum portraits give some idea of ​​ancient easel painting.

In the Middle Ages in Western Europe, Byzantium, in Russia, the Caucasus and the Balkans, painting developed, religious in content: fresco (both on dry and wet plaster, applied to stone or brickwork), icon painting (on primed boards, mainly in egg tempera). ), as well as book miniatures (on primed parchment or paper; executed in tempera, watercolor, gouache, glue and other paints), which sometimes included historical plots. Icons, wall paintings (subject to architectural divisions and the plane of the wall), as well as mosaics, stained-glass windows, together with architecture, formed a single ensemble in church interiors. Medieval painting is characterized by the expression of a sonorous, predominantly local color and rhythmic line, the expressiveness of contours; the forms are usually planar, stylized, the background is abstract, often golden; there are also conditional methods of modeling volumes, as if protruding on a pictorial plane devoid of depth. The symbolism of composition and color played a significant role. In the 1st millennium A.D. e. monumental painting experienced a high rise (with glue paints on white gypsum or lime primer on clay-straw soil) in the countries of the Front and Central Asia, in India, China, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). In the feudal era in Mesopotamia, Iran, India, Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, the art of miniature developed, which is characterized by subtle brilliance, elegance of ornamental rhythm, and brightness of life observations. Far Eastern painting with ink, watercolor and gouache on scrolls of silk and paper - in China, Korea, Japan - was distinguished by poetry, amazing vigilance of the vision of people and nature, conciseness of the pictorial manner, the finest tonal transmission of aerial perspective.

In Western Europe, during the Renaissance, the principles of a new art based on a humanistic worldview, discovering and knowing the real world, were affirmed. The role of painting, which developed a system of means for a realistic depiction of reality, increased. Individual achievements of Renaissance painting were anticipated in the 14th century. Italian painter Giotto. The scientific study of perspective, optics and anatomy, the use of the oil painting technique improved by J. van Eyck (Netherlands) contributed to the disclosure of the possibilities inherent in the nature of painting: the convincing reproduction of three-dimensional forms in unity with the transfer of spatial depth and light environment, the disclosure of the color richness of the world. new bloom survived the fresco; The easel painting, which retained a decorative unity with the surrounding objective environment, also acquired great importance. The feeling of the harmony of the universe, the anthropocentrism of painting and the spiritual activity of its images are characteristic of compositions on religious and mythological themes, portraits, household and historical scenes, nude images. Tempera was gradually supplanted by a combined technique (glazing and elaboration of details with oil on tempera underpainting), and then technically perfect multi-layer oil-lacquer painting without tempera. Along with smooth, detailed painting on boards with white ground (characteristic of the artists of the Netherlandish school and a number of schools of the Italian Early Renaissance), the Venetian school of painting developed in the 16th century. techniques of free, impasto painting on canvases with colored grounds. Simultaneously with painting with a local, often bright color, with clear pattern developed and tonal painting Major painters Renaissance - Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto in Italy, J. van Eyck, P. Brueghel the Elder in the Netherlands, A. Durer, H. Holbein the Younger, M. Nithardt (Grunewald) in Germany and others.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the process of development of European painting became more complicated. National schools were formed in France (J. de Latour, F. Champigne, N. Poussin, A. Watteau, J. B. S. Chardin, J. O. Fragonard, J. L. David), Italy (M. Caravaggio, D. Fetti, J. B. Tiepolo, J. M. Crespi, F. Guardi), Spain (El Greco, D. Velazquez, F. Zurbaran, B. E. Murillo, F. Goya), Flanders (P. P. . Rubens, J. Jordaens, A. van Dyck, F. Snyders), Holland (F. Hals, Rembrandt, J. Vermeer, J. van Ruisdael, G. Terborch, K. Fabricius), Great Britain (J. Reynolds, T Gainsborough, W. Hogarth), Russia (F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky). proclaimed new social and civic ideals, turned to a more detailed and accurate depiction of real life in its movement and diversity, especially the everyday environment of a person (landscape, interior, household items); psychological problems deepened, the feeling of a conflicting relationship between the individual and the world around him was embodied. In the 17th century the system of genres expanded and clearly took shape. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Along with monumental and decorative painting (especially in the Baroque style), which was flourishing, existed in close unity with sculpture and architecture and created an emotional environment that actively affected people, easel painting played an important role. Various painting systems were formed, as having a commonality of stylistic features (dynamic baroque painting with its characteristic open, spiral composition; classicism painting with a clear, strict and clear pattern; rococo painting with a play of exquisite nuances of color, light and faded tones), and not within a certain style framework. In an effort to reproduce the brilliance of the world, the light and air environment, many artists improved the system of tonal painting. This caused the individualization of the techniques of multilayer oil painting. The growth of easel art, the growing need for works designed for intimate contemplation, led to the development of chamber, thin and light, painting techniques - pastels, watercolors, ink, various types of portrait miniatures.

