The literary type of "superfluous person. What does "extra person" mean?

The problem of "superfluous" people in society is reflected in the work of many Russian writers. For example, in the comedy A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit".
Alexander Chatsky is the image of an advanced person of the 10-20s of the 19th century, who, in his convictions and views, is close to the future Decembrists. In accordance with the moral principles of the Decembrists, a person should perceive the problems of society as his own, have an active civil position, which is noted in the behavior of Chatsky. He expresses his opinion on various issues, coming into conflict with many representatives of the Moscow nobility.

First of all, Chatsky himself is noticeably different from all the other heroes of the comedy. This is an educated person with an analytical mindset; he is eloquent, gifted figurative thinking, which elevates him above the inertia and ignorance of the Moscow nobility. Chatsky's clash with Moscow society occurs on many issues: this is the attitude to serfdom, to public service, to domestic science and culture, to education, national traditions and language. For example, Chatsky says that "I would be glad to serve - it's sickening to serve." This means that he will not, for the sake of his career, please, flatter his superiors, and humiliate himself. He would like to serve "the cause, not the persons" and does not want to seek entertainment if he is busy with business.

Moscow nobles are annoyed by those personality traits of the protagonist that are just positive: his education and desire for knowledge, the ability to think independently and a thirst for justice, the desire to serve the Fatherland, but with the benefit of progress and with the aim of reforming the existing socio-political system. And the “famus society” did not want to allow transformations, therefore people like Chatsky were considered dangerous, they did not want to be seen in high society, and they became “superfluous people”.
Chatsky is alone in the crowd of Famusov's guests representing Moscow society where “empty, slavish, blind imitation” of everything foreign reigns and “a mixture of languages: French with Nizhny Novgorod” is heard. Chatsky is a patriot, he would like to be proud of his country and people, but in the manners of the nobles, in their way of life, the hero notes the degeneration of everything Russian, national.

Undoubtedly, patriotism is one of the most worthy qualities of a person, and Chatsky's spiritual image deserves high praise. But there are some features that somewhat violate the integrity positive image. Perhaps, due to inexperience, youth and ardor, the hero does not understand that it is inappropriate to pronounce accusatory monologues at Famusov's reception. Moreover, no one wants to listen to the opinion of Chatsky, no one cares about his experiences. It evokes negative emotions in those around him, since direct condemnation of the mores and beliefs of the bureaucracy and landowners does not contribute to mutual understanding with them. The hero should understand that Famusov and his guests are not the kind of society where one should open one's soul, share thoughts about modern reality. Sophia, like her father, easily classifies Chatsky as crazy, wanting to take revenge on him for mocking Molchalin. The hero is forced to leave the Famusovs' house, where his mind, his critical views on life were so unpleasant to others. He did not make friends or like-minded people here, but only knew disappointment, felt insulted and was ready to run away from here to muffle his mental pain.

Was there such a place in Russia where the hero of Griboedov could find "a corner for an offended feeling"? Probably, Chatsky should go to a place where secret societies of the future Decembrists already existed, where they appreciated smart people who were ready to use their knowledge and strength for the overdue transformations in the Fatherland. In the understanding of the advanced nobles, the mind should be free, “free”, which means that free-thinking was not an abusive word or a definition of vice for the Decembrists, dangerous disease, but vice versa. It is clear that Griboyedov's courage was highly appreciated by contemporaries with advanced convictions, since his hero Chatsky was close in spirit to the future Decembrists. He aroused sympathy by the fact that he felt the need to fight against inertia, ignorance, cruelty, injustice and other vices, he wanted to participate in transformations. When communicating with representatives of the Moscow nobility, he saw a misunderstanding, a hostile attitude towards himself, in addition, his position was complicated by a tragedy in love and loneliness. Therefore, A.S. Griboyedov defined Chatsky’s condition as “woe from wit”, since the hero felt himself “superfluous” in the society of Moscow nobles.

In the work of A.S. Pushkin, we can find the theme of “an extra person”, for example, in the poem “Gypsies”.
Aleko, the hero of the poem, fled from the “bondage of stuffy cities” to a gypsy camp, hiding from persecution for a crime he had committed. Aleko did not find his destiny, living in the familiar world, and he was quite satisfied gypsy freedom. Secular entertainment The idleness and luxury of his former life, intrigues and gossip irritate him, but Aleko cannot fill life with meaning, become useful and necessary to society, it is easier for him to wander aimlessly with gypsies. However, in the camp, as well as in high society, he turns out to be "an extra person." The hero did not want to come to terms with Zemfira's betrayal, he killed the girl along with her new lover. And the gypsies reject the stranger:

Leave us, proud man!
...You only want freedom for yourself...

In the novel by A.S. Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin", the main character also becomes "superfluous" in high society, although his position manifested itself somewhat differently than that of Chatsky or Aleko.
The environment where such personalities as Eugene Onegin are formed is represented by secular salons that educate "young rake". Endless dinners, balls, entertainment, playing cards gave rise to a desire for luxury and determined the needs and principles of these people. The monotony of secular life (“and today is the same as yesterday”) explains why boredom, gossip, envy, slander arise and reign in the world. To all this, Tatyana (the heroine of the novel) gives precise definition: "a hateful tinsel life."

The novel "Eugene Onegin" reflects many problems of the time. One of them is an “extra” person in society. To show the typical characters for a given time (10-20s of the nineteenth century), it is necessary to note the circumstances and sources of their occurrence. And Pushkin touches on the topics of upbringing, education, family relations in the work. The hero of the novel, as often happened in noble families, receives a superficial education under the guidance of a French tutor. Absence useful activities and due attention of parents in childhood, then an idle secular life - all this was typical for the "golden youth" of St. Petersburg, where the main character was born and raised.

It is impossible to explain everything in the fate of Onegin, but significant changes are taking place in his life, as well as in character. Dissatisfaction with oneself began in those days when a young rake, bored and disappointed in everything, feeling unnecessary, tries to find a job for himself, seeks to find meaning in life. He leaves the world and settles in a village. The strongest shock of that time was the murder of Lensky, who became his friend, trusted his heart secrets. Onegin could not forgive himself for a terrible mistake made because of his own egoism, unwillingness to explain himself to a person, to be more sensitive and attentive to a young friend and to people in general. This for the first time led him to suffering, to the "anguish of heartfelt remorse" that forced the hero to rush around the world.
The next test was unexpected love. We can say that the very ability to love speaks of the rebirth of Onegin. This is no longer an egoist, if for him the woman he loves becomes more precious than life. In moral terms, he is now cleaner, higher, as he is able to draw deep conclusions:

To lengthen my life
I have to be sure in the morning
That I will see you in the afternoon.

Onegin, having experienced suffering, learned to understand the feelings of other people, he knew the pain of loss, the pain of unrequited love and the inability to be near the woman he loved. He understands that he is punished by life for his former frivolity, for "playing in love", when he tested his skills in practice "in the science of tender passion." And as a result, for the former unwillingness to start a family, for the desire to preserve freedom (now “hateful”), Eugene receives suffering, loneliness. He realized how important it is in life just to have a dear person nearby. It turned out that true bliss lies in the ability to love and be loved! Onegin spoke about the soul. And this, of course, is a huge achievement in the moral improvement of the hero.
The hero has gone through a difficult path of spiritual evolution, he is ready to serve society and can become one of those who, entering into secret alliances of future Decembrists, thought about reforms in Russia.

The theme of the "superfluous person" is continued in M.Yu. Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time".
Pechorin, the hero of the novel, on the night before the duel with Grushnitsky, sorting through his life in memory, comes to sad conclusions: “... why did I live? for what purpose was I born?.. And, it is true, it existed, and, it is true, it was a high purpose for me, because I feel immense strength in my soul. Pechorin understands that he did not find something very important for himself and "became carried away by the bait of passions, empty and ungrateful."
Lermontov did not show his hero in any business or creativity (with the exception of some references to the dangerous, risk-to-life service in the Caucasus and keeping a diary). Before serving in the mountain fortress, Pechorin was mostly busy with secular idleness, so he sometimes needs thrills. Like many representatives of the "golden youth", the young officer liked his own superiority over "barely blossoming souls": he could easily "pick a flower and throw it" without any remorse. Pechorin knew "the greatest triumph of power", about which he spoke as follows: "... my first pleasure is to subordinate everything that surrounds me to my will, to arouse a feeling of love, devotion and fear."

In his diary (“Pechorin’s Journal”), the hero, prone to reflection, reflects on his life and finds an explanation for many actions: “evil breeds evil”, and therefore the suffering he endured in his youth gave the concept of “pleasure to torment another”. However, not every young man, as a result of suffering, becomes a tormentor for another person, that is, a villain. Usually, suffering makes the soul purer, more sublime, a person understands someone else's pain. Pechorin is not like that, he is an egoist by nature. The hero himself calls himself "an ax in the hands of fate", as he brings misfortune to many who are close to him.

In many cases, Pechorin acts like typical hero time. It is clear that the formation of his personality was influenced by the features of the post-Decembrist era, the decline in the social movement and apathy that set in during the years of reaction, but the person who has good moral inclinations can think about ways to solve both personal and social problems. Pechorin, on the other hand, cynically claims that society made him so: “I was insulted - I became vindictive ... I told the truth - they didn’t believe me: I learned to deceive.” And secular intrigues, victories over women and other meaningless entertainments that fill the void of life became the main occupation in his life.

Pechorin is able to “take on a deeply touched look” in order to fool a pretty girl and arouse her compassion for herself, explaining coldness and selfishness by the injustices of fate that made him a moral cripple. This is what he does with Mary, playing with her feelings, seeking her love, in order to then pictorially declare his inability to love. And again, he is not at all concerned about suffering, pain, the broken fate of another person, although Pechorin admits that he often realized himself as an executioner in relation to those with whom his fate brought him together. He felt in his soul "immense forces", but "the forces of this rich nature were left without use, life without meaning ...", as in the story of Onegin in A.S. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin". But in the previous era, the hero had the opportunity to join the Decembrists, while Pechorin does not have such a prospect, but he does not look like a person who thinks about the fate of Russia and the people. He remains "an extra person", and his life ends too soon. The image of the hero of the time, created by M.Yu. Lermontov, helps to understand what is the tragedy of the fate of an outstanding personality in an unhealthy society.

In I.S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”, the “superfluous person” is the nihilist Bazarov.
In an effort to contradict the whole world of aristocrats, nihilists refused to accept their morality, political attitudes, art, literature. In polemical fervor, like grimacing schoolchildren wishing to challenge society, they denied everything, intending to “clear the place first”, and then let others create something. Most likely, these new fighters and thinkers vaguely imagined the future that someone had to build on the ruins of the civilization inherited from the nobles.

The hero of Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons" Yevgeny Bazarov studies the natural sciences, works hard in medical practice, and is sure that this gives him the right to treat with disdain those who know life from other positions. He is often harsh, cynical, even arrogant with people, including those who seek to imitate him, who consider themselves his students. Since the followers of Bazarov do not have their own convictions, they are ready to imitate him, repeat everything that the idol will do or say. These people, who have not found a job in the Russian social movement, look like a pathetic and ridiculous parody of the fighters for freedom and progress. They cannot be called like-minded people of Bazarov, so the author calls them his students. In reality, these are people-chips, who were swept away by a storm in an era of change, and they are ready to wash at least on some shore. But the main character, Bazarov, turns out to be an "extra" person, not in demand in society. This is a tragic figure: he, like many in this era, did not find his destination, did not have time to do something necessary and important for Russia, and, having made a mistake in medical practice, he dies young. In the novel, Bazarov is a very lonely person, since he does not have true followers and like-minded people, which means that in nihilism, as in love, he failed.

Of course, one can not take seriously the “attacks” of the nihilist Bazarov against the “principles” of the aristocrat Kirsanov (Pavel Petrovich), especially his absurd opinion about the uselessness, uselessness for humanity of music, poetry, art in general (“Rafael is not worth a penny”). But with a closer acquaintance with this hero, an understanding comes: his outrageousness and harshness are explained by the fact that he himself does not know how to change what he does not like and what he rejects. It was also a phenomenon of the era when the aristocrats could no longer change anything, do anything, and the democrats would like to, but did not yet know what the path of Russia's development should be.

I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Rudin” is also devoted to the theme of the “superfluous person”, whose hero (Dmitry Rudin), having become a fighter for justice and democratic reforms at the call of his heart, is forced to leave his homeland. Finding no use for his strength, intelligence and talent, feeling unnecessary in Russia, he dies in Paris with a red banner in his hands during the revolutionary events of 1848.

In F.M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" the protagonist also does not find his place in public life countries.
Raskolnikov, who does not want to put up with injustice in society and the imperfection of life, comes up with his own theory, which, in his opinion, will help him find the meaning of life and confidence in the future. Rodion, rejected by society, "an extra person", protests against the fate of the humiliated and insulted "little man", and therefore wants to assert himself through crime. However, after the murder of the pawnbroker, there were no changes for the better in his life and the lives of those who suffered from the activities of the greedy old woman. And Rodion gradually comes to realize the falsity of the theory of "blood in conscience", about special people who are allowed a lot for the sake of great goals. Raskolnikov does not know how to change society so that every person feels "not superfluous", but he understands that through repentance and conversion to faith he can return to the life of an ordinary citizen.

In I.A. Goncharov's novel "Oblomov", the hero is completely removed from the problems of society and from the struggle for a better future.
Probably, Oblomov and the “Oblomovism” have their supporters and defenders. After all, Ilya Ilyich had a “beautiful, crystal-clear soul”; he remained faithful to the patriarchal way of life of the nobility, loved his parents, honest, simple, cordial people, and kept the memory of them; he did no harm to anyone and did not waste his soul "on trifles"; he preserved national traditions and culture. In fact, Oblomov sought to avoid the fuss and excessive, sometimes unnatural thirst for activity. But this yearning caused the sleep of the soul and led to the rejection of real life.

The merit of I.A. Goncharov before Russian society, not only in the fact that he created a true picture of reality, but also in the fact that the phenomenon depicted by the writer makes one think about the influence of Oblomovism on every person, regardless of the era and belonging to any class. N.A. Dobrolyubov also spoke about this in his article on the novel “Oblomov”: “Oblomov never left us ...”. The image of the main character, Ilya Ilyich Oblomov, quite naturally continued the gallery " extra people". Like Onegin, Pechorin, Beltov and others, Goncharov's hero is "infected" with the inability to find a job for himself in the contemporary world; he is not able to realize his dreams and plans.
Oblomov's path is a dead end: he cannot serve, because he does not want to seek promotion through unworthy means; He does not want to be "in the world", because he is too lazy. And servility, servility, insincerity or dishonesty, greed of some people interfere with communication and friendship. This makes him sad, depressing and weighs on his sensitive nature, which causes a desire to withdraw himself, to live in seclusion, solitude, increasingly feeling his uselessness, uselessness and loneliness. The typical complex of the "superfluous person" in Oblomov becomes paradoxical, as it leads not only to the denial of the existing reality, but also to the death of the individual. The hero strove to save himself from reality, at least by daydreams, went into the world of dreams, into a dream, and passed away from life in general.

Thus, in Russian literature, the theme of the “superfluous person” is reflected fully and multifaceted by writers of different eras.

Reviews

Hello Zoya! I read your article with great pleasure, and as I remember now, when our teacher went through this topic with us, and, which is typical, almost word for word with your arguments. True, when she said about Onegin that he was tired of every day one and also balls, theaters and all high-society tinsel, and made a comparison in the direction of a scientist who also makes experiments day after day and it would seem that a person should not enjoy his life either. And then she asked the class a question - what is the difference between these two people .Naturally, we could not say anything. Then she herself explained to us that the scientist has a goal - to get a result, and over and over again, making experiments, he ponders and strives to get closer to what he is looking for, but with Onegin it all comes down to how to kill time, he, like a thinking person, does not may not see this. But, as I understand it, Bazarov got into this company due to a misunderstanding, that is, Turgenev put the accents too sharply, in life such extremes are rare, but here you just need to get into the shoes of a hero, if he it seems that there is no other way out but to destroy everything beforehand, maybe if at that time there would have been the Internet, then Bazarov would not have become so categorical, but we also sometimes feel superfluous on this white light, and I’ll take a collection of my coins and start some movie or performance on the Internet, it’s like you’ll be distracted from all sorts of apocalyptic thoughts, otherwise I don’t know how. Maybe now there is no problem of extra people, Americans generally believe that the planet is overpopulated, and at least 2/3 must be thrown into the furnace of war for the sake of the mighty of the world this, and argue beyond good and evil. Thank you again for an interesting article, I will continue to visit your page.

Extra person- a literary type characteristic of the works of Russian writers of the 1840s and 1850s. Usually this is a person of considerable ability who cannot realize his talents in the official field of Nikolaev Russia.

Belonging to the upper classes of society, the superfluous person is alienated from the nobility, despises bureaucracy, but, having no other prospect of self-realization, mostly spends time in idle entertainment. This lifestyle fails to alleviate his boredom, leading to duels, gambling and other self-destructive behavior. TO typical features superfluous person include "mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed, and, as a rule, social passivity."

The name "superfluous man" was assigned to the type of disillusioned Russian nobleman after the publication in 1850 of Turgenev's story The Diary of a Superfluous Man. The earliest and classic examples are Eugene Onegin A. S. Pushkin, Chatsky from "Woe from Wit", Pechorin M. Lermontov - go back to the Byronic hero of the era of romanticism, to Rene Chateaubriand and Adolphe Constant. The further evolution of the type is represented by Herzen Beltov (“Who is to blame?”) and the heroes of Turgenev's early works (Rudin, Lavretsky, Chulkaturin).

Superfluous people often bring trouble not only to themselves, but also female characters who have the misfortune to love them. The negative side of superfluous people, associated with their displacement outside the social and functional structure of society, comes to the fore in the works of literary officials A.F. Pisemsky and I.A. Goncharov. The latter opposes practical businessmen “hovering in the skies” to loafers: Aduev Jr. - Aduev Sr., and Oblomov - Stolz.

Who is this "extra person"? This is a well-educated, intelligent, talented and extremely gifted hero (man), who, for various reasons (both external and internal), could not realize himself, his capabilities. The "superfluous person" is looking for the meaning of life, the goal, but does not find it. Therefore, he wastes himself on life's trifles, on entertainment, on passions, but does not feel satisfaction from this. Often the life of an "extra person" ends tragically: he dies or dies in the prime of life.

Examples of "extra people":

The ancestor of the type of "superfluous people" in Russian literature is considered Eugene Onegin from novel of the same name A.S. Pushkin. In terms of its potential, Onegin is one of the best people of his time. He has a sharp and penetrating mind, broad erudition (he was interested in philosophy, astronomy, medicine, history, etc.) Onegin argues with Lensky about religion, science, morality. This hero even strives to do something real. For example, he tried to alleviate the fate of his peasants (“He replaced the corvee with an old dues with a light one with a yoke”). But all this was wasted for a long time. Onegin was just burning through his life, But he got bored very soon. The bad influence of secular Petersburg, where the hero was born and raised, did not allow Onegin to open up. He did nothing useful not only for society, but also for himself. The hero was unhappy: he did not know how to love and, by and large, nothing could interest him. But throughout the novel, Onegin changes. It seems to me that this is the only case when the author leaves hope to the “extra person”. Like everything in Pushkin, the novel's open ending is optimistic. The writer leaves his hero hope for a revival.

The next representative of the type of "superfluous people" is Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin from the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time". This hero reflected a characteristic feature of the life of society in the 30s of the 19th century - the development of social and personal self-consciousness. Therefore, the hero, the first in Russian literature, tries to understand the reasons for his misfortune, his difference from others. Of course, Pechorin has enormous personal powers. He is gifted and even talented in many ways. But he does not find the use of his forces. Like Onegin, Pechorin indulged in all serious things in his youth: secular revels, passions, novels. But as a non-empty person, the hero very soon got bored with all this. Pechorin understands that secular society destroys, dries up, kills the soul and heart in a person.

What is the reason for the life restlessness of this hero? He does not see the meaning of his life, he has no purpose. Pechorin does not know how to love, because he is afraid of real feelings, afraid of responsibility. What is left for the hero? Only cynicism, criticism and boredom. As a result, Pechorin dies. Lermontov shows us that in the world of disharmony there is no place for a person who, with all his soul, albeit unconsciously, strives for harmony.

The next in the line of "superfluous people" are the heroes of I.S. Turgenev. First of all, this Rudin- the main character of the novel of the same name. His worldview was formed under the influence of philosophical circles of the 30s of the 19th century. Rudin sees the meaning of his life in serving high ideals. This hero is a great orator, he is able to lead, ignite the hearts of people. But the author constantly checks Rudin "for strength", for viability. The hero of these checks does not stand up. It turns out that Rudin is only able to speak, he cannot put his thoughts and ideals into practice. The hero does not know real life, cannot assess the circumstances and his strength. Therefore, he is "out of business."
Evgeny Vasilyevich Bazarov stands out from this orderly line of heroes. He is not a nobleman, but a commoner. He had, unlike all previous heroes, to fight for his life, for his education. Bazarov is well aware of reality, the everyday side of life. He has his "idea" and implements it as best he can. In addition, of course, Bazarov is a very intellectually powerful person, he has great potential. But the point is that the very idea that the hero serves is erroneous and pernicious. Turgenev shows that it is impossible to destroy everything without building anything in return. In addition, this hero, like all other "superfluous people", does not live the life of the heart. He gives all his potential to mental activity.

But man is an emotional being, a being with a soul. If a person knows how to love, then there is a high probability that he will be happy. Not a single hero from the gallery of "superfluous people" is happy in love. This speaks volumes. All of them are afraid to love, afraid or cannot come to terms with the surrounding reality. All this is very sad, because it makes these people unhappy. The enormous spiritual strength of these heroes and their intellectual potential are being wasted. The unviability of "superfluous people" is evidenced by the fact that they often die untimely (Pechorin, Bazarov) or vegetate, wasting themselves in vain (Beltov, Rudin). Only Pushkin gives his hero hope for rebirth. And this inspires optimism. So, there is a way out, there is a way to salvation. I think that he is always inside the personality, you just need to find strength in yourself.

The image of the "little man" in Russian literature of the 19th century

"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the XIX century.

The theme of the "little man" is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, which was constantly addressed by writers of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin was the first to mention it in the story “The Stationmaster”. The successors of this theme were N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

This person is small precisely in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower rungs of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is little or completely invisible. A person is considered “small” also because the world of his spiritual life and claims is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all sorts of prohibitions. For him there are no historical and philosophical problems. He lives in a narrow and closed circle of his vital interests.

The theme of the "little man" in Russian literature is associated with the best humanistic traditions. Writers invite people to think about the fact that every person has the right to happiness, to their own outlook on life.

Examples of "little people":

1) Yes, Gogol in the story "The Overcoat" characterizes the protagonist as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and inconspicuous person. In life, he was assigned the insignificant role of a copyist of departmental documents. Brought up in the sphere of subordination and execution of orders of superiors, Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin not accustomed to reflect on the meaning of his work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary ingenuity, he begins to worry, worry, and in the end comes to the conclusion: “No, it’s better to let me rewrite something.”

The spiritual life of Bashmachkin is in tune with his inner aspirations. The accumulation of money to buy a new overcoat becomes for him the goal and meaning of life. The theft of a long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him.

And yet Akaky Akakievich does not look like an empty, uninteresting person in the mind of the reader. We imagine that there were a great many such small, humiliated people. Gogol urged society to look at them with understanding and pity.
This is indirectly demonstrated by the surname of the protagonist: diminutive suffix -chk-(Bashmachkin) gives it the appropriate shade. "Mother, save your poor son!" - the author will write.

Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As compensation for the humiliation and insults suffered during his lifetime, Akaky Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, comes through and takes away their overcoats and fur coats. He calms down only when he takes away the outer clothing from " significant person", who played a tragic role in the life of the" little man ".

2) In the story Chekhov "Death of an official" we see the slavish soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful last name: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world with Chervyakov's eyes, and these events become huge.
So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt on top of bliss. But suddenly ... sneezed. Looking around like a "polite person", the hero was horrified to find that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day ...
There are a lot of such little officials who know only their little world and it is not surprising that their experiences are made up of such small situations. The author conveys the whole essence of the official's soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the cry in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible disaster his life is the catastrophe of his limitations.

3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the “little man” in his work. The main characters of the novel "Poor people" - Makar Devushkin- a half-impoverished official, crushed by grief, want and social lawlessness, and Varenka- a girl who has become a victim of social ill-being. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the theme of the disenfranchised, immensely humiliated "little man" who lives his inner life in conditions that trample on the dignity of man. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul.

4) Theme "poor people" develops as a writer in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of terrible poverty, which humiliates the dignity of a person. The scene of the work becomes Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peers penetratingly into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth.
Family life unfolds before us Marmeladov. These are people crushed by reality. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has "nowhere else to go." Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released into the street to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.

The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich Luzhin, whom she feels disgusted with. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere of social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of people and faith in their high calling. The souls of the "poor" can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but broken by the hardest conditions of life.

6. The Russian world in the prose of the 19th century.

For lectures:

Depiction of Reality in Russian Literature of the 19th Century.

1. Landscape. Functions and types.

2. Interior: detail problem.

3. The image of time in a literary text.

4. Motif of the road as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.

Scenery - not necessarily an image of nature, in literature it may involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, area. In the French theory of art, the description of the landscape includes the image wildlife, and the image of objects created by man.

The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specifics of the functioning of this text component.

First, landscapes stand out, which are the background of the story. These landscapes, as a rule, indicate the place and time against which the depicted events take place.

The second type of landscape is a landscape that creates a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.

The third type is the landscape, which creates/becomes the psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the character's psychology.

The fourth type is the landscape, which becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolic reflection of the reality depicted in a literary text.

The landscape can be used as a means of depicting a particular artistic time or as a form of presence of the author.

This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Modern critics isolate Goncharov's landscapes; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for an ideal representation of the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skill of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:

· pre-Pushkin, during this period the landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;

· post-Pushkin period, the idea of ​​an ideal landscape has changed. It assumes the stinginess of details, the economy of the image and the accuracy of the selection of details. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, involves identifying the most significant feature perceived in a certain way by feelings. This idea of ​​Pushkin, then will be used by Bunin.

Second level. Interior - image of the interior. The main unit of the interior image is a detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. The literary test of the 19th century did not show a clear boundary between the interior and the landscape.

Time in literary text in the 19th century it becomes discrete, intermittent. Heroes easily go into memories and whose fantasies rush into the future. There is a selectivity of the attitude to time, which is explained by the dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. The maximum conditional time in lyrical work, with the predominance of the grammar of the present tense, the lyrics are especially characterized by the interaction of different time layers. artistic time not necessarily concrete, it is abstract. In the 19th century, the depiction of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.

One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century was the motif of the road, becoming part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. In the 11th-18th centuries, in the genre of travel, the motif of the road was used, first of all, to expand ideas about the surrounding space ( cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motif is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The renewal of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858

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The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. Specified literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Come to the fore poetic works poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833)," The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for it romantic poem"Mtsyri", poetic story "Demon", a lot of romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, influenced by English historical novels, creates story "The Captain's Daughter" where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did an enormous job, exploring this historical period . This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism affects). Comedy is in the same vein. "Inspector". The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to portray the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature . It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
From the middle of the 19th century, the Russian realistic literature, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia.
Writers address to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
people.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of the small literary genre- a story, and also an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, hallmarks which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. From this opens new page in the history of Russian literature.

7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century.

Realism

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. basis realism How artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the depicted person appear as the result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, the universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be seen in the work of A.S. Pushkin).

Realism 2nd half of XIX V. often call critical, or socially accusatory. Lately in modern literary criticism there are more and more attempts to abandon such a definition. It is both too wide and too narrow; it levels the individual characteristics of the writers' creativity. The founder of critical realism is often called N.V. Gogol, however, in Gogol's work, social life, history human soul often correlates with such categories as eternity, supreme justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogol's tradition to one degree or another in the second half of the 19th century. picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, partly N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially later) there is a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehension of reality as a sermon, a religious and philosophical utopia, a myth, a life. No wonder M. Gorky expressed the idea of ​​the synthetic nature of Russian classical realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of the Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes a universal content, a “mystical plan”, which brings realists closer to the search for romantics and symbolists.

Social accusatory pathos in pure form appears most in the work of writers of the second row - F.M. Reshetnikova, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, with all their closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their work posing purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of a person unites all realist writers of the second half of the 19th century.

XIX century revealed the main aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism. In Russian literature of the second half of the XIX century. It is conditionally possible to single out several directions within the framework of realism.

1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the "forms of life itself." The image often acquires such a degree of reliability that about literary heroes speak as if they were living people. I.S. belong to this direction. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.

2. Bright in the 60s and 70s the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature is outlined(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have amazing pictures of social reality, depicted in the "forms of life itself." But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.

3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the 1st half of the 19th century, it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded in full force in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not appear as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the method of the writer; he combines in images, types, plots what is unnatural, and is absent in life, but is possible in the world created by the creative imagination of the artist; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that prevail in life.

4. Completely unique realism, "hearted" (Belinsky's word) by humanistic thought, presented in art A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the “Voltaireian” warehouse of his talent: “talent went into the mind”, which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, biographies of a person.

Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. the direction of the so-called "pure art" also developed - it is both romantic and realistic. Its representatives eschewed "damned questions" (What to do? Who is to blame?), but not reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feeling of a person, the life of his heart. They were excited by the beauty of life itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable with I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct influence on the work of Tolstoy in the era of Anna Karenina. It is no coincidence that Nekrasov discovered F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.

Problematics and Poetics

Russian prose, with all the flourishing of poetry and dramaturgy (A.N. Ostrovsky), occupies a central place in the literary process of the second half of the 19th century. It develops in line with the realistic trend, preparing in the variety of genre searches of Russian writers an artistic synthesis - the novel, the pinnacle of the world literary development of the 19th century.

The search for new artistic techniques images of a person in his connections with the world appeared not only in the genres story, story or novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Pisemsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, D. Grigorovich). Striving for an accurate recreation of life in the literature of the late 40s and 50s begins to look for a way out in memoir-autobiographical genres, with their installation on documentary. At this time, they begin to work on the creation of their autobiographical books. A.I. Herzen and S.T. Aksakov; the trilogy partly adjoins this genre tradition. L.N. Tolstoy ("Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth").

Another documentary genre goes back to the aesthetics of the "natural school", it is - feature article. In its purest form, it is presented in the works of democratic writers N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsova, A.I. Levitova, N.G. Pomyalovsky (“Essays on Bursa”); revised and largely transformed - in Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter and Saltykov-Shchedrin's Provincial Essays, Dostoevsky's Notes from the House of the Dead. Here, a complex interpenetration of artistic and documentary elements is observed, fundamentally new forms of narrative prose are being created, combining the features of a novel, essay, and autobiographical notes.

The desire for epicness is a characteristic feature of the Russian literary process of the 1860s; it captures both poetry (N. Nekrasov) and dramaturgy (A.N. Ostrovsky).

The epic picture of the world as a deep subtext is felt in novels I.A. Goncharova(1812-1891) "Oblomov" and "Cliff". So, in the novel Oblomov, the depiction of typical character traits and way of life subtly turns into the depiction of the universal content of life, its eternal states, collisions, situations. Showing the perniciousness of the "All-Russian stagnation", that which has firmly entered the Russian public consciousness under the name "Oblomovism", Goncharov opposes to it the preaching of the deed (the image of the Russian German Andrei Stolz) - and at the same time shows the limitations of this sermon. Oblomov's inertia appears in unity with genuine humanity. The composition of the "Oblomovism" also includes the poetry of a noble estate, the generosity of Russian hospitality, the touchingness of Russian holidays, the beauty of Central Russian nature - Goncharov traces the primordial connection of noble culture, noble consciousness with folk soil. The very inertia of Oblomov's existence is rooted in the depths of centuries, in the distant corners of our national memory. Ilya Oblomov is somewhat akin to Ilya Muromets, who sat on the stove for 30 years, or the fabulous simpleton Emelya, who achieved his goals without applying his own efforts - “according to pike command at my will." "Oblomovshchina" is a phenomenon not just of the nobility, but of the Russian national culture and as such, Goncharov does not idealize her at all - the artist explores both her strong and weak features. In the same way, purely European pragmatism, opposed to Russian Oblomovism, reveals strong and weak features. In the novel, on a philosophical level, the inferiority, insufficiency of both opposites and the impossibility of their harmonious combination are revealed.

The literature of the 1870s is dominated by the same prose genres, as in the literature of the previous century, but new trends appear in them. The epic tendencies in narrative literature are weakening, there is an outflow of literary forces from the novel, to small genres - a story, an essay, a story. Dissatisfaction with the traditional novel was a characteristic phenomenon in literature and criticism in the 1870s. It would be wrong, however, to assume that the genre of the novel entered a period of crisis during these years. The work of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin serves as an eloquent refutation of this opinion. However, in the 1970s, the novel underwent an internal restructuring: the tragic beginning sharply intensified; this trend is associated with a heightened interest in the spiritual problems of the individual and its internal collisions. Novelists pay special attention to a personality that has reached its full development, but is put face to face with the fundamental problems of being, deprived of support, experiencing deep discord with people and with itself (“Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy, “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky ).

In the short prose of the 1870s, a craving for allegorical and parable forms is revealed. Particularly indicative in this regard is the prose of N.S. Leskov, the flowering of his work falls precisely on this decade. He acted as an innovative artist, combining the principles of realistic writing into a single whole with the conventions of traditional folk poetic techniques, with an appeal to the style and genres of ancient Russian literature. Leskