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Architecture

Architecture is the art of construction, the ability to design and create cities, residential buildings, public and industrial buildings, squares and streets, gardens and parks. In many cities of our country you will find ancient kremlins and churches, palaces and mansions, modern buildings of theaters, libraries, youth palaces, in front of which you will want to stop and take a closer look.

You would also stand in a museum in front of an interesting painting or sculpture. This is because buildings and streets, squares and parks, rooms and halls with their beauty can also excite the imagination and feelings of a person, like other works of art. Masterpieces of architecture are remembered as symbols of peoples and countries. The whole world knows the Kremlin and Red Square in Moscow, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and the ancient Acropolis in Athens. However, unlike other arts, people not only contemplate works of architecture, but also constantly use them. Architecture surrounds us and forms a spatial environment for people's life and activities. These are the houses where you live; schools, technical schools, institutes where you study; in theaters, circuses and cinema - you have fun; in gardens, parks and courtyards - relax. Your parents work in factories and institutions; shops, canteens, train stations, and subways are constantly filled with visitors. It’s hard to even imagine how you can do without these and many other structures.

The diversity of architecture depends not only on the creative imagination of the architect (as the architect was called in Rus'), but also on the construction conditions: warm or cold climate, flat or mountainous terrain, the capabilities of construction equipment, wooden, stone or metal structures, aesthetic tastes of residents and much more. . Construction uses the labor of people of many professions - masons, designers, scientists and artists. They all work under the guidance of an architect. (Architect in Greek means "chief builder.") A person in this profession must have great technical and artistic knowledge. Admiring the Gothic cathedral, the Moscow Kremlin or the bicycle track in Krylatskoye, we admire not only the unique beauty of these structures, but also the work and skill of the builders.

Even in ancient times, the tasks of architecture were determined by three qualities - usefulness, durability, beauty. Each building must be useful and meet its intended purpose. This is manifested both in its external appearance and in the character of its internal premises. A residential building, a theater and an educational institution are three different types of buildings. Each of them has its own purpose, and each building must be comfortable: in one case - for housing, in another - for showing performances, in a third - for study. It is also important that each of them is durable and strong. After all, buildings are created not for one year, but for a long time. But architecture would not become art if the third important requirement was ignored - beauty.

Man's well-known desire for beauty inspires the creative imagination of the architect to search for ever new unusual architectural forms, the uniqueness of the appearance and the brightness of the artistic image of the building. So we see a variety of buildings, both ancient and modern. Take, for example, multi-story residential buildings: one is tall, like a tower, another is in the form of a long straight plate, the third bends in a circle. They have the same purpose and similar designs, they are designed for the same climate, they are located in the same city, but the architect’s imagination for each of them found its own form, its own color scheme. This is how structures arise with their own individual features, by which we recognize them. And each building makes its own impression: one has a solemn, festive appearance, another - strict, the third - lyrical. Architectural monuments belonging to different eras and countries differ from each other in appearance or style, just as the living conditions and artistic tastes of the people of those times differed. Look at the pictures and you will see for yourself.

A bright period in the history of Russian architecture was the mid-18th century. This is the time of rapid construction of palaces, large temples, the heyday of the Baroque style. The largest architect, who largely determined the style of buildings of that time, was V.V. Rastrelli (1700-1771). The facades of its buildings, painted in white, blue and gold, are unusually elegant. The enfilade of halls, richly decorated with stucco, and the wooden mosaic floors of rare beauty are magnificent. The best buildings of V.V. Rastrelli are the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (now the city of Pushkin), the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof. On the island of Kizhi in Lake Onega, the wooden Transfiguration Church (1714), the bell tower (1874) and the Intercession Church (1764), built without a single nail, have been preserved. Eiffel Tower in Paris. It was designed in the mid-19th century. engineer Gustave Eiffel. The originality, boldness of the design and architectural form made the tower famous.

Topic: Architecture and its features

1. History of the origin of the term

2. Types and features of architecture

3. Characteristics of three outstanding architectural monuments of the classical era

Literature

1. History of the origin of the term

Architecture translated from Latin - to build, to erect - architecture, the art of designing and building.

Architecture can express in artistic images a person’s ideas about the world, time, greatness, joy, triumph, loneliness and many other feelings. This is probably why they say that architecture is frozen music.

There are three main types of architecture: volumetric structures (religious, public, industrial, residential and other buildings); landscape architecture (gazebos, bridges, fountains and stairs for squares, boulevards, parks); urban planning - the creation of new cities and the reconstruction of old ones. Complexes of buildings and open spaces make up architectural ensembles. An architect must take care of the beauty, usefulness and strength of the structures being created, in other words, aesthetic, constructive and functional qualities in architecture are interconnected.

In different historical periods, various building materials and technologies were used, which significantly influenced the creation of architectural structures. The current level of technological development, the use of reinforced concrete, glass, plastics and other new materials make it possible to create unusual building shapes in the form of a ball, spiral, flower, shell, ear, etc.

Architectural structures reflect the artistic style of the era, just like works of any other art form. In its artistic and figurative side, architecture differs from simple construction.

2. Types and features of architecture

1. ANTIQUE (from Latin - ancient) - the art of ancient times; the art of Ancient Greece, as well as those countries and peoples of the ancient world whose culture developed under the determining influence of the ancient Greek cultural tradition: the art of the Hellenistic states, Rome and the Etruscans.

The concept of “ancient art” appeared during the Renaissance, when the beautiful creations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome were considered exemplary, classic for the entire European culture.

Ancient Greek architects made an invaluable contribution to world art. They created a strict and majestic type of rectangular temple, surrounded on all sides by columns (peripter), and a strict, logically based system of relationships between the load-bearing and non-supporting parts of the building (order)

Monuments of ancient Greek art give us aesthetic pleasure and a vivid idea of unity and synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

2. BAROQUE (from Italian - whimsical) - an artistic style that predominated from the late 16th to the mid-18th centuries. in the art of Europe. This style originated in Italy and spread to other countries after the RENAISSANCE era. The main features of Baroque are pomp, solemnity, splendor, dynamism, and life-affirming character. Baroque art is characterized by bold contrasts of scale, light and shadow, color, and a combination of reality and fantasy. It is especially necessary to note in the Baroque style the fusion of various arts in a single ensemble, a large degree of interpenetration of architecture, sculpture, painting and decorative arts. This desire for a synthesis of arts is a fundamental feature of the Baroque.

Baroque architecture is distinguished by its spatial scope, fluidity of curvilinear forms, merging of volumes into a dynamic mass, rich sculptural decoration, and connection with the surrounding space.

In Russia, the reforms of Peter 1 contributed to the spread and flourishing of the Baroque style, however, Russian Baroque chose the traditions of 17th century classicism and the features of Rococo, so it was distinguished by great originality of forms, whimsical elegance of decor, special pomp and solemnity (B. Rastrelli. Winter Palace in St. -Petersburg, Grand Palace in Tsarskoe Selo).

3. GOTHIC - an artistic style that arose in the mid-12th century in France and spread to Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe. It addressed the highest divine powers, eternity, and the Christian worldview.

The leading place in Gothic art was occupied by the cathedral, around which the life of the townspeople was centered. The structural basis of the cathedral was a frame of pillars and pointed arches resting on them. The upward direction is emphasized by giant openwork towers, high pointed arches, portals and windows, numerous elongated statues, and rich decorative details.

The Gothic style united artistic household items, furniture, clothing, jewelry and architecture into a single ensemble. In the 15-16th centuries. The Gothic era is replaced by the RENAISSANCE era.

The Renaissance covers the 14th-16th centuries. in Italy, 15-16 centuries. in other European countries. This period in the development of culture received its name - revival (or Renaissance) in connection with the revival of interest in ancient art.

Gothic Notre Dame Cathedral. Paris.

4. CLASSICISM (from Latin - exemplary) - artistic style of European art of the 17-19 centuries. , one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest example and reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance.

The architecture of classicism is characterized by an order system inspired by ancient examples, clarity and geometric correctness of volumes and layouts, porticoes, columns, statues, and reliefs that stand out on the surface of the walls.

An outstanding masterpiece of architecture, combining classicism and baroque into a single solemn style, was the palace and park ensemble at Versailles - the residence of the French kings (second half of the 17th century).

Russian classicism in the second half of the 18th and 19th centuries. embodied a new flowering of culture, unprecedented in scope, national pathos and ideal fullness: architectural ensembles and structures of V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov, A. Zakharov, K. Rossi.

5. MODERN (from French - modern) - artistic style in European and American art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (another name for art n u v o).

Art Nouveau style should be distinguished both from the general meaning of the word “modern” and from the concept of modernism. The main feature of the Art Nouveau style is decorativeness, the main motif is a climbing plant, the main principle is the likening of a man-made form to a natural one and vice versa. This was reflected in the architecture, in the details of buildings, in the ornament, which received extraordinary development.

The lines of the ornament carried a tension of spiritual, emotional and symbolic meaning.

Art Nouveau architecture revealed an organic fusion of structural and decorative elements. The most complete examples of the synthesis of arts are provided by mansions, pavilions, and public buildings of the Art Nouveau era. As a rule, they are built from the inside out.

3. Characteristics of three outstanding architectural monuments of the classical era

St. Isaac's Cathedral is the most outstanding monument of the era of late Russian classicism. Its majestic, monumental forms, richly designed plastic facades, richness of the interior with various types of fine arts, and above all painting and sculpture, invariably attract attention.