In the 19th century new national schools of the realistic were emerging. painting in Europe and America. The connections of painting in Europe and other parts of the world were expanding, where the experience of European realistic painting received an original interpretation, often on the basis of local ancient traditions (in India, China, Japan, and other countries); European painting was influenced by the art of the Far Eastern countries (mainly Japan and China), which affected the renewal of the methods of decorative and rhythmic organization of the pictorial plane. In the 19th century painting solved complex and urgent worldview problems, played an active role in public life; sharp criticism of social reality acquired great importance in painting. Throughout the 19th century the canons of academism, the abstract idealization of images, were also cultivated in painting; naturalistic tendencies emerged. In the fight against the abstractness of late classicism and salon academism, romanticism painting developed with its active interest in the dramatic events of history and modernity, the energy of the pictorial language, the contrast of light and shadow, and the saturation of color (T. Géricault, E. Delacroix in France; F. O. Runge and K. D. Friedrich in Germany, in many ways O. A. Kiprensky, Sylvester Shchedrin, K. P. Bryullov, A. A. Ivanov in Russia). Realistic painting, based on direct observation of the characteristic phenomena of reality, comes to a more complete, concretely reliable, visually convincing depiction of life (J. Constable in Great Britain; C. Corot, master of the Barbizon school, O. Daumier in France; A. G. Venetsianov, P. A. Fedotov in Russia). During the period of the rise of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in Europe, the painting of democratic realism (G. Courbet, J. F. Millet in France; M. Munkachi in Hungary, N. Grigorescu and I. Andreescu in Romania, A. Menzel, V. Leibl in Germany, etc.) showed the life and work of the people, their struggle for their rights, turned to the most important events in national history, created vivid images of ordinary people and leading public figures; Schools of national realistic landscape emerged in many countries. The painting of the Wanderers and artists close to them - V. G. Perov, I. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. V. I. I. Levitan.

The artistic embodiment of the surrounding world in its naturalness and constant variability comes in the early 1870s. impressionist painting (E. Manet, C. Monet, O. Renoir, C. Pissarro, A. Sisley, E. Degas in France), which updated the technique and methods of organizing the pictorial surface, revealing the beauty of pure color and texture effects. In the 19th century in Europe, oil painting dominated, its technique in many cases acquired an individual, free character, gradually losing its inherent strict systematicity (which was facilitated by the spread of new factory-made paints); the palette expanded (new pigments and binders were created); instead of dark colored primers at the beginning of the 19th century. white soils were again introduced. Monumental and decorative painting, which used in the XIX century. almost exclusively glue or oil paints, fell into disrepair. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. attempts are being made to revive monumental painting and to merge different types of painting with works of arts and crafts and architecture into a single ensemble (mainly in "modern" art); the technical means of monumental and decorative painting are being updated, the technique of silicate painting is being developed.

At the end of XIX - XX centuries. the development of painting becomes especially complex and contradictory; various realist and modernist currents coexist and fight. Inspired by the ideals of the October Revolution of 1917, armed with the method of socialist realism, painting is intensively developing in the USSR and other socialist countries. New schools of painting are emerging in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Latin America.

Realistic painting of the late XIX - XX centuries. is distinguished by the desire to know and show the world in all its contradictions, to reveal the essence of the deep processes taking place in social reality, which sometimes do not have a sufficiently visual appearance; the reflection and interpretation of many phenomena of reality often acquired a subjective, symbolic character. 20th century along with the visual-visible volumetric-spatial method of depiction, he widely uses new (as well as dating back to antiquity), conditional principles for interpreting the visible world. Already in the painting of post-impressionism (P. Cezanne, V. van Gogh, P. Gauguin, A. Toulouse-Lautrec) and partly in the painting of "modern" features were emerging that determined the features of some trends of the 20th century. (an active expression of the artist's personal relationship to the world, the emotionality and associativity of color, which has little to do with natural color relationships, exaggerated forms, decorativeness). The world was comprehended in a new way in the art of Russian painters of the late XIX - early XX centuries - in the paintings of V. A. Serov, M. A. Vrubel, K. A. Korovin.

In the XX century. reality is contradictory, and often deeply subjective, realized and translated into painting by the greatest artists of the capitalist countries: P. Picasso, A. Matisse, F. Léger, A. Marquet, A. Derain in France; D. Rivera, J. C. Orozco, D. Siqueiros in Mexico; R. Guttuso in Italy; J. Bellows, R. Kent in the USA. In paintings, wall paintings, picturesque panels, a truthful understanding of the tragic contradictions of reality has found expression, often turning into a denunciation of the deformities of the capitalist system. The aesthetic understanding of the new, “technical” era is associated with the reflection of the pathos of the industrialization of life, the penetration into painting of geometric, “machine” forms, to which organic forms are often reduced, the search for new forms that meet the worldview of modern man, which can be used in decorative art, architecture and industry. Widespread in painting, mainly capitalist countries, since the beginning of the 20th century. received various modernist trends, reflecting the general crisis of the culture of bourgeois society; however, the "sick" problems of our time are also indirectly reflected in modernist painting. In the painting of many modernist movements (fauvism, cubism, futurism, dadaism, and later surrealism), individual more or less easily recognizable elements of the visible world are fragmented or geometrized, appear in unexpected, sometimes illogical combinations that give rise to many associations, merge with purely abstract forms. The further evolution of many of these trends led to a complete rejection of figurativeness, to the emergence of abstract painting (see Abstract Art), which marked the collapse of painting as a means of reflecting and cognizing reality. Since the mid 60s. in Western Europe and America, painting sometimes becomes one of the elements of pop art.

In the XX century. the role of monumental-decorative painting, both pictorial (for example, revolutionary-democratic monumental painting in Mexico) and non-pictorial, usually planar, in harmony with the geometrized forms of modern architecture, is growing.

In the XX century. there is a growing interest in research in the field of painting techniques (including wax and tempera; new paints are invented for monumental painting - silicone, on organosilicon resins, etc.), but oil painting still prevails.

Multinational Soviet painting is closely connected with communist ideology, with the principles of party spirit and folk art, it represents a qualitatively new stage in the development of painting, which is determined by the triumph of the method of socialist realism. In the USSR, painting is developing in all the Union and Autonomous Republics, and new national schools of painting are emerging. Soviet painting is characterized by a keen sense of reality, the materiality of the world, and the spiritual richness of images. The desire to embrace socialist reality in all its complexity and completeness led to the use of many genre forms, which are filled with new content. Already since the 20s. the historical and revolutionary theme acquires special significance (the canvases of M. B. Grekov, A. A. Deineka, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, B. V. Ioganson, I. I. Brodsky, A. M. Gerasimov). Then patriotic canvases appear, telling about the heroic past of Russia, showing the historical drama of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, the spiritual stamina of the Soviet people.

A large role in the development of Soviet painting is played by the portrait: collective images of people from the people, participants in the revolutionary reorganization of life (A. E. Arkhipov, G. G. Rizhsky and others); psychological portraits showing the inner world, the spiritual warehouse of the Soviet person (M. V. Nesterov, S. V. Malyutin, P. D. Korin, etc.).

The typical way of life of Soviet people is reflected in genre painting, which gives a poetic and vivid image of new people and a new way of life. Soviet painting is characterized by large canvases imbued with the pathos of socialist construction (S. V. Gerasimov, A. A. Plastov, Yu. I. Pimenov, T. N. Yablonskaya, and others). The aesthetic affirmation of the peculiar forms of life of the Union and Autonomous Republics underlies the national schools that have developed in Soviet painting (M. S. Saryan, L. Gudiashvili, S. A. Chuikov, U. Tansykbaev, T. Salakhov, E. Iltner, M. A Savitsky, A. Gudaitis, A. A. Shovkunenko, G. Aitiev, and others), representing the integral parts of the unified artistic culture of the Soviet socialist society.

In landscape painting, as in other genres, national artistic traditions are combined with the search for something new, with a modern sense of nature. The lyrical line of Russian landscape painting (V. N. Baksheev, N. P. Krymov, N. M. Romadin and others) is complemented by the development of the industrial landscape with its rapid rhythms, with the motives of transformed nature (B. N. Yakovlev, G. G. . Nissky). Still life painting reached a high level (I. I. Mashkov, P. P. Konchalovsky, M. S. Saryan).

The evolution of the social functions of painting is accompanied by the general development of painting culture. Within the boundaries of a single realistic method, Soviet painting achieves a variety of artistic forms, techniques, and individual styles. The wide scope of construction, the creation of large public buildings and memorial ensembles contributed to the development of monumental and decorative painting (works by V. A. Favorsky, E. E. Lansere, P. D. Korin), the revival of the technique of tempera painting, frescoes and mosaics. In the 60s - early 80s. the mutual influence of monumental and easel painting has increased, the desire to maximize the use and enrich the expressive means of painting has increased (see also the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and articles about the Soviet union republics) Vipper BR Articles about art. M., 1970.

Thus, painting is a type of fine art associated with the transmission of visual images by applying paints on a solid or flexible base, as well as creating an image using digital technology.