Traditional (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism) and innovative (modernism, postmodernism) directions in the development of Russian literature. Russian romantics against classicism

Education

It is generally believed that neoclassicism is a consequence of the saturation that Baroque produces to a certain extent. In the case of the Canary Islands, it is appropriate to make some clarifications. From the second half of the 18th century. The presence of the elite from the archipelago at the Court provided a cultural connection between the privileged minority of the Canary Islands and the erudite circles of Madrid, which was reflected in the renewal of the views of the elite towards cosmopolitanism. On the other hand, the distance from the metropolis influenced the fact that there was weak ideological control in the Canary Islands; here texts that were prohibited in the rest of the state were freely distributed. To this must be added the mobility of the few but influential inhabitants of the islands, who came into contact with new trends that appeared outside Spain, strengthening this connection upon their return from travel. Circles and societies (especially Economic societies friends of the country) were the “engine” of change not only in artistic, but also in scientific, economic, agricultural and industrial aspects.

However, the Enlightenment was always a minority culture in relation to the religious tradition, consistent with the ideas of the Inquisition, which were influenced by the lower clergy and religious orders associated with the Baroque tradition.

Moreover, the Enlightenment figures themselves were far from accepting a truly academic reading of the neoclassical style; they were unable to base their ideas on theoretical and ideological convictions. In most cases it was an imitation of what was called the neoclassical style. This is evidenced by the controversy regarding the order of the columns that Juan Nepomuceno Verdugo wanted to use in the future Los Remedios Cathedral in La Laguna. The Marquis of Villanueva del Prado approved the decision to remove the base, since that was what was done in Paris. And the senior priest, Pedro Bencomo, demanded that they be left because Ventura Rodriguez did so. Basically, in the absence of a theoretical basis and strong convictions, one can talk about the existence of neoclassical architecture in the Canary Islands, but not as a product of ideology, but almost always as a result of imitation. One of the first buildings in this style is the Cathedral of Santiago de los Caballeros in Galdar with a successful spatial solution, but its facade is more reminiscent of mannerism than the new trends of neoclassicism.

And yet, some architects are already beginning to use new techniques at this time. Diego Nicolás Eduardo, the builder who laid the foundations for changing tastes, produced one of the most elegant buildings of the time. When creating a sketch of the future cathedral in Las Palmas, he was inspired by the Cathedral of Granada, a work by Cano in the Baroque style. However, he decided to take the path of abandoning all decorations and adopting strict and simple forms.

Of course, such creators were in the minority. The architectural panorama of the Canary Islands was mainly limited to the works of masters who did not have professional titles. There was a conservative group here; their knowledge of the new style was very superficial. One example is Juan Pérez de León, who supervised the construction of the Iglesia de San Sebastián Church in Agüimes, designed by Diego Nicolás Eduardo. Where the architect showed his creativity, poor quality work is revealed.

Military engineers played a decisive role in changing the style, but they worked only in certain places on the archipelago, where their influence was felt.

Of the great masters of that time, four names can be named, and none of them had an official title. The most important figure is Diego Nicolás Eduardo, who studied at the Academy of San Fernando and the Artillery Academy of Segovia. He knew well the theories that existed at that time (his library included Tosca’s treatise) and applied them with complete freedom of implementation. So, to emphasize the uniqueness of the interior of the cathedral in Las Palmas, he used Atlantic Gothic techniques.

Clarity of ideas distinguishes an architect like Juan Nepomuceno, a military man who studied at the Academy of Engineers. He played a significant role in the construction of the facade of the cathedral in La Laguna, and a little later he completed the original and elegant facade of the building of the Municipality (Ayuntamiento) of the city.

Antonio José Eduardo and José Lujan Perez are the authors of less elegant works. The first, whose works can be seen in Galdar, offers our attention overly academic examples, the result of a shallow acquaintance with the architecture of that time. The second architect was primarily a sculptor; he finished the western façade cathedral Gran Canaria in a very meager solution. The choirs in his performance are interesting - in the freedom of compositional architectural thought one can read the influence of his teacher Eduardo.

Thanks to the trend towards liberalization of the islands, at this time works of national-level professionals appear in the local architectural panorama. The most famous example is, without a doubt, Ventura Rodriguez's design for the reconstruction of the Cathedral of Concepción (Templo de la Concepción) in La Orotava. Also noteworthy are Manuel Martin and Joaquín Rodríguez, designers of the new cathedral in Candelaria (Templo de Candelaria). It is likely that the first was also responsible for the magnificent design of the chapel for the Cathedral of La Laguna, which was created a little earlier. Along with updates to the drawings, in which the influence of Ventura Rodriguez is discernible, the question of the location of the choir on the choir (one of the most controversial topics during the Enlightenment) became relevant at this time.

None of the above projects came to fruition, but to make matters worse, the planners had to destroy them, depriving subsequent generations of the necessary knowledge of the unbroken line of development and continuity of style. Two educational centers were created in the Canary Islands. One of them was formed by the army commander, Marquis de la Cañada, in 1779 in Santa Cruz de Tenerife to train mid-level officials; due to the remoteness of the islands, they performed the functions of engineers, possessing basic knowledge. The second center was created with the support of the Academy by the priest of the Cathedral of the Canary Islands, Jerónimo de Roo, in 1782. Thanks to him, the islands received significant autonomy in the field of construction, and the Academy satisfied its needs in terms of distributing official titles in the field of public construction. Both schools did not last long: the first closed after five years, the second a year earlier, but it then became the Drawing School, which existed under the protection of the king and the Academy.

In Santa Cruz de Tenerife the situation was such that the leadership of the engineering corps was located here. This was the reason for the presence of military engineers in the city, who over the years formed strong bonds of friendship with local families. Sometimes, thanks to this, they engaged in their professional construction activities with “non-military objects.” An example is the friendship between Matías Rodríguez Carta and the engineer Francisco Rodríguez González, which most likely influenced the architectural features of the Palacio de Carta in the Plaza de La Candelaria.

Houses such as the Casa de los Almacenes El Globo differ from traditional designs. The influence of neoclassicism is undeniable here. The builders did not see the need to use Greco-Roman elements to implement new rational forms based on rigor and asceticism. This is what distinguishes the work of military engineers. If working with stone in the construction of residential buildings in the Canary Archipelago was not an innovation, the very type of its use is changing. Broad connections are now made between the form of a building and its functions. Naturally, there remains the need to create different canons and comply with new rules. External monumentality is also associated with the laws of rationalism. Over the years traditional architecture became an example of rationalism.

On La Palma, despite Juan Nepomuceno Verdugo's long stay there, the key figure in the change of tastes is not he, but the presbyter José Joaquín Martín de Justa. The education he received in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria at the beginning of the 19th century allowed him to become closely acquainted with the trends of the Enlightenment. Upon returning to Santa Cruz de La Palma, diversified, he became one of the best designers and initiators of the process of architectural renewal here. His first work - the house of Jose García Carballo (Casa de Jose García Carballo) from 1811 represents neoclassical architecture: three levels, a pediment as almost the only decoration and much more... The rest of his work is characterized by modesty (stone cornices, windows with gentle arches...) ; traditional elements (balcony, Venetian window) are not on the main facade.

During the reconstruction of the El Salvador church, the usual ornament was not used at all. The second major representative of classicism on La Palma, Prester Manuel Diaz, together with Martin de Justa, removed most of the Flemish and Baroque altarpieces, instead placing modest examples of neoclassicism in the church. The most striking style changes can be observed in the transformation of the cathedral vaults: the Mudejar style roof is becoming a thing of the past.

In the first half of the 19th century. Santa Cruz de La Palma is gradually turning into Big City in neoclassical style. Those residents who do not rebuild their houses change their facades; here there is a desire for smooth, straight lines. In general, this trend corresponded to fashion trends. The interior decoration of the houses remained the same: the traditional Canarian courtyard was preserved. Only in late XIX c., with the introduction of new materials such as iron and glass, alternatives to traditional techniques are appearing in some homes.

Romantic classicism

The appearance of Manuel de Oraa on the Canary Archipelago in 1847 marked a change in construction methods traditional dwellings. He received his first assignments in Santa Cruz de Tenerife and, as a municipal architect, could easily introduce innovations in construction. His personal authority, extraordinary personality and wide connections with the upper class of Canarian society also played a big role. If you trace the order of Oraa's works chronologically, it is not always possible to talk about a straight progressive line of style evolution.

Romantic classicism- the style that prevailed in architecture in the second half of the 19th century had its own characteristics and variations in the Canary Islands:

In Santa Cruz de Tenerife:

The facade is a very modest work, a minimum of ornament and austerity.

In some areas, special façade elements (window and door openings) are highlighted.

The use of hewn stone becomes permanent, which was previously more common by chance.

To Las Palmas de Gran Canaria:

More expressive facades than in Tenerife, using ornaments.

Fine work with stone, which even made it possible to call stonemasons from Gran Canaria to other islands.

Rough stone decorations as decorative forms.

General trends can be identified on both islands:

The canon of door and window openings acquires a unique harmony and extends vertically.

The use of iron became widespread - both in the structure of the building and for decoration.

Examples of architecture of this time represent both adherence to strict academicism and free variations. Among the major engineers of the archipelago there is a conceptual maturity, which gave greater freedom in work.

In the second half of the 19th century. In the largest Canarian cities there is a phenomenon of complete renewal in the field of building construction. Architecture takes the path of serving society; design features are now closely related to public function building. The new administrative center of the Canary archipelago - Santa Cruz de Tenerife - requires the construction of buildings that would house various government institutions and officials. The new bourgeoisie, in turn, also demands the creation of various centers. The new status of the city attracts a whole stream of migrants here, and also allows for the implementation of new construction models.

Therefore, in less than 40 years, all the necessary types of public institutions that meet the requirements of the bourgeoisie, as well as new administrative centers, appeared here. In addition, widespread construction of private houses is unfolding - both on personal initiative and thanks to various construction organizations.

Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is a large city that also competed for the title of capital. Gradually, the infrastructure here reaches an appropriate level, and according to some indicators in subsequent years, Las Palmas even surpasses Santa Cruz de Tenerife. At this time, the appearance of the city changed, largely thanks to the engineer Manuel de Leon y Falcon. A successful policy leads to the renewal of the city: avenues, markets, theaters, squares, bridges and countless buildings appear on personal and administrative initiative.

On La Palma the second period of classicism was not so brilliant. Romantic classicism lacked the qualities that were inherent in the architecture of the previous 50 years. In general, the craftsmen maintained their characteristic style here, but on a smaller scale. The style turned out to be already outdated and repeated old options without offering anything new. However, transformations also took place here in the canon of door and window openings, and stone was used less and less, it was replaced by wood.

The most prominent figure of this period is Felipe de Paz Perez. Self-taught, he built a considerable number of buildings on La Palma and even participated in the construction of the Municipality building (Ayuntamiento) in Santa Cruz de La Palma. The problem was that he had to withstand the onslaught of masters who were unfairly awarded titles and merits.

The quality of Felipe de Paz's work can be seen in the way he modified Luis B. Pereira's designs for the capital's Plaza del Mercado. Felipe de Paz proposed a very free classicism, close to the ideas of Manuel de Oraa. Later, in his work, classicism gave way to eclecticism, as can be seen in the project of the Hospital de Dolores.

Classicism and romanticism are trends in literature and art. Each of them has its own principles and means artistic expression. Let's find out how classicism differs from romanticism by comparing their characteristic features.

General information

Classicism historically replaced the Baroque. His era spans more than 150 years. Classicism owes its birth in the 17th century to French writers and poets. The leading representatives of this trend were Francois de Malherbe, Pierre Corneille, Molière and others. In Russia, classicism developed late - in the 18th century. M. Lomonosov, D. Fonvizin, A. Kantemir - the names of famous Russian classicists.

Russian and Western European classicism were based on the same principles, but a certain specificity is clearly visible in the works. In particular, Western European classicists relied on the art of antiquity, considering it an ideal aesthetic model, while Russian writers more often turned to national history.

The first associations of representatives of a different direction - romanticism(the harbinger in this case was sentimentalism) - began to be created in Germany in the 18th century. Soon, romanticism began to spread in other European countries (England, France), and then reached the USA and Russia.

Among the famous romantics we should name G. Heine, V. Hugo, J. Byron, V. Zhukovsky, K. Ryleev. The dominant role of romanticism in literature did not last long - about thirty years, but its significance for world culture is enormous.

Comparison

First of all, one should compare the ideological attitudes of each of the directions. Thus, the basis of classicism is the principle of rationalism. Reason dominates both public and personal life. Civic and moral duty stands above selfish feelings and passions. In the works of classicism, reason and feelings constitute the main conflict, and reason certainly wins.

Romanticism recognizes the highest value inner world, human individuality. In the confrontation between “society and personality,” the emphasis shifts towards the individual, who is self-sufficient, sensitive, and thirsty for freedom. Romanticism depicts exceptional characters and desperate (often rebellious) passions. It contains a cult of nature, everything natural.

To better understand the difference between classicism and romanticism, we list the characteristics of both directions, which are completely dissimilar from each other. Classicism is characterized by the following:

Only the eternal is valuable. Only the essential, the typological, is important; everything accidental does not matter.
Pyramid concept. In every phenomenon there is a center - the top of the “pyramid”, to which the entire “building” is subordinated. For example, in relation to the state, classicists recognized such a center as a reasonable monarchy, beneficial for all citizens. Man was considered as a link in the pyramid of the universe.
A person is a function; his external actions are important. For example, Peter I was portrayed as an ideal monarch who strengthened the state and cared for its welfare. And the fact that he was a very complex and not at all attractive person was not given any importance.
In creativity, one can see the unilinearity of the characters, the presence in them of one dominant trait (courage or cowardice, nobility or insidiousness, etc.). Each hero, depending on his attitude to civic duty, is clearly characterized as positive or negative.
The works are constructed according to the rules of rigor and logic. The principle of three unities is used: the action takes no more than a day (unity of time), takes place in one place (unity of place), and represents one conflict with the participation of all heroes (unity of action).
Hierarchy of genres. High genres, such as tragedy and ode, described grandiose events in which they took part prominent figures, generals, monarchs. Low genres (comedy, fable) depicted the life of ordinary people, ridiculed everyday phenomena and certain character traits.

The main signs of romanticism:

The removal of heroes from reality due to dissatisfaction with it. Depicting a picture of the world that is in tune with the author’s ideals. Events can take place in a mystical past, in a future with a restructured society, in an otherworldly, fantasy world.
Interest in unusual personalities ( noble robber) and high passions (fatal love). Heroes - strong, desperate natures - can sacrifice themselves for the sake of the happiness of their neighbors or actively rebel against existing living conditions.
The natural elements are opposed to civilization, which often appears as a prison for free person. Events often take place against the backdrop of exotic landscapes and rural areas.
Emotional, upbeat tone of the works. The predominance of the lyrical beginning.
Intricate plot outline: paradoxical moves, exciting secrets, unexpected endings.
The difference between classicism and romanticism is also visible in the presented genre palette. Romanticism is embodied in romantic drama, a specially composed novel, an elegy, a sublime poem.

The crisis of classicism was a natural consequence of the historical situation that developed in Europe in the first decades of the 19th century. At the beginning of the century, wars raged in Europe, causing a surge of high patriotic feelings. The victory over Napoleonic France did not bring peace: the rise of national liberation movements, alternating periods of revolutions and restorations contributed to widespread ferment of minds.

“The present century,” wrote the Decembrist P.I. Pestel, is marked by revolutionary thoughts from one thing! end of Europe to the other, from Portugal to Russia, and excluding not a single state... The spirit of transformation makes, so to speak, minds bubble everywhere.”

Awakened by revolutions and fueled by war, the intensity of passions under the conditions of reactionary political regimes established as a result of the restoration of the monarchy could not find worthy social application. Moreover, in the established legal order, the mind became quite clearly defined by its bourgeois essence. There was an abyss between it and those high ideals that were proclaimed by the enlightenment philosophers of the 18th century and inscribed on the banners of the French Revolution. This caused a critical revision of the essence of many ideas and principles of the Enlightenment and their artistic display. Therefore, it is quite natural that since the proclamation of the “kingdom of reason” by the rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment was defeated, the artistic principles of classicism, in many aspects associated, as noted above, with the Enlightenment of the 18th century, were also questioned.

Caused by a huge upheaval in the social and spiritual life of Europe, romanticism reflected the complexly unstable state of that transitional era, when a struggle between two social formations unfolded: dying feudalism and young, growing capitalism. Hence, characteristic of romanticism, “a complex and always more or less unclear reflection of everything: shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional eras, but its main note is the expectation of something new, anxiety before the new, a hasty, nervous desire to know this new” .

Classicism gravitated towards the expression of “eternal truths”, “eternal beauty”, towards balance and harmony. In contrast, the art of the era of romanticism sought to understand the world and man in all their diversity, to capture the variability of the world, the transition of states of nature, and the subtlest shades of the movements of the soul. Romanism greatly expanded both the thematic boundaries of art and the range of means of artistic expression, the hierarchy of arts and artistic genres established by classicism changed, and those in which the aesthetics of romanticism found its most complete expression began to develop especially rapidly. Variety of genres, search for new, more diverse, flexible and emotionally rich artistic forms became the most important features of the creative credo of romanticism.

Romanticism was a powerful ideological and artistic movement that covered all areas of spiritual life in Europe and was reflected in religion, philosophy, and politics. This movement was embodied especially fully and vividly in literature, music and painting, constituting an entire “era of romanticism” in their history. The dispute between the “romantics” and the “classics” that unfolded in the literary and artistic criticism of the 1820s-11830s played an important role in the fate of literature and art, helping to overcome the outdated aesthetic norms of classicism and paving the way for new, progressive phenomena artistic life.

In different areas of artistic creativity, romantic tendencies manifested themselves in different ways. But the general “spirit of transformation” characteristic of romanticism was expressed in a persistent desire to overcome canonical rigidity artistic techniques classicism and create a more diverse and more flexible system of means of aesthetic expression. This militant “anti-canonism” of the romantics was reflected in those new architectural views that began to take shape in the 1830s.

The aesthetic program put forward by romanticism was completely different in its emotional and ideological orientation than the one professed by classicism. The ideals of “tranquility” and “noble simplicity”, the programmatic unification of the architectural language of classicism, the romantics perceived “scholasticism, which prescribes buildings to be ranked according to one standard and built according to one taste.”

“Architecture,” Gogol asserted, “should be as capricious as possible: take on a stern appearance, show a cheerful expression, breathe antiquity, shine with news, inspire horror, sparkle with beauty, be sometimes gloomy, like a day covered in a thunderstorm with thunder clouds, then clear, like morning in the sunshine."

Developing romantic concept spiritual and emotional fullness of architecture. Gogol contrasts the “monotony” and “scholasticism” of classicism with the “inspired gloomy” Gothic architecture, which “gives more revelry to the artist,” and the architecture of the East, “which was created only by imagination, an eastern, hot, wonderful imagination.” Paying tribute to the works of architects Ancient Greece, full of “harmoniousness and simplicity,” he condemned the classicist architects for distorting the essence of Attic architecture, turning its techniques into fashion.

P. Ya. Chaadaev expressed similar thoughts. In one of his “philosophical letters,” published in 1832 in the journal Telescope, he contrasted the “Greek style” with the “Egyptian and Gothic style.” According to Chaadaev, the first “refers to the material needs of man”, the other two - “to his moral needs”, for they have “a common ideal character, very clearly manifested in some kind of uselessness or, better, in the exclusive idea of the monument, which is especially dominates them." Chaadaev, like Gogol, was attracted by the special spirituality and emotional intensity of the Gothic. “It seems to me that the Gothic tower is worthy of special attention, as one of the most beautiful creations of the imagination,” wrote the author of “Philosophical Letters,” “it, like a powerful and beautiful thought, alone strives for the sky, takes you away from the earth and takes nothing from the earth , belongs to a special order of ideas and does not stem from the earthly: a most wonderful vision, without beginning or cause on earth.”

The opposition of the “spiritual” to the “earthly”, so clearly felt in this excerpt from Chaadaev’s “philosophical letter”, is very characteristic of the aesthetics of romanticism, especially in final stage its development. According to one of the ideologists of romanticism, the German philosopher F.-W. Schelling, those were the years when “the human spirit was uninhibited, considered itself the right to oppose its real freedom to everything that exists and ask not about what is, but what is possible.”

Looseness human spirit and at the same time, the desire to delve into the “secrets of the soul”, keen attention to the human personality, to the unique, individual and human character, and in the phenomena of life - the most important features aesthetic program romanticism. The heroes of Beethoven, Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov passionately assert their human individuality, their right and ability to resist society, the “crowd,” and fate itself. V. S. Turchin in the book “The Age of Romanticism in Russia” notes that “if late classicism acquired an increasingly state character, then young romanticism appealed to individual consciousness, being interested in the fate of a person who entered the new century.”

Romantic poets painfully felt the “narrowness of the limits of classicist poetry” and saw in “freedom of choice and presentation the primary goal of romantic poetry.” Similar statements were heard in the 1830s by architects and estheticians who, thinking about the fate of architecture, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to critically review the “five rules of Vignola” and other canons of classicism.

The pathos of romantic individualism was also reflected in architecture, but very indirectly, in accordance with the peculiarities of its artistic and figurative structure. The problem of the relationship between the general and the individual, translated into the language of architectural forms, turned into a relationship between the canonical norm and originality. In contrast to the normativity of classicism, romanticism put forward the principle of free choice of artistic techniques.

In the same year of 1834, when Gogol’s “Arabesques” were published, on May 8, at the ceremonial ceremony of the Moscow Palace Architectural School, the young architect M. D. Bykovsky made a speech “On the groundlessness of the opinion that Greek or Greco-Roman architecture can be universal and that the beauty of architecture is based on the five well-known orders,” that is, on the canons of the five orders developed by the architects of antiquity and the Renaissance.

The essence of the new views that Bykovsky expressed in his speech is clear from its very name. His theoretical position corresponds to the aesthetics of romanticism, which considered it unacceptable to restrict the freedom of artistic creativity by a system of canonical rules. “It will seem strange to everyone,” Bykovsky argued, “that the elegant can be subordinated to the same, universal and in no case unchangeable formulas,” although, he noted, such an opinion, “so false in its beginnings... has already taken root and solemnly gravitates over the most beautiful works of the human spirit." Bykovsky saw the reason for such an uncreative, mechanical repetition of the canonical forms of architecture of the past in a lack of understanding that “the history of the architecture of any people is closely connected with the history of its own philosophy.” Each era develops its own architectural style that meets its spiritual needs and customs of a given nation, therefore the repetition of compositional techniques of “one chosen century” is, according to Bykovsky, “a reckless intention to suppress the fine arts.” According to him, “equally inconsistent with common sense is the assessment of the dignity of the beauty of art by means of a linear measure and the idea that the columns of one order or another should determine all the dimensions of a building, the entire strength of its character.”

The most important feature public consciousness the first decades of the 19th century became historicism: the centuries-old path of development of society and culture began to be viewed as a single process in which each link had its own specific historical meaning. Paying tribute to the ancient era, which created monuments of exceptional artistic perfection, historians and art critics of the new generation sought to explore and understand the significance of subsequent eras in general process development of world culture. Combining the ideological principles of historicism with a romantic fascination with antiquity and exoticism, the aesthetics of those years called on contemporaries to become spiritual heirs of all the riches of human culture created by both the West and the East. “Tired of the monotony of classicism,” the Moscow Telegraph magazine wrote in 1825, “the brave minds of Europeans dare to fly in all other directions... We want to know and comprehend the spirit of all humanity.”

The growing interest in antiquities and the Middle Ages led to the appearance of a number of buildings “in the Gothic style.” In Russian architecture, along with the romantic neo-Gothic, other trends arose, associated with an appeal to the architectural traditions of ancient Russian architecture and to the experience of folk, folk architecture. Characteristic of the artistic life of Russia and all of Europe early XIX centuries growing interest in art Ancient Egypt and the exoticism of the East caused the emergence of various kinds of “oriental” trends in architecture.

Just as in literature, music, and painting, romanticism sharply expanded thematic boundaries, “introduced medieval themes, exotic themes, folk themes,” in architecture it led to the emergence of a number of stylistic trends, significantly different in their artistic attitudes from the architecture of classicism.

A new artistic worldview, born of romanticism, the desire to know and comprehend the “spirit of all humanity,” a growing consciousness that modern culture should become the heir to the culture of all previous eras, led to the conclusion that “all types of architecture, all styles” can and should find application in architecture.

Formulating new architectural principles from the standpoint of romantic aesthetics, N.V. Gogol, in the article cited above, argued that “a city must consist of diverse masses if we want it to give pleasure to the eye. Let it combine more diverse tastes. Let rise in the same street: the gloomy Gothic, and the oriental, burdened with the luxury of decoration, and the colossal Egyptian, and the Greek, imbued with harmonious size.” Romanticism played a very important role in the overall process of artistic evolution of architecture. Having acted as an ideological opponent of aging classicism, romanticism actively contributed to the departure of architecture from that creative method, which was the basis of classicism. On the other hand, the programmatic “anti-canonism” of the romantics and the new architectural concept, based on an appeal to the heritage of “all styles”, contributed to the development of a new creative method, which became leading in the architecture of the middle and second half of the 19th century century, and determined the artistic and stylistic features of eclecticism.

The result of the development of this new creative method was the formation of a number of stylistic trends in the architecture of the 1820-1830s. One of them was the stylized neo-Gothic, which turned out to be perhaps the most consistent embodiment artistic ideals romanticism in the architecture of that period.

Classicism(from Latin “classicus” - exemplary) – one of the most important areas of art, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons and unities. The rules of classicism are designed to provide the main goal - to educate and instruct the public, turning it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire to idealize reality, due to the refusal to depict a complex and multifaceted reality. Classicism traces its history back to the end of the 16th century. It existed until the beginning of the 19th century, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

Romanticism – ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture from the end of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century. Born in Germany. It is characterized by the affirmation of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong and rebellious passions and characters, and a spiritualized and healing nature.

Philosophy of Romanticism. The category of the sublime is central to romanticism and was formulated by Kant in his work “Critique of Judgment.” Romanticism contrasts the educational idea of progress and the tendency to discard everything “outdated and outdated” with an interest in folklore, myth, fairy tales, the common man and a return to one’s roots and nature. For romantic works characterized by a rejection of rationality and rigid literary rules.

The Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste and complete freedom of creativity.

What is “surrealism”? cultural phenomenon? Surrealism and psychoanalysis. Basic techniques and ideology of surrealism, surrealists’ ideas about creativity. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern sociocultural situation.

Surrealism – a movement in art that was formed by the early 1920s in France. Distinctive features: the use of allusions and paradoxical combinations of forms. Bosch is considered the founder of surrealism.

Allusion – stylistic figure, containing an indication, analogy or allusion to a certain literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in textual culture or in colloquial speech.

The main concept of surrealism is surreality - the combination of dream and reality. The surrealists proposed a controversial combination of naturalistic images through collage and technology. ready-made».

The term “ready-made” in the context of fine art was first used by the French artist Marcel Duchamp in 1913. to designate his works, which are everyday objects removed from the environment of their normal functioning and displayed without any changes on art exhibition as works of art, i.e. moving an object from a non-artistic space to an artistic one. Duchamp’s first “ready-made” - “Bicycle Wheel” (1913) “He took a standard household product, placed it in an unusual environment, so much so that its usual meaning disappeared in the new environment. With a new look and a new name, he created new idea subject,” wrote Beatrice Wood.

For example, the poet Vera Pavlova rewrites a note from encyclopedic dictionary. This “borrowing” is called "found poetry"- found poetry.

What is “automatic writing” and “unconscious creativity”? “Automatic writing” within the framework of aesthetic and psychiatric ideas. "Unconscious creativity" as a creative principle. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern sociocultural situation.

The main category of surrealist aesthetics, the main technical technique, the method of surrealism is automatic writing, i.e. creativity without consciousness control, when the speed of writing outstrips the speed of the author’s reflection. For surrealists, the subconscious is the only source of truth.

Automatic writing is high-speed writing “from dictation” of the unconscious, unconscious recording of everything that comes to mind, recording hallucinations, dreams, daydreams - any images of the imagination.

The main condition for automatic writing is writing speed and no corrections. Breton believed that automatic writing is not only reification, verbalization of thought, but “thought-speaking.”

The theory of automatic writing is associated with the special status of the poet: the poet as a neutral-external recording apparatus.

It should be noted that surrealist works often arose as a result of collective creativity.

1) orientation towards mythological creativity;

2) a consequence of automatism;

3) one of the working conditions is “the interests of the group are above the interests of the individual” and it was necessary to part with one’s own interests;

In formulating the principles of automatic writing, the theorists of surrealism relied on the teachings of the French intuitionist philosopher Henri Bergson and on the psychoanalysis of Freud and Jung. Automatic writing is based on the method of free association, first used by Freud in psychoanalytic sessions. The principle of psychoanalysis, developed by Freud, was based on the method of free association: when a person, starting from a word or image, expresses all, indiscriminately, the thoughts that come to his mind. A surreal work is born in the same way: it arises as a result of an arbitrary, from the point of view of logic, connection in the text different words and images.

What is characteristic of the “Silver Age” of Russian culture? Social and ideological context of the “Silver Age” of Russian culture. Changing the status of the “creator” and “creativity” in Russia during the “Silver Age”.

During the “Silver Age” people are looking for new foundations for their spiritual and religious life.

The “Silver Age” is an age of oppositions. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a huge influence on the formation of the ideas of the “Silver Age,” believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since “death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space.”

In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become fundamental and almost the only forms the existence of man, the main means of understanding him,” Solovyov believed.

Many people have strived to break out everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their consistency and expediency. The lives of creative people were rich and full of experiences. However, the consequence of such an accumulation of experiences was often deep emptiness. Therefore, the fates of many people of the “Silver Age” are tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave birth to a beautiful and original culture.

In literature, the realistic trend at the turn of the 20th century was continued by L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, who created their own best works, the theme of which was the ideological quest of the intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday problems and concerns.

Russian literature of the early 20th century produced wonderful poetry. One of the directions of poetry of this time was symbolism. For symbolists (A. Blok, Z. Gippius), who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. Representatives of this movement believed that the “symbols” and “mystical contents” of works are the basis of new art.

Later, a new movement in poetry appeared, which was called “Acmeism”. This direction was formed in the “Workshop of Poets” circle. It included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam and others. They focused on the intrinsic value of reality. This direction of poetry is characterized by “wonderful clarity” of language, realism and accuracy of details, and the picturesque brightness of figurative and expressive means.

In the 1910s, an avant-garde movement in poetry emerged, which was called “futurism.” Futurists denied the social content of art and cultural traditions. They are characterized by anarchic rebellion. In their collective program collections (“A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc.) they challenged the so-called “public taste and common sense.” Also, representatives of this direction (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky) loved to experiment with words.

What is the difference between “psychology of perception”, “psychology of thinking”, “psychology of decision-making” and “psychology of creativity”? Basic principles and sections of the classical, or " functional psychology" Attempts to use “psychology of perception” and similar areas of psychology to analyze creativity and art.

Psychology of perception – a branch of psychology that studies the process of forming a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception the entire object, in the totality of its properties, is represented as a unit of interaction.

Psychology of thinking– a branch of psychology that studies thinking as one of the mental processes aimed at solving problem situations, tasks and consists in a generalized and indirect knowledge of reality. Thinking characterizes not the sensory (sensation, perception, idea), but the abstract-logical level of human cognitive activity. With the help of mental processes: analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc., mental operations (actions) and forms of thinking, sensory-perceptual data are processed. The result of such processing is the reflection of reality in concepts, judgments, theories, etc. One of the most important issues in the psychology of thinking is the description of the content of mental activity. In modern psychology, thinking is considered as a higher mental process. The content of thinking includes:

1) thought processes (analysis, synthesis, abstraction);

2) mental actions, operations (mathematical operations - addition, subtraction);

3) forms of thinking (concept, judgment, inference);

4) a system of knowledge and concepts that are interconnected and used by the subject when solving problems;

5) generalized personal characteristics that are updated in the course of thinking (motivation).

Making decisions Almost all psychologists recognize it as the central point of management. It is by this criterion that the main roles in labor process: leader and subordinate. Decision-making– this is a complex thought process that involves recognizing the problem, setting an adequate goal and choosing the means to implement it.

Psychology of acceptance management decisions characterized by a number of psychological patterns:

1) for a decision maker individually:

· ability to make decisions in difficult conditions (limited time, high risk);

· limited rationality (when subjective biases limit the train of thought);

· Irwin's phenomenon (overestimation of the significance and probability of obtaining the desired result, and underestimation of the undesirable);

· analysis paralysis (when efforts to find a solution are concentrated on a certain stage for a long time);

· blindness by the decision (shift from the goal of the decision to the means of achieving it);

· the phenomenon of a favorite alternative (when a method is used that has previously achieved positive results).

2) For group decision making:

“grouping” (when people in a group have a deformed individual decision, and there is an illusion of innocence for a poor-quality decision);

unconditional faith in the norms of behavior professed by the group;

a stereotypical view of a group member (characterized by open pressure on those who think individually in the group).

Psychology of creativity(eng. psychology of creative activity) - a branch of psychology that studies the creation by man of a new, original various fields activities, primarily in science, technology, art, as well as in everyday life. The psychology of creativity also deals with the formation, development and structure of human potential.

Basic sections psychology:

§ General psychology;

§ Social Psychology;

§ Age-related psychology;

§ Pedagogical psychology;

§ Labor psychology;

§ Psycholinguistics;

§ Differential psychology;

§ Psychometry;

§ Psychophysiology;

§ Psychology of management.

Functional psychology- a direction in psychology that considers the mental life and behavior of a person from the point of view of his active and purposeful adaptation to conditions environment. (The fundamental ideas of functional psychology belong to the evolutionary doctrine developed by Charles Darwin and G. Spencer).

Introduction

In the 19th century, painting, broader and deeper than other types of fine art, solves complex and pressing worldview problems, plays an active role in public life, being often associated with social and national liberation movements; important in paintings of the 19th century century acquired a sharp criticism of social reality. At the same time, throughout the 19th century, academic canons that were far from life and abstract idealization of images were officially cultivated in painting; naturalistic tendencies arose that ignored the independent expression of the expressive means of painting. In the fight against the rationalism and abstraction of official salon-academic painting, the painting of romanticism with its emotional intensity, active interest in dramatic events of history and modernity, and the display of strong human passions, the energy of the pictorial language, the dynamics of construction, the contrast of light and shadow, the richness of color.

In connection with these trends, it became relevant to consider the work of a representative of these two styles at once, the Russian painter Karl Bryullov.

The object of study is the styles of classicism and romanticism in art.

The subject of the study is the work of Karl Bryullov.

The purpose of the study is to identify and describe the classical and romantic combination of styles in his work.

Research objectives:

1. Produce theoretical analysis on the research topic.

2. Compare existing style directions.

3. Characterize the work of Karl Bryullov.

4. Identify and analyze points of contact between two directions in the artist’s works.

The methodological basis of the work is the works of M. Alenov, E. Atsarkina, T.V. Balitskaya, I.N. Bocharova et al.

Work structure. Course work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references (11 titles), and an appendix.

Chapter 1 is devoted to a description of the characteristic features of classicism and romanticism in painting.

Chapter 2 is devoted to the main stages of Karl Bryullov’s activities. Section 2.1 discusses the artist’s training stage classical art at the Academy of Arts. Section 2.2 traces the emergence of the Italian genre in the work of Karl Bryullov. Section 2.3 describes portraiture.

Chapter 3 is devoted to identifying a harmonious combination of artistic movements using the example of the painter’s works.

In conclusion, the results of the study are presented.

Classicism and romanticism in painting

Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is a style and direction in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model. developed in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational regularity of the world, about beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express great social content, sublime heroic and moral ideals, to strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images. art It is distinguished by the logical development of the plot, clarity, and balance of composition.

Romanticism (French romantisme from Latin romanum Roman from Roma - Rome) is one of two, along with Classicism, fundamental trends in artistic thinking.

Romanticism became the first artistic direction, in which the awareness of the creative personality as a subject of artistic activity was clearly manifested. The Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste and complete freedom of creativity. Attaching the creative act itself decisive importance, destroying the obstacles that held back the artist’s freedom, they boldly equated the high and the low, the tragic and the comic, the ordinary and the unusual. Romanticism captured all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, philosophy, aesthetics, philology and other humanities, plastic arts. But at the same time, it was no longer the universal style that classicism was. Unlike the latter, romanticism had almost no state forms of its expression (therefore, it did not significantly affect architecture, influencing mainly landscape architecture, the architecture of small forms and the direction of the so-called pseudo-Gothic). Being not so much a style as a social artistic movement, romanticism opened the way further development art in the 19th century, which took place not in the form of comprehensive styles, but in the form of separate trends and directions.

Painting, as an expression of the prevailing concepts of art, in all countries experienced different periods, changing its direction. But nowhere has the history of painting been characterized so clearly as in France in different eras, depending on life and aspirations modern society. In the past and present centuries, several various styles replace each other in France after a more or less prolonged struggle between two directions - the previous one and the one that replaces it. Such a struggle was not only a silent competition between paintings at exhibitions, but was accompanied by heated discussions in the press, worried society and changed its views on the relationship of art to reality.

Classicism, as one of the heirs of antiquity, of course, classified paintings that were painted on historical and mythological subjects as a high genre. They show quite clearly drama, sacrificing one’s personal interests for the sake of the common good.

Romanticism did not have specific, limiting and constraining rules, the individuality of artists was so free that some of them are even known only for their virtuosity, others took scenes simply from the works of the latest fashionable writers as their plots and lived on someone else’s fiction, at all costs.

Bryullov painting classicism romanticism