In terms of its grandiose dimensions (its height is 101.5 meters), St. Isaac's Cathedral is one of the largest domed structures in Europe. It is second only to St. Peter's in Rome and is almost equal in size to St. Paul in London.

Located in the very center of the city, St. Isaac's Cathedral dominates the ensembles of its two main squares - Decembrists (former Senate Square) and St. Isaac's. In addition, it largely determines the silhouette of the city and is clearly visible in the perspective of numerous streets, avenues, squares and embankments.

The creation of the existing St. Isaac's Cathedral was preceded by a long history of the construction of St. Isaac's Church, dating back to the first years of the existence of St. Petersburg and associated with the name of its founder - Peter the Great.

In 1710, in honor of the then Tsar Peter I, born on May 30, 1672, on St. Isaac of Dalmatia, St. Isaac's Church was built on the Admiralty Meadow, opposite the Admiralty Tower. It was located on the very spot where the fountain was built much later. The church was wooden, one-story, with a single-tier bell tower topped with a spire, and a small dome on a drum marking the location of the altar. The church was rebuilt from the Admiralty drafting room, which occupied a separate building.

In 1712, Peter I got married in this church, and five years later, in 1717, the stone St. Isaac's Church was founded, but in a new place, and closer to the Neva River. This place is now marked by a monument to Peter the Great - the famous Bronze Horseman.

The church took ten years to build, but did not last long. Located near the river, it suffered from the Neva waters, which eroded the foundation during periods of frequent floods. Cracks appeared in the cathedral's structures, and after a fire in 1735, they decided to dismantle it.

In the middle of the 18th century, during the reign of Catherine II, instead of the dismantled St. Isaac's Church, St. Isaac's Cathedral began to be built - much further from the Neva, on the current St. Isaac's Square. The author of the project for the new building, architect Antonio Rinaldi, designed it to be five-domed, with a multi-tiered bell tower on the western façade. The facades of the cathedral were supposed to be faced with multi-colored marble. Laid down in 1768, towards the end of the 18th century. it was rebuilt only up to the cornice. Paul I, who succeeded Catherine II on the throne, ordered the court architect Vincenzo Brenna to complete the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral using the minimum possible means. Therefore, the cathedral was completed as a single-domed cathedral, with a bell tower shortened by half, and only half remained covered with marble. In such an unsightly form, the cathedral was consecrated in 1802.

In subsequent years, the question of changing the appearance of St. Isaac's Cathedral was repeatedly raised. In 1809 and 1813 Competitions were announced for its reconstruction project. But none of them gave positive results.

In 1816, Alexander I turned to General Betancourt with a request to recommend an architect who could carry out the reconstruction of St. Isaac's Cathedral. Betancourt's choice settled on the young Montferrand. During 1816-1817 the architect developed a number of options for the cathedral, one of which was taken as the basis for further work. The first approved project was completed in 1818.

Simultaneously with the approval of the Montferrand project, a special Commission for the reconstruction of St. Isaac's Cathedral is created from high-ranking government officials. Thus, from the first days of construction, the cathedral was given great importance. Since the spring of 1818, preparatory work has been underway to rebuild St. Isaac's Cathedral. The reconstruction began with the procurement of materials, excavation work, driving piles and installing an additional foundation. Work continued continuously even in winter. In particular, according to the invoice presented to the Commission by the contractor peasant Evdokim Farafontiev, from January 1 to March 15, 1819, 4,245 people were employed in driving piles alone.

In the second year of construction, the official foundation of the cathedral was planned. For this purpose, Montferrand proposed placing a silver plaque with the text he composed, as well as medals, gold and silver coins, at the base of the new foundation. But Alexander I ordered the medal not to be stamped out; there was no ceremony to be done during the embedding; instead of a silver embedding board, a copper one should be placed. The foundation stone of St. Isaac's Cathedral according to Montferrand's design took place on July 26, 1819.

To more successfully carry out construction work, in 1818, in accordance with Montferrand’s drawings and under his direct supervision, they began to manufacture a large split model of the cathedral. Basically, the model was supposed to be carved from linden, and the cornice and columns from pear wood. If the bas-reliefs were made of plaster, then the round sculpture, capitals and ornaments were made of bronze. The domes were made of gilded bronze.

Carpenter I. Gerber, sculptors P. I. Bryullo, P. V. Svintsov, painter F. P. Bryullo and others took part in the work on making the model. Started in 1818, the model was completed in 1821. Subsequently, As the project was improved, appropriate changes were made to the model, without, however, affecting its main structures. The model was located in one of the rooms of the nearby Lobanov-Rostovsky house, built according to Montferrand’s design. Currently it is kept in the Research Museum of the Academy of Arts.

Simultaneously with the production of the model in 1820, Montferrand released an album of engraved drawings of St. Isaac's Cathedral. This provided the opportunity for a broad discussion of the project. A member of the Committee for Buildings and Hydraulic Works, Montferrand's compatriot, architect A. Mauduit, who arrived in St. Petersburg back in 1808, sharply criticized the design of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

At the Academy of Arts, headed by President A. N. Olenin, a commission was created to consider the Montferrand project. The architect had to prove that the design of the solid foundation he proposed was quite reliable, and that it was quite possible to connect the old and new masonry together. However, he admitted that the design of the dome on a drum, supported by pillars built at different times, was not very successful. But here the emperor’s unyielding will to preserve the old parts of the Rinaldi Cathedral was reflected.

Meetings of the commission at the Academy of Arts, whose task was to correct the design of St. Isaac's Cathedral, ended with a competition. Montferrand also took part in it on an equal basis with everyone. Numerous projects were submitted to the competition, including those by architects V.P. Stasov, A.A. Mikhailov II, A.I. Melnikov. But Montferrand’s new project turned out to be the best and was approved on April 3, 1825. Construction work, interrupted for several years, resumed according to the newly approved project.

Montferrand paid special attention to the foundations of the cathedral. The architect came to the conclusion that when building on marshy St. Petersburg soil, such a massive structure as St. Isaac's Cathedral requires a solid foundation that evenly transfers the loads of support pillars, walls and porticos of varying magnitude to the ground.

The foundation design was developed by Montferrand together with engineer Betancourt. It was a new word in the construction practice of that time.

First, they dug a deep pit from which water was continuously pumped out. At the same time, cast-iron women drove resin-impregnated pine piles more than six meters long and at least a quarter meter in diameter into the soil. The piles were driven at an equal distance between them, equal to their diameter, until they stopped going into the ground. The earth between the piles was compacted to the hardness of stone. Then the piles had to be cut to the same level as the old ones. To this end, Montferrand proposed to stop pumping out the water constantly flowing into the pit, and when it reached the desired level, it was pumped out again and new piles were cut evenly at the resulting mark. After filling the gaps between the piles with compacted charcoal, instead of the wooden beams usually used in such cases to evenly distribute the pressure on the piles, carefully adjusted stone slabs with lime mortar were laid in two rows. With this foundation design, the old and new parts were firmly connected to each other. In total, it took more than five years to construct the foundations.

At the same time, granite monoliths were prepared for the columns of the four porticos and marble for cladding the facades and interior of the cathedral. The Tivdia and Ruskolsky marble scraps were handed over to the Commission for the Reconstruction of St. Isaac's Cathedral. The first were located in the Petrozavodsk district of the Olonets province, and the second - in the Serdobol district of the Vyborg province. Light and dark red marble was mined at the Tivdiyskiye scraps, and light gray marble with bluish veins was mined at the Ruskolskiye mines.

Montferrand developed a design for devices for transporting monoliths, in which Betancourt helped him. In particular, Betancourt proposed the design of special gates (capstans).

After the monoliths were delivered, they were rolled into specially built sheds, where they were finally processed before installation.

For the sake of convenience of work, although contrary to established traditions, Montferrand proposed installing the columns of the porticoes before the construction of the walls. For each of the four porticoes, separate scaffolding was made, on top of which blocks were fixed with ropes thrown over them. The same capstans served as lifting mechanisms.

Of particular interest was the raising and installation of the first column, located on the eastern corner of the northern portico. An unprecedented spectacle took place on March 20, 1828 in the presence of the imperial family. To commemorate this event, a platinum medal with a profile image of Alexander I was placed under the column. Using sixteen capstans, the column was installed in forty-five minutes.

Over the following months, the remaining fifteen columns of the northern portico were installed. All work on the installation of columns was completed in 1830.

The walls were laid with brick and lime mortar. For greater reliability, the brickwork alternated with stone layers. Marble cladding was attached to the main masonry outside and inside with metal brackets. Construction was carried out simultaneously along the entire perimeter of the building. The construction of the walls to the level of the portico columns was completed in 1836. The crucial moment for the construction of the floors had arrived. According to the original design, it was supposed to cover the middle parts of the porticoes with box vaults, and leave the side parts flat with caissons, as in the Roman Pantheon. The proportions of the porticoes were also maintained in accordance with the outstanding ancient monument. Such borrowing of the best examples of the past in the era of classicism was considered a manifestation of good taste. However, Montferrand did not blindly copy these samples.

Based on the most advanced achievements of construction technology of that time, he was able to create his own design, different from the previous ones. He replaced traditional brick vaults with fully prefabricated cast iron trusses, connecting them with lightweight metal rods to the rafters that support the roof. At the same time, they were securely fastened to the main brickwork and marble cladding. Thanks to lightweight metal structures, Montferrand eliminated lateral thrust and reduced the load on load-bearing columns and walls.

The architect made all the structural changes to the porticos in the new, third, highest approved project, dated February 14, 1835.

By the end of 1837, when the base of the dome drum was erected, the installation of the upper colonnade began. To do this, Montferrand was forced to develop another unusual scaffolding design, designed to lift twenty-four columns, each weighing sixty-four tons, to a considerable height. The entire process of lifting and installing one column on the base of the drum lasted two hours, despite the fact that approximately three hundred people were involved in the work. However, if the first column was put in place at the beginning of November 1837, then the last one only two months later.

Now it was possible to begin the construction of the most important and complex part of the cathedral - the dome on the drum. But before starting the detailed development of the dome completion, Montferrand again turned to the rich experience of his predecessors. He thoroughly, with a pencil in his hands, studied the designs of the domes of famous buildings in Florence and Rome, London and Paris, as well as St. Petersburg. As a result, instead of the usual brick vaults found in previous projects, the architect proposed his own design of three interconnected fully prefabricated metal shells, thereby significantly ahead of not only his predecessors, but also his contemporaries. If the architect’s senior contemporary, the architect A. N. Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, was the first in St. Petersburg to create a metal outer dome while preserving two internal brick vaults, then Montferrand is the author of the first all-metal spatial structure of vaults connected together.

The main significance of Montferrand's invention was that the metal structures of the dome turned out to be several times lighter than solid brick vaults. In addition, in the explanatory note attached to the working drawings for construction work in 1838-1840, the architect indicated that the construction of the dome according to the new project would save two million rubles - an astronomical amount at that time.

Alexander Nevsky Lavra

Historical and artistic monument, founded by Peter I as the “Monastery of the Life-Giving Trinity and the Holy Blessed Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky” in honor of the victory over the Swedes in the Battle of Neva 1240, and in 1724 moved to the newly built Annunciation - Alexander Nevsky Church (architect D. Trezzini) from Vladimir the remains of Yaroslav Yaroslavovich. In terms of its significance, the monastery was placed by Peter I above all Orthodox monasteries in Russia and trained clergy for high places in the church hierarchy. The Theological Academy, opened at the monastery, still operates today. In 1797, the monastery was transformed into a monastery, which houses a large historical archive and library. In 1932, a museum was founded in the Lavra - the Necropolis, which includes the Lazarevskoye and Tikhvin cemeteries, where the graves of many prominent people of Russia and the Annunciation Church - a burial vault are located. The museum presents a rich collection of original author's models and designs of monuments, artistic tombstones by outstanding sculptors and architects of the 18th - 19th centuries.

Palace of Beloselsky-Belozersky

The Beloselsky-Belozersky Palace is an architectural monument of the 18th - 19th centuries. Until 1846, in its place there was a small house (1800s, architect F.I. Demertsov), the first owner of which was Senator Myatlev. The Myatlev House changed hands more than once until it came into the possession of the Beloselsky-Belozersky family, by whose order it was rebuilt into an eclectic style palace using Russian Baroque architecture forms of the 18th century. (architect A.I. Stackenschneider, sculptor I.E. Jensen). Since 1884, the palace belonged to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich and was called Sergievsky. After the revolution, the Kuibyshev Republican Committee of the CPSU was located in the building. The palace, with its porticoes of columns and pilasters and arched pediments, is a unique asset of Nevsky Prospekt. Sculptural ornaments and figures of Atlanteans give the building a special palace pomp and splendor. The interiors of the palace are made in the Rococo style. The palace has a small, luxuriously decorated concert hall, where concerts of Russian and foreign music are regularly held.

List of usesliterature

1. http://kanikuly.spb.ru/tour_muzei.htm

2. http://www.nwhotels.ru/services/excursions/foreign...

3. http://povschola.edurm.ru/nov.htm

30.01.2019

Ferrari World- the largest closed thematic object in the world. Its length reaches 700 m, total area - 176 thousand sq.m. Located in Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates).

Burj Dubai- the world's tallest structure, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. Located in Dubai (UAE). At the official opening ceremony, it was renamed Burj Khalifa in honor of Sheikh and at the same time President of the UAE Khalifa bin Zayed al-Nahyan.

- In his best! The project was presented by Kobi Karp. Construction is planned on Watson Island (USA, Miami). The announcement of the project states that this tower, which has a height of 975 meters, will be able to easily remove the crown from Dubai. According to official data, the 160-storey eco-city of Miapolis will be more than 183 meters higher than the famous Dubai giant Burj Khalifa. The building will include countless entertainment and residential spaces.

The Cleveland Clinic is the Lowe Ruvo Center for Brain Health. Original name - . The unusual building is located in Las Vegas (USA). The author of the project is Frank Gehry. The project consists of two blocks and is estimated at $100 million. The research center is located in one wing, and the patient rooms are in the other.

- skyscraper-waterfall, “Sunny City” tower. It is being built for the 2016 Olympics, which will be held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). The project was developed by the famous Swiss bureau RAFAA Architecture and Design. It pledges to become the "eighth wonder of the world." The tower's function is to provide clean electricity to the nearby Olympic Village along with the multimillion-dollar city. Moreover, at an altitude of 105 meters, Solar City Tower will house cafes and shops. An observation deck will be equipped on the roof where you can admire the panorama of Rio de Janeiro along with the prostrate bottomless ocean. For lovers of extreme recreation, there is a platform for bungee jumping.

- house designed by Senosiain Arquitectos bureau. Located in Mexico. Built in bio-architecture style at the request of a young couple. The house has, thanks to which young people with two children now live in a fabulous “underwater kingdom”.

- one of the most luxurious hotels in the world, which was built in Singapore (South-East Asia). The hotel houses the largest casino in the world, worth about eight billion dollars. Marina Bay Sands consists of three vertical towers, which in turn are connected by an amusement park in the shape of a ship. The park ship extends 340 meters in length and can accommodate 3,900 guests. The project is being implemented by Las Vegas Sands.

- National Museum located in Abu Dhabi (UAE). The museum project was created by the Foster + Partners bureau and is dedicated to the President of the United Arab Emirates, as a historical monument dedicated to the socio-economic changes, the initiator of which is considered to be Zayed bin Sultan Al Nayyan himself - the sheikh and the President of the UAE rolled into one.

- the most extreme observation deck in the world, which is located on Mount Osterfelderkopf (Alpspitz, Germany). The AlpspiX site offers breathtaking views. A kilometer altitude, two mutually intersecting steel beams, the feeling of free flight over an abyss...

Although the observation deck was built not so long ago - in October 2010, nevertheless, over these few years tourists have fallen in love with it and even became a kind of Mecca for lovers of extreme sensations.

located in Dubai (UAE). Meydan City is a development project by Meydan Group LLC, the area of which reaches 18.6 million square meters. The project consists of a horse racing complex, a hotel and a number of premises for entertainment events.

Unusual modern architecture, designed by the SAMOO design studio, is an eco-project of the South Korean National Institute of Ecology. The territorial area is 33 thousand square meters. The architectural structure honorably bears the title of the country's nerve center.

Chicago Spire- project of the famous architect Santiago Calatrava (Chicago, USA). The height of the skyscraper reaches 609 meters (150 floors). The Chicago Spire is shaped like a drill and contains 1,193 apartments, which feature three-meter ceilings and floor-to-ceiling windows.

Eco-roof project for a market located in Seoul (South Korea). Developers: Samoo Architects & Engineers. The goal of the project is to eliminate unpleasant odors and constant noise created by cars scurrying past.

- underground station (London, UK).

- TV tower, which is located in the city of Guangzhou (PRC). The height of Canton is 610 meters. To date, this is a record height among television towers. The record-breaking tower broke the record of the tallest CN tower (Toronto, Canada).

- an energy passage made in the best traditions of modern world architecture. The project, located in the Italian city of Perugia, was developed by the Coop Himmelb(l)au bureau. What you see here is not just a fancy roof that shades the city's famous pedestrian street, but also an energy turbine powered by the sun and wind.

is a center of contemporary art. This gigantic building was designed by a famous architect, a woman whose work is revered in all countries of the world. Location: Cagliari, Italian region of Sardinia.

- an architectural project by the Dynamic Architecture team, presented in the form of a rotating tower (Dubai, UAE).

The central office of the famous giant automobile manufacturing company BMW, which is located in Munich (Germany). The authors of the project are the team of the Coop Himmelb(l)au bureau.

- gallery located in the administrative center of Edmonton (Canada). The project was created by Randall Stout Architects.

Bella Sky Hotel- a designer hotel that embodies original modern architecture. Located in Copenhagen (Denmark). The tilt of the towers of the largest hotel in Scandinavia is 15 degrees. Note: Just imagine, the famous leaning tower of Pisa leaned 3.97 degrees.

- Hamburg Philharmonic (Germany), project by Herzog & de Meuron. The building, built on the banks of the Elbe, includes 3 concert halls, a hotel, 45 apartments and a public area called the Plaza. The latter is located at a height of 37 meters above the water. 360° panoramic view.

From year to year, leading architectural bureaus delight us with such bright and multifaceted projects. I think it's like this modern architecture on a global scale brings you only positive emotions, but not the other way around. Of course, there is something to envy when peering at these unusual architectural masterpieces of our time and the near future. Be that as it may, the project bureau team wishes you inspired architectural and design ideas and, of course, their implementation!

The architecture of a modern city is in tune with the constant development of urban culture, industry, and the growth of society. Social and technological progress accelerate and stimulate the further development of old cities and the emergence of new ones.

City architecture: some general information

Urban construction is designed to expand infrastructure and human living space, and create new architectural complexes. Another, no less important role is to preserve the historical appearance of the city and maintain its original atmosphere.

The architecture of a modern city also includes landscaping. Its goal is to create and improve living conditions for citizens and preserve natural resources within a certain territory.

Many post-Soviet cities were built according to standard designs and therefore are still largely similar to each other. Monotonous Soviet buildings can be found in every CIS country, be it Kazakhstan, Armenia or Russia. But there is one city whose unique appearance thousands and thousands of people around the world dream of getting to know - this is Moscow.

Architecture of the city of Moscow

Moscow is the “center of the world”, attracting thousands of tourists every year. Moscow architecture can be called a kind of historical chronicle, capturing victories and defeats, sorrows and joys throughout the long life of the capital.

Metropolitan architecture is characterized by trends and images that have evolved over the centuries. All events taking place on the historical stage of the country were reflected in one way or another in the appearance of our city. The 15th century impressed itself for a long time with the stone architecture of the Assumption Cathedral and the Kremlin. The reign of Catherine the Great is remembered for the birth of classicism - the Senate, the Bolshoi Theater, the Pashkov House and the Tsaritsyn Travel Palace.

After the Patriotic War of 1812, the capital was built anew. The Historical Museum has become a monument of those times. In the 20th century, Art Nouveau appeared; its examples are the National Hotel, Metropol Hotel, and Yaroslavsky Station. The 21st century has given birth to ultra-modern architecture with its skyscrapers, shopping centers and multi-story offices, which in their own way decorate and complement the multifaceted

Modern architecture as art

The architecture of a modern city deals with the formation of the external living space of people through the construction of new and maintenance of old buildings. This art includes three main aspects:

Urban planning - creation and reconstruction of buildings.
Architecture of volumetric structures - design of residential and industrial enterprises.
Landscape architecture - arrangement of squares, park areas, public gardens.

In addition, the architectural environment has a strong emotional impact on residents. Along with other factors, it contributes to the development of patriotic feelings.

Directions of modern architecture

In different countries, the architecture of a modern city is called differently. We call it “modern”, in Germany “jugendstil”, in France “art nouveau”. Art Nouveau, as an architectural movement, was formed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. It is characterized by a protest against the established, archaic appearance of buildings. During construction in this style, steel, concrete, glass, and subsequently plastic and other technological materials were first used. This style is distinguished not only by external aesthetics and thoughtful functionality. The next after modernism, in the 20s of the 20th century, constructivism was formed, which absorbed the “soul” of the victorious proletariat. Its main task is to serve new production. Reinforced concrete was mainly used in construction. According to the constructivist projects, not only factories and factories were created, but also residential buildings, schools, hospitals, and clubs.

The end of the 40s was marked by the emergence of a minimalist movement in architecture; it reached its peak by the 1960s. The credo of minimalists is “Nothing superfluous!” The buildings of this time are laconic, there is no decoration or other frills. The main idea of minimalist designers is the search for the ideal proportion, a combination of comfort and functionality, in the understanding of that time. The development of modern architecture did not stop there. Soon, minimalism became obsolete and was replaced by a modern high-tech style, which became entrenched in urban architecture for many years.

High-tech - architecture of a modern city

The formation of this idea was influenced by new technologies accompanying Metal, glass, ultra-modern materials and structures, monolithic forms, power and strength embodied in buildings - this is the high-tech style. It includes three subdirections: industrial, bionic and geometric high-tech.

The industrial direction is characterized by a peculiar frankness of design. It exposes all communications, connections, ceilings, creating decorative and functional structures based on them.

Geometric hi-tech is a variety of geometric shapes, a combination and interweaving of the most unexpected and unusual configurations.

Bionic high-tech is characterized by imitation of the appearance of living nature, harmonization of the appearance of buildings and homes with the help of smooth transitions and lines characteristic of those common in nature.

Architectural style reflects common features in the design of building facades, plans, shapes, and structures. Architectural styles were formed in certain conditions of economic and social development of society under the influence of religion, government structure, ideology, architectural traditions and national characteristics, climatic conditions, and landscape. The emergence of a new type of architectural style has always been associated with technological progress, changes in ideology and geopolitical structures of society. Let's consider some types of architectural styles that served as the basis for various trends in architecture in different periods of time.

Archaic architecture

Structures erected before the 5th century BC are usually classified as archaic architecture. Stylistically, the buildings of Mesopotamia and Assyria (states of Western Asia) are related to the buildings of Ancient Egypt. They are united by simplicity, monumentality, geometric shapes, and the desire for large sizes. There were also differences: Egyptian buildings are characterized by symmetry, while the architecture of Mesopotamia is characterized by asymmetry. The Egyptian temple consisted of a suite of rooms and was stretched horizontally; in the Mesopotamian temple, the rooms seem to be attached to each other randomly. In addition, one of the parts of the temple had a vertical orientation (ziggurat (sigguratu - peak) - a temple tower, a characteristic feature of the temples of the Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations).

Antique style

Antiquity, as a type of architectural style, dates back to Ancient Greece. Greek buildings were built in the likeness of the “megaron” residential building of the Cretan-Mycenaean era. In the Greek temple, the walls were made thick, massive, without windows, and a hole was made in the roof for light. The construction was based on a modular system, rhythm and symmetry.

Megaron - means “large hall” - a rectangular house with a hearth in the middle (beginning of 4 thousand BC)

The ancient architectural style became the basis for the development of the order system. There were directions in the order system: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The Doric order appeared in the 6th century BC, it was distinguished by its severity and massiveness. The lighter and more elegant Ionic order appeared later and was popular in Asia Minor. The Corinthian order appeared in the 5th century. BC. Colonnades became a hallmark of this type of architectural style. The architectural style, the photo of which is located below, is defined as antique, Doric order.

The Romans, who conquered Greece, adopted the architectural style, enriched it with decoration and introduced an order system into the construction of not only temples, but also palaces.

Roman style

Type of architectural style of the 10th-12th centuries. - received its name “Romanesque” only in the 19th century. thanks to art critics. The structures were created as a structure from simple geometric shapes: cylinders, parallelepipeds, cubes. Castles, temples and monasteries with powerful stone walls with battlements were built in this style. In the 12th century towers with loopholes and galleries appeared at castle-fortresses.

The main buildings of that era were the temple, the fortress and the castle. The buildings of this era were simple geometric shapes: cubes, prisms, cylinders; during their construction, vaulted structures were created, the vaults themselves were made cylindrical, cross-rib, cross. In the early Romanesque architectural style, walls were painted, and by the end of the 11th century. Three-dimensional stone reliefs appeared on the facades.

Architecture

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://www.5.km.ru/ were used

Archaic architecture

Antique style

Megaron - means “large hall” - a rectangular house with a hearth in the middle (beginning of 4 thousand BC)

The Romans, who conquered Greece, adopted the architectural style, enriched it with decoration and introduced an order system into the construction of not only temples, but also palaces.

Roman style

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Polevoy V. M. Twentieth century. Fine arts and architecture of countries and peoples of the world. M.: “Soviet Artist”, 1989.

Maklakova T. G. Architecture of the twentieth century. Lecture notes. M., 1995.

The twentieth century was marked by intense urbanization due to industrialization, a sharp increase in the urban population due to people with low incomes, which required the construction of apartment buildings with cheap rental apartments. The communications system is developing and population mobility is increasing. There is a need for the formation of new types of buildings (department stores, banks, multi-storey offices, indoor sports facilities and markets, exhibition pavilions, industrial facilities). In the twentieth century, there was a certain devaluation of classical traditions, which led to a revision of the criterion of “beauty” in architecture. Accordingly, the compositions of spaces and volumes began to be built not from the external symmetrical schemes of the facades, but from the functionally expedient construction of internal spaces, which were reflected in the construction of the external volumes of the building.

Priority in revaluing the tectonic factor in modern architecture belongs to the French school and, first of all, to the outstanding scientist of the mid-19th century, architect and restorer of architectural monuments of medieval France, Viola Le Duc, his student, architectural historian Auguste Choisy and the latter’s student, Auguste Perret, a practitioner architect 1910-50s XX century

In the architecture of the 20th century. The following main directions and styles are distinguished:

Functionalism;

Expressionism;

Organic architecture and regionalism;

Structuralism;

Historicism;

Postmodernism;

Symbolism;
Deconstructivism.

Functionalism.

Auguste Perret wrote: “If a building truly meets its purpose, then its external forms should speak about its inherent functions. This constitutes the character of the building. If you can give a building character at minimal cost, the building will have style.” G. Mayer noted: “All things on earth are the product of multiplying a function by economy. All things, therefore, are not works of art. Any work of art is a composition and therefore not purposeful. Architecture is a biological process. Architecture is not a process of an aesthetic order. The new residential building being created will not only be a “machine for housing,” but a biological device to satisfy spiritual and physical needs.”

Functionalism emerged in the early 1920s. and covered not only architecture, but also widely and universally extended to the entire object world - furniture, clothing, book graphics, theatrical scenery and costumes, etc., laying the theoretical and practical basis for design.

New designs and materials.

About Perret actively used reinforced concrete. In 1903, he built the first entirely reinforced concrete house in Paris.

A search is underway for the expressiveness of new structures (metal mesh structures by V. G. Shukhov in Russia). German architect M. Berg in 1911-1913. in Poland he builds the Centenary Hall with open ribs of a reinforced concrete vault.

After World War II, new spatial reinforced concrete structures appeared that used curved lines (parabolas, hyperbolas, ellipses). The qualities of prestressed concrete make it possible to increase floor spans. This affects the construction of bridges. The combination of logical and artistic thinking is evident in the projects of transport interchanges and multi-level garages.

Bridges by Robert Mayer (1872-1940). Reinforced concrete structures acquire the qualities of aesthetic expressiveness. In 1908, experiments began with mushroom-shaped beamless ceilings (mushroom-shaped capitals of load-bearing columns). In 1933, the Schwandbach (Canton of Bern) road bridge with a crescent-shaped segment was built. From the very beginning of his work around 1910 until the construction of his most recent bridges, Mayer developed the principles of a three-hinge arch consisting of box sections. It gave the structure a flexibility that only steel bridges had previously possessed. In the pavilion of the Swiss company Portland Cement Company at the Swiss National Exhibition in 1939 in Zurich, Mayer demonstrated how picturesque and elegant reinforced concrete structures are. The master often made the first sketches of the bridges he conceived in the form of a single curved line drawn on a piece of paper during a trip from Zurich to Bern, where his office was located. Simple engineering calculations are not enough to pave the way to new solutions. This is an area where invention, in the full sense of the word, plays a more important role than calculation. Mayer's bridges respond to the aesthetic sense with their poetic expressiveness and subtle sense of balance.

The patio, the inner courtyard, the intimate part of the house, was widespread in Mesopotamia 200 BC. e. Roman country houses had a series of courtyards, each designed for a specific purpose. In 1949, José Luis Sert reintroduced patios in the planning of workers' settlements in Chembot (South America).

Peter Behrens (1868-1940). He began his activity in Germany as an architect at the beginning of the 20th century. Behrens' workshop was the most famous in Germany. Mies van der Rohe, Gropius and even Le Corbuier worked there (5 months). He became famous for his approach to industrial construction as a problem of architectural creativity. In 1907, the Werkbund (industrial union) was organized in Munich. His goal is to “make the craft more refined and improve the quality of products.” The artist, the worker and the industrialist were expected to collaborate in the production of things of artistic value.

Walter Gropius(1883-1969) began his career in Germany during the heyday of the Werkbund. After graduating, he worked in the workshop of Peter Behrens. This continued from 1907 to 1910, when Behrens developed a project for a turbine factory for the General Electric Company (AEG) in Berlin. At the same time, Gropius participated in discussions in the newly organized Werkbund, which helped crystallize his ideas about the nature of architecture.

After opening his own office, Gropius received an order from the Fagust company to design a shoe last factory (1911). This factory was designed taking into account not individual human needs, but the impersonal processes taking place in the building. After 1934, Gropius worked in England.

Post-war Germany and Bauhaus (1919-1928). Expressionism touched the work of almost every artist in Germany, but it could not have a healthy influence on architecture. Gropius was aware of the inconsistency of expressionism with the requirements of the era and the need to move away from it. When Gropius merged the School of Fine Arts and the Academy of Applied Arts in Weimar to form the Bauhaus, he tried to find teachers who had not previously worked in the field of applied arts. He entrusted the introductory course to the young artist Johann Itten. From the very beginning, the sculptor Gerhart Marx and the expressionist Lionel Feininger, who was interested in problems of space, worked at the Bauhaus.

The second stage of development began in 1921, when the artist Paul Klee joined the Bauhaus group. After this, more and more people came from abstractionist groups: first Oskar Schlemmer in 1921, then Wassily Kandinsky in 1922, and in 1923 Moholy-Nagy (Hungarian). Moholy-Nagy, the publisher of books published by the Bauhaus, helped overcome the remnants of romantic mysticism.

The third stage of the Bauhaus is characterized by closer contact with industry. This occurred approximately at the time when this school moved from Wermar to Dessau (before 1928). Walter Gropius completes the Bauhaus building in Dessau in 1926.

Bauhaus is the highest architectural and artistic-industrial school. The theoretical basis of Bauhaes was functionalism - “what looks good is what functions well.” The Bauhaus leaders sought to create a non-national democratic architecture.

In the 1920s achieved great success Dutch Amsterdam school led by I.-P. Audom. He designed several workers' villages and cheap houses.

CIAM–International Congresses of Contemporary Architects – discuss the problems of modern architecture. The first congress took place in 1928 in La Sarrou.

Functionalism was especially pronounced in Soviet architecture 1920-30s The problem of forming a new architecture for a new society in the 1920s. especially attracted architects of the young and middle generation, who united in several creative associations. The attitudes of these associations differed, but the orientation towards a complete rejection of the traditional language of architectural forms was common.

Established in 1923, headed by N. Ladovsky and V. Krinsky, the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA), who called themselves rationalists, pursued a mainly aesthetic goal - the development of a fundamentally new syntax of architectural form, based on the psychophysiological laws of perception of the main constituent elements of an architectural composition – volume, plane, rhythm, etc. In 1925, K. Melnikov, the author of the first six clubs in Moscow, joined ASNOVA.

In 1925, the Association of Modern Architects (OSA) arose, headed by A. I. Vesnin and M. Ginsburg. OSA also aimed to create types of buildings that would meet modern social conditions. However, OCA's approach to design was more pragmatic. In the layout of the building, they considered the fundamental functional and constructive organization of space as a source of its harmonization. The OSA masters formulated this approach as “a function of a constructed material shell and the space hidden behind it.” This direction received the name constructivism in the USSR.

In the first half of the 1920s. In the USSR, the concept of decent mass housing construction for workers is emerging. The undeveloped estate developments of the working outskirts of large industrial cities were supposed to be replaced by comfortable 2-4-story complex developments with sectional houses, schools, and shops. The social center of the complex was the workers' club. So, since 1923, the village of Sokol (architect N. Markovnikov), a complex at the AMO plant in Moscow (architect I. Zhiltovsky), residential complexes named after. Razin, named after Kirov, im. Artem, them. Shaumyan in Baku (architects A. Samoilov, A. Ivanitsky), in Kharkov, Leningrad, Tbilisi and other cities.

A few years later, these ideas were implemented in construction practice in Western countries, primarily in Germany (architects V. Gropius, E. May, B. Taut, G. Mayer).

The unification of appearance and geometricism of factory products were regarded by the masters of new architecture as an aesthetic means of harmonizing and ensuring the artistic unity of the construction, replacing classical architectural forms. Le Corbusier wrote in 1923: “We must create a spirit of seriality—the desire to live in serial houses, to design houses as series.” The five principles of building design published by Le Corbusier (villa in Garches, Villa Savoy in Poissy) in his book “The Radiant City” had a colossal influence on the formation of compositional techniques in the architecture of the Modern Movement:

on open pillar supports that lift the building away from ground dampness;

with a combined flat reinforced concrete roof-garden, providing residents of the house with additional recreational territory;

with a free layout of internal spaces, which is ensured by replacing internal load-bearing walls with a frame;

with strip windows that increase the illumination of the premises;

with a free composition of facades, which is ensured by replacing the load-bearing structure of the external walls with a non-load-bearing one when switching to a frame structural system.

A paradoxical situation has arisen: while denying in principle the normativity of classical architectural forms, in actual design practice functionalism has come to a rather monotonous prescription form. The deliberate limitation of expressive means could, over time, lead to the aesthetics of this school being devalued. But its development was interrupted by totalitarian regimes that supported the traditional pathos of classical architecture. Functionalism acquired a second wind after the Second World War, when the rapid and economical restoration of destroyed cities was required. In the 1940-1950s. Functionalism becomes more widespread than in the 1920s.

The architectural theme of a glass façade was implemented by Le Corbusier in the early 1930s. in the buildings of the Salvation Army shelter in Paris and in the building of the Central Union in Moscow. However, the idea of a skyscraper with glass exterior walls belongs to another major master of the modern movement - Mies van der Rohe. He had been developing it since 1919 in various projects, but implemented it only several decades later in the USA. First in a complex of two glass high-rise single-section residential buildings on Lake Shock Drive in Chicago, and then in the Seagram Building office in New York. Unlike the functionalism of the 1920s, which formally cultivated a new structural form, but practically imitated it by making it from traditional materials, American functionalism of the 1950s. relied on a highly developed construction industry. The high quality of new materials and products used for these objects partially redeemed the elementary nature of their three-dimensional forms. The theme of a high-rise glass office or hotel tower has been embraced by architects and clients all over the world. Functionalism of the 1950s received the name "international style".

During the period of particularly large-scale development of mass construction in the USSR in the 1950-1970s. a situation arose that objectively contributed to the decline in the aesthetic properties of residential buildings. Unprecedented volumes of construction coincided with the period of formation of the house-building industry, which required a minimum variety of industrial products. The free development of residential areas has destroyed the usual ideas about the urban environment, causing new residents to nostalgia for traditional urban space.

The aesthetic and ethical assessment of functionalism has remained unstable over the past decades. During a period of particularly acute disillusionment with modernism in the 1960s. The Poussac residential complex, built in 1927 according to a design by Le Corbusier, was completely transformed by its residents during reconstruction (flat roofs were replaced by pitched ones, strip windows were closed, the walls were painted and covered with decor). 10-15 years later, the residential complexes of W. Gropius and B Taut - Simmensstadt, Zehlendorf, Neujöckeln in Berlin - were lovingly and carefully restored in Germany.

Expressionism.

Expressionism in architecture is a branch of the general expressionist movement in art, which united literature (F. Kafka), music (A. Scriabin), cinema (R. Wiene), painting (V. Kandinsky, P. Klee). In architecture, the first striking manifestations of expressionism date back to 1919-1922. Expressionist works then appeared with varying frequency in the 1950s and 1970s. (subsequent works by Le Corbusier, E. Saarinen, J. Utson, O. Niemeyer, G. Scharoun).

Expressionism in architecture is characterized by emphasized emotional expressiveness of the composition, often achieved through pointedness, grotesqueness, deliberate deformation or generalization of familiar forms. The standard of expressionism of the 1920s. became the building of the astrophysical laboratory “Einstein Tower” in Potsdam (1921), designed by E. Mendelssohn as a free building-sculpture in monolithic reinforced concrete with plastic, streamlined shapes, almost eliminating orthogonal connections.

In the 1950s With the prefix “neo”, expressionism again enters the stage of world architecture. The most famous work of neo-expressionism is the chapel in Ronchamp (France), built according to the design of Le Corbusier in 1950-1955. Its composition is inspired by the images of the first houses of worship of Christianity.

G. Scharoun, carrying out his work in Germany (Opera House in Berlin), found an expressionistic approach even to the solution of such a normatively determined architectural form as an apartment building. In his residential complex in Stuttgart “Romeo and Juliet” (1956-1960), he created a non-trivial volumetric form of buildings. The Juliet building has a horseshoe-shaped plan and cascading heights (5, 8, 12 floors), and the single-section 20-story Romeo building has a complex polygonal plan. Balconies and loggias of various oblique shapes give additional unexpected divisions to the volumes of the buildings. G. Sharun created interesting individual interior spaces in modest-sized apartments, stimulating residents to be creative when arranging interiors.

Neo-expressionism, relying to a certain extent on the achievements of functionalism, introduced a humanizing emotional and individual element into it, skillfully using the capabilities of modern structures and materials.

Organic architecture and regionalism.

Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: “Organic architecture is ... an architecture in which the ideal is wholeness ... in a philosophical sense, where the whole is to the part as the part is to the whole, and where the nature of the materials, the nature of the purpose, the nature of everything being accomplished becomes clear, speaking as a necessity. From this nature it follows what character a true artist can give to a building under given specific conditions.”

Aesthetic purism and the emotional limitations of functionalism stimulated the development of a number of trends that compensated for these shortcomings. One of them organic, the second is regional. The first is mainly associated with the name of the outstanding American architect F. L. Wright. Sharing the rational principles of functionalism, he considered the aesthetics of the created spaces and volumes to be equally important. Its basis was the organic connection of the building with the surrounding landscape, and its equipment, furniture, and utensils with the composition of the internal environment of the building. Over his almost 70-year creative life, F. L. Wright built many outstanding structures for various purposes: multi-story offices, laboratories, museums, and private homes. The principles of organic architecture dictated to Wright the use of traditional materials (stone, brick, wood) and the coincidence of textures of structures on the facade and in the interior (for example, unplastered masonry). The Guggenheim Museum in New York, built according to his design, became very widely known; Johnson's 15-story laboratory building in Racine; various mansions - “prairie houses”, “House over a waterfall”, etc. However, it is obvious that the full implementation of the ideas of organic architecture is achievable only when working with a wealthy customer. Wright divides the space of mansions, as a rule, into zones - general and intimate, and designs the space of the common zone as “flowing” - without rigid partitions between the hall, common room and dining room.

The development of regionalism occurred in the late 1930s, and its heyday in the 1950s-1980s. It was first formed in the countries of Northern Europe, and then began to actively develop in Latin America and Japan. The practical identification (sometimes exaggerated) of regional features of architecture was facilitated by the experience of designing national pavilions for numerous international and world exhibitions. This practice began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In the 20th century The Scandinavian countries are taking the path of consistent regionalism. They abandon functionalism, since many of its principles become unacceptable in a cold, harsh climate. Here, roofs with pitched roofs reappear, warm basements or underground spaces are installed, curved houses are built that follow the slopes of mountain ranges, closed light openings are designed, traditional materials are used (brick, stone, wood, including laminated wood).

Regionalism in Japan is developing in three directions - imitation, illustrative traditionalism and organic refraction of traditions. Imitation of a traditional wooden frame in reinforced concrete is used in the projects of religious buildings of various concessions, but it can also be found in the architecture of secular buildings - the Japanese pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal (architect Yoshinobo Ashihara), the building of the National Theater in Tokyo (architect Hiroiki Iwamoto). Illustrative traditionalism is characterized by the technique of introducing into a building, arranged in forms of functionalism, individual details - “reminders” of traditional architectural forms. Such, for example, is the crowning of the building for international conferences in the city of Kyoto (architects Otani and Ochi), for which the crowning of a 3rd century temple was chosen as the historical prototype. n. e. in the city of Ise. A truly organic trend in the perception and use of traditions can be attributed to the composition of the building of the Festival Hall in Tokyo (architect K. Maekawa, 1960). A massive roof with a large offset is used here. The complex forms of the coverings echo the traditional architecture of the Olympic sports complex in YoYogi Park in Tokyo (architect K. Tange).

Structuralism.

In the history of architecture of the 20th century. structuralism, based on the aestheticization of the constructive form, occupies an intermediate position between the constructivism of the 1920s and the high-tech of the 1980s. Classical functionalism of the 1920s did not allow the subordination of volumetric form to purely compositional requirements (function always remained decisive). Structuralism relied on the expressive capabilities of new, but already well-studied structures. It is based on the choice of design options when designing not only the best in terms of technical indicators, but with expressive form-building potential. Structuralism manifested itself most clearly from the late 40s to the 1960s. The most interesting works of structuralism are found in the works of P.-L. Nervi (Italy), R. Sarger (France), l. Kahn (USA). For the first two masters, the starting point in the formation of an architectural image was construction, for the third - function.

Nervi and Sarger (the former an engineer by basic education, the latter an architect) in their creative activities created the most interesting structures assembled using long-span spatial coverings made of thin-walled shells. Although such structures began to be used in construction in the 1920s, they received the greatest expressiveness not only as a constructive form, but also as an architectural form, in the work of these masters. Their activities are associated with the creation of images of modern sports, exhibition, trade, and transport facilities, arranged on the basis of a harmonized spatial structural form of a long-span surface. The most advanced in this series are such structures as the Small Olympic Palace of Sports (Palazzetto della Sport) in Rome, the building of UNESCO conference halls in Paris and exhibition pavilions in Turin in the work of Nervi and covered markets in Nanterre and Royan in the work of Sarger. Even the widely circulated image of an entertainment and sports facility in the form of a lentil or a “flying saucer” (circus buildings in Sochi, Kazan and other cities), in which the lower shell is a bowl carrying stands of spectator seats, and the upper shell is a shallow dome of the covering – are based on creativity these masters.

The structuring of the form of a building, its volumes and spaces in the work of L. Kahn is based on the functional purpose of the latter and the lighting required in them. He groups the main and auxiliary premises into independent volumetric-spatial elements, believing that “architecture is a reasonable way of organizing space... The structure of service premises should complement the structure of those served. One is rough, brutal, the other is openwork, full of light.” By harmonizing the form and rhythm of alternating volumes, L. Kahn found the initial structural basis for individual compositions of such complex objects for an architect as multi-story buildings of research institutes and laboratories. The peculiarity of L. Kahn's work, therefore, is harmonious structuring.

Historicism.

National romance in architecture. In the 1910s In small and northern European countries, appealing to national roots and cultural traditions has acquired particular importance. It was reflected in all types of buildings (city hall in Stockholm, architect R. Östberg, 1911-1923). In temple architecture, A. Shchusev (Russia), D. Scott (England), E. Nachig (Serbia), L. Sonk (Finland) work this way. These are buildings for cultural and public purposes by P. Momchilov (Bulgania), M. Nielsen (Iceland); office buildings of M. Paulson (Norway), V. A. Pokrovsky (Russia); Californian-style villas in the USA.

A. Shchusev said: “Classical architecture is a language that at all times of the cultural periods of mankind was understandable to all peoples. This is the only architecture that has achieved an international position.”

In Europe in the 1930-1940s. (and in the USSR until the mid-1950s) historicism became the main one for large ensembles. A distinctive feature of the use of ancient classical architectural forms during this period is their deliberate simplification and coarsening due to the erroneous idea that these measures contribute to the monumentalization of the image. The columns lose their intasis, their proportions become heavier, and the compositions as a whole acquire divisions of an exaggeratedly large scale. The extreme manifestations of such crude neoclassicism were the compositions of a number of government buildings erected in Italy and Germany under totalitarian regimes. This is how triumphal structures were designed (the triumphal arch in Genie and the Victory Monument in Balzano) by the architect M. Piacentini and the Olympic sports facilities in Rome (by the architect L. Moretti and E. del Debio). A unique symbol of this trend in architecture was the building of the Palace of Civilizations (architect: M. Piacentini) in the new public center of Rome - the EUR complex. The composition of the Palace is a simplified composition of the Roman Colosseum.

In Germany of the “Third Reich” such crude, falsely monumental neoclassicism was embodied in the buildings of the Imperial Complex of National Socialist Party Congresses in Nuremberg, the Olympic Complex and the building of the new Imperial Chancellery (architect A. Speer) in Berlin.

In the USSR, historicism in the architecture of the first half of the 20th century. left a number of undeniably aesthetically significant structures based on a combination of classical compositional techniques with stylized elements of national architecture. The best example of such a composition is the Government House in Yerevan (architect A. Tamanyan). In neoclassicism, such examples are the building of the Council of Ministers in Kiev (architect I. Fomin and P. Abrosimov), the interiors of the Moscow metro stations “Krasnye Vorota” and “Kurskaya-Radialnaya” (architects I. Fomin, L. Polyakov), the interiors of the Oktyabskaya station "(architect L. Polyakov) and "Kurskaya-ring" (architect G. Zakharov).

If in Europe after the Second World War functionalism became more widespread, then in the USSR the architectural language of the Empire style was perceived as the only worthy means of reflecting the triumph of victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. According to the laws of the Empire style, city centers destroyed during the war were restored (the Moscow State University ensemble on the Lenin Hills in Moscow, architects L. Rudnev, E. Chernyshev, P. Ambrosimov, A. Khryakov, engineer V. Nasonov). The consistent development of historicism in the USSR was interrupted by a decree of the Central Committee of the Central Committee of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of November 4, 1954 “On the elimination of excesses in design and construction.” This circumstance returned domestic design practice to the pan-European mainstream of functionalism.

The departure from functionalism in Western countries in the late 1950s and early 1960s. was determined by a number of social and economic reasons. But the American architect F. VK gave a purely emotional assessment of this. Johnson. As a student and collaborator of Mies van der Rohe in the design of the Seagram Building in New York - this symbol of the "International Style", Johnson in the late 1950s. breaks with him and writes: “Mies based his art on three things: economy, science, technology. Of course he was right. But this is precisely what makes me bored. We're all bored."

Additional incentives for the development of historicism were those characteristic of the 1960-1970s. social phenomena, such as the development of the tourism industry and the practice of organizing international and world exhibitions (EXPO). The architectural composition of exhibition pavilions was usually based on the originality of national architectural forms. In this regard, since the 1970s. a new period of development of historicism in architecture begins. This direction is diverse, but has received the general name postmodernism.

Postmodernism.

C. Jenke said: “Postmodernism is a populist-pluralistic art of direct communication.”

P. Weil and A. Geis note: “Postmodernism is the art of an era that has survived the collapse of all the great ideas of humanity. The artist no longer builds utopias, does not rebuild, but inhabits the world, trying to settle in it with maximum comfort. For postmodernism, the law is not written; it lives by eclecticism, boldly mixing its art on the fragments of other people's words and ideas. The culture of the past for him is a junk shop, from where he takes everything that goes into use, generously seasoning the resulting product with the author’s handwriting... Any scene here is a quotation, this, by the way, expresses the spirit of postmodernism, which has made quotation marks both its main tool and its main symbol."

Postmodernism is a broad social phenomenon that has spread in many areas of culture - philosophy. Literature, music, fine arts, architecture.

The ideological basis of postmodernism was the deep disappointment in the ideology of historical progress formulated by the French enlighteners of the 18th century. and based on the idea of rational reorganization of society and man. Philosophers of postmodernism (M. Foucault, J. Derrida) argue that what was promised by the enlighteners of the 18th century. the implementation of a social utopia turned into nightmares of revolutions and totalitarianism because it oriented the individual and society towards an unshakable hierarchy of values, towards a certain spiritual center, a moral absolute. The philosophy of postmodernism is based on the assumption that it is the orientation towards the absolute that constantly reproduces total structures and total consciousness. The only alternative to it can be pluralism. In this regard, postmodernism is generally interpreted as pluralism and an orientation toward the fragment instead of the whole.

In architecture, postmodernism took shape towards the end of the 1970s. and today unites masters with different creative principles and styles.

Postmodernists subjected the greatest criticism to such fundamental provisions of modernism as functional zoning of cities, asceticism of architectural forms, rejection of the entire creative heritage, regionalism and environmental approach to design.

In the field of architectural forms, postmodernism is characterized by the revival (often eclictic) of historical architectural systems and decor of all types (decorative masonry, lining, painting, order compositions), an appeal to the expressive features of the wall mass with the refusal of the strip windows that destroy it, the revival of the active silhouette of the building's completion (tongs , gables, attics) when flat roofs are abandoned. The principles of compositional construction are being revived - symmetry, proportionality. The design of blank walls is very diverse, combining textures, colors, niches, etc.

One of the largest buildings of this style, the ATT skyscraper in New York (1978), built according to the design of the ex-functionalist and now master of postmodernism F. C. Johnson, became the programmatic point in the development of postmodernism.

The Plate Glass skyscraper in Pittsburgh (architects F. Johnson and K. Bergey) is designed as a complex of a 44-story central volume surrounded by significantly more prismatic volumes (6-10 floors). All volumes are lined with bronzed mirror glass and have expressive silhouettes of completions. The authors sought to fit the building into its surrounding context.

In the works of theorists and practitioners of postmodernism (R. Venturi, M. Culot, L. Krie, A. Rossi, A. Grumbako) its basic principles are formulated:

“imitation” of historical monuments and “models”;

work in “styles” (historical and architectural);

“reverse archeology” - bringing the designed object into conformity with the old building tradition;

“everyday life of realism and antiquity”, carried out through a certain “downgrading” or simplification of the applied classical architectural forms.

The viewer's vision of an accomplice and interested consumer (and not the average city dweller) predetermined the playful, theatrical nature of postmodernism, and sometimes even pronounced features of kitsch and props.

In Europe, the most famous urban planning compositions of postmodernism can be attributed to the ensemble of the residential complex “Arena Picasso” for 540 apartments in the Paris suburb of Marne-le-Vallee (1985), designed by M. Nunez. M. Nunez, a young Spanish worker, passionate about the theater, joined the Taller de Arquitectura workshop and worked in it since its inception. He did not receive a professional education, but over the years of work in the workshop he acquired the skills necessary in practice. Since 1978, he breaks with the workshop and works independently. Competing with the Tallière des Arquitecturas, he designed the Picasso Arena complex in the same suburb of Paris where the famous workshop designed the Abraxas Palace complex. Both projects were carried out almost simultaneously.

The composition of the Picasso Arena complex is strictly symmetrical. In the center there are two 17-story buildings in the form of round disks (“alarm clocks” or “beehives”), supported on a flat base of extended 4-story buildings, as well as extended 7-10-story buildings forming the side wings of the ensemble. The space of the complex is united by high (four floors) passages located along the axis of the complex and the “alarm clocks”. The architectural forms of the complex are extremely eclectic: they combine Gothic flying buttresses with classical elements, constructivist details and decorative sculpture inspired by Baroque images. The entire composition is dominated by the spirit of theatricality, shocking kitsch and deliberate non-functionality (especially in residential discs).

In accordance with the content of the order, the use of architectural heritage in postmodern works develops very differently: ironic caricature, fragmentary use of details, documented accurate citation. An example of the latter is the building of the museum of the art collection of multimillionaire P. Getty. The building was designed by R. Langdon and E. Wilson and is a recreation of the ancient “Villa of the Papyri” in what was destroyed in the 1st century. n. e. during the eruption of Vesuvius in Herculaneum.

Postmodern is customer-oriented. Hence its advantages and disadvantages.

High tech.

High-tech is an aesthetic movement in architecture that emerged in the 1970s and is a modern modification of technicism that professes a radical renewal of the language of architecture under the influence of technological progress. To a certain extent, high-tech is the latest stage in the development of the aesthetic development of technical forms, begun by constructivism in the 1920s and continued by structuralism in the 1950s-1960s.

What distinguishes high-tech from previous stages is its inherent demonstrative super-technism, in which the functional use of building structures and engineering systems and equipment develops into a decorative and theatrical use with elements of exaggeration and irony, which is also inherent in other modern movements in art, primarily postmodernism. Unlike constructivism and structuralism, which operate mainly with reinforced concrete and glass, high-tech is focused on mastering the aesthetic potential of metal structures in combination with glass. In addition, high-tech actively includes elements of their engineering equipment in the composition of buildings and structures - air ducts, ventilation shafts, pipelines. Based on the purely technological practice of industrial enterprises to mark pipelines of different engineering systems with different colors, high-tech uses this technique in public buildings as a compositional tool.

The architect Ya. Chernikhov is rightly considered the ideological forerunner of high-tech. He left in his many architectural fantasies the 1930s. compositions of buildings and structures, the appearance of which harmoniously combines rod steel structures with ascetic planes of enclosing and elements of engineering systems. The priority of Y. Chenikhov is reflected in the most extensive monograph on high-tech by the American architectural historian D. Colin, translated into most European languages.

In practical terms, the forerunners of high-tech in the 19th century. considered the “Crystal Palace” by the architect D. Pexton, and in the 20th century. - the work of Mies van der Rohe. This outstanding architect, who began as a functionalist, became a principled anti-functionalist in the late period of his creative work (50-60s). Based on the position that the function is short-lived and strict adherence to it leads to the obsolescence of capital buildings, he sought to create structures with a universal internal space, easily adaptable to changing functions. As external load-bearing systems, Mies van der Rohe used long-span frames (building of the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Illinois, 1955), columns and trusses (project of a theater in Mannheim, 1953), columns and a steel covering structure (building of the New National Gallery in Berlin , 1962-1968).

The priority for including brightly colored pipelines in the composition belongs to the architect E. Saarinen (General Motors technology center in Detroit). In high-tech, combined frames of rigid and cable elements are used; there is a tendency to exaggerate the dimensions of load-bearing structures.

High-tech naturally and purposefully captures into its orbit not only the appearance and interiors of the building, but also the environment - landscaping elements and decorative sculptures made from the same material as the facades. In front of the Congress Halle building (architects R. Schuller and U. Schuller-Witte, 1973-1979), a sculpture is installed on a low pedestal - “a bunch of aluminum sausages”, ironically contrasting with its fluid forms with the emphasized geometricism of the building.

The most famous high-tech building was the building of the Arts Center. J. Pompidou on the Beaubourg plateau in Paris (architects M. Piano and R. Rogers). Based on the task of creating a free exhibition space, the authors followed the path of Mies van der Rohe, but took it to the point of absurdity. The building is 50 m wide and each of the six ground floors is covered with steel trusses supported on external steel lattice supports. A span of 50 m for displaying books and paintings is clearly excessive, and the large height of the trusses corresponding to such a span leads to the fact that almost half of the volume of the building is occupied by inter-truss interfloor spaces. In this regard, additional internal walls had to be erected to organize the exhibition. Utilities were placed on the façade here, and an escalator housed in a transparent plastic tube was placed diagonally along the main façade.

More widely, but in moderate forms, the principles of high-tech are used in the composition of the interiors of office buildings, hotels, department stores, and multifunctional atrium-type buildings. The huge (full height of the building) space of the atriums is covered at the top level with a translucent metal structure. This structural system is complemented by silent elevators with transparent cabins, pipelines and air ducts.

In the 1980s The largest and most famous civil high-tech building was the high-rise office of the Hong Kong-Shanghai Banking Corporation, built in Hong Kong in 1986 according to the design of the Norman Foster Architectural Corporation. The structural system of the building is shaft-bridge (or shaft-grillage). Eight barrel supports are located at the ends of the building. Each support consists of four tubular cross-section columns, united by floor-by-floor rigid lintels into a hollow spatial rod-trunk. The trunks are united by single-span trusses (38.4 m). In the direction perpendicular to the trusses, the shaft supports are united by a rigid grillage of braced braces (which is revealed on the facade).

High-tech color scheme is based on a combination of achromatic shades with bright colors.

High-tech continues to develop, using modern technologies and materials.

Symbolism.

A symbol in art is an image with the maximum degree of generalization and expression that expresses an idea.

The development of various directions in the evolution of architecture of the 20th century is constantly accompanied, without mixing with them, by the creation of buildings and structures that carry symbolic functions - symbolic buildings or containing symbolic elements. Usually they are intended (explicitly or covertly) to symbolize some ideological, state, religious idea or other program that does not directly follow from the function of the building or structure.

The Opera House in Sydney should be considered a symbolic building, and the advantage of its composition is the ambiguity of its symbolism: some critics see in it the image of a sailing ship, others - conversing nuns in starched caps. To this day, the most expressive of the symbolic buildings remains the air terminal at the airport. J. Kennedy in New York. The airport terminal building was designed by E. Saarinen in 1958. It is constructed in monolithic reinforced concrete with a coating composed of four thin-walled shells of positive Gaussian curvature, creating a symbolic image of a bird taking off. E Saarinen managed to achieve extraordinary harmony of the structure, finding the proper measure of generalization of the image within the boundaries between naturalism and scheme.

Along with pictorial symbolism, emanating with a greater or lesser degree of generalization from visually perceived images, speculative symbolism has also developed, which is called architecture “for angels and aviators.” It is characterized by the subordination of the building's planning solution to a symbolic image, which is not visually perceptible under normal conditions. An example of this is the building of the Catholic Cathedral of St. Mary in Tokyo (architect K. Tange, 1964). The rhombic volume of the Catholic Cathedral along the main mutually perpendicular axes is completed with longitudinal light lanterns, which allows you to observe these intersecting lanterns from a height at night, like a luminous Latin cross.

Deconstructivism.

Interest in modernism revived in the 1970s, and in the 1980s. he again enters the arena of world architecture under the name of neomodernism. While preserving the advantages of functionalism, neomodernism is freed from a number of shortcomings. This is no longer white ascetic architecture, but architecture that actively uses color. Works of neo-modernism fit organically into the context of the building.

The development that began in the 1970s played a decisive role in the formation of neomodernism. penetration into the West of information about the architecture of the Soviet avant-garde of the 1920s, which led to the 1980s. to a serious fascination with her images and ideas.

The branch of neo-modernism, based not on the direct borrowing of ideas from the past, but on their certain transformation, was called deconstructivism (“decon”).

In general (with all the diversity of individual creative manners and credos), based on the compositional principles of constructivism, the masters of “decon” resort to some deformation of constructivist techniques (“distortion of abstraction”), giving the composition dynamism and sharpness. As sources, different authors of deconstructivism choose different periods and different authors of the Russian avant-garde. For example, R. Koolhaas and Z. Hadid in their work are focused on the late avant-garde and especially on the “anti-gravity architecture” of I. Leonidov (see his project for the Lenin Institute, 1927). R. Koolhaas includes in the composition of his dance theater in The Hague (1984-1987) the volume of an overturned “golden” cone, which houses a restaurant, and Z. Hadid - a suspended volume with club premises in the competition project “Peak Club” for Hong Kong (1983 G.).

The worldview platform of deconstructionists is the position of the modern French philosopher Jacques Derrida, who criticizes the metaphysical nature of all forms of modern European consciousness, which, in his opinion, lies in the principle of “being as presence,” which absolutizes the present time. J. Derrida sees a way out of this metaphysicality in finding its historical origins through analytical dissection (“deconstruction”) of the most diverse texts of humanitarian culture in order to identify in them supporting concepts and layers of metaphors that capture the traces of subsequent eras. Although the main provisions of J. Derrida's worldview are based on his work with language and writing, he applies the provisions of his theory to the architecture of deconstructivism.

In this regard, his assessment of the master plan for La Villette Park in Paris by architect Bernard Tschumi, which won an international competition, is interesting. In B. Tschumi’s project, the park is filled with a scattering of light, predominantly one-story pavilions - “folies” (metal brightly colored structures based on a combination of images and techniques of Russian constructivism). J. Derrida writes that “foleys introduce into the overall composition a feeling of shift or displacement, involving in this process everything that until now seemed to give meaning to architecture... Foleys deconstruct, first of all, the semantics of architecture. They destabilize meaning, the meaning of meaning. Will this not lead back to the desert of “anti-architecture”, to the zero point of architectural language, at which it loses itself, its aesthetic aura, its basis, its hierarchical principles?... Undoubtedly, no. Foleys...validate, maintain, update and “rewrite” architecture. Perhaps they are reviving energy that was frozen, walled up, buried in the common grave of nostalgia” (Ch. Jenks. Deconstruction. The delights of absence. // Architectural deconstructivism. - M., 1991, p. 14).

Thus, bright works of deconstructivism are based on the aesthetics of isolating individual parts of a building. Sometimes the authors create a feeling of preliminary disassembly of a building into its component parts and a subsequent attempt to assemble a new structure from the components. In this case, the parts are “out of place” or “not fully assembled.” An imitation of a projectile hitting part of a building and its partial destruction is created. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao looks like a huge pile of mangled metal left in the city center.

New city models.

At the end of the 19th century. Ebenezer Howard The idea of a garden city was put forward. Patrick Jeds considered the city organism from the point of view of a biologist in the book “Evolution of the City” (1915, “Cities in Evolution”). He writes: “The plans of the city are not bare diagrams, but a system of hieroglyphs, through which man has drawn the history of civilization... Our task is to decipher the hieroglyphs and fill them with life.”

"Industrial city" Tony Garnier(1901-1904) - a model of the city, in which the author sought to comprehensively solve the problems of the city. Garnier calls reinforced concrete the main building material. In the “Industrial City” you can move around without using traffic streets. The Garnier houses, with terraces and roof gardens, represent a good combination of design and old classical tradition. This layout was partially realized in Lyon.

Le Corbusier in 1922 in Paris he presented the project “Modern city for 3 million inhabitants”.

Z. Gidion describes the concept of "Space-Time" in city planning. An urban planner studies the composition of various social strata of the population, their age groups, and family structure. There is a gradual departure from the concepts of linear street layout and “axes”, a transition to population density criteria. In Amsterdam there are from 110 to 550 inhabitants per 1 hectare. An urban planner should not create a rigid and completely complete system.

Henry Hudson Parkway was built in 1934-1937. in NYC. Parkways do not have transport intersections at the same level and are surrounded by greenery.

Around 1960, slab houses became common throughout the world. The walls of the RCA building rise in a continuous mass to a height of 259 m.

Recently, a transition has begun from planar city planning to volumetric planning. Already Utzon emphasized the existence of connections between horizontal “layers” underground and above the earth. Modern urban planning is construction in layers or levels. “The individual building loses its significance compared to the collective overall form,” said Japanese architect Fumihiko Maki.

Otto Wagner(1841-1918) realized that the city's housing problem could not be solved using the garden city model. He was the first to indicate that when planning a city, the needs of various social strata of the population should be taken into account and healthy conditions should be created “for the average resident.” These needs change over time.

At the CIAM Congress in Athens in 1933, demands were made: “that each city should create a master plan for development and regulations to ensure its implementation,” as Wagner had said 30 years earlier. As stated in " Athens Charter"Sun, greenery, space - the three main elements of urban planning." The implementation of the principles of the “Charter of Athens” led to the regulation of landscaping in residential areas, the abandonment of closed block development with courtyards and wells, and the transition to open, freely aerated development with good insolation of dwellings due to the predominantly meridian placement of buildings. This circumstance, in turn, determined the use of a predominantly row building system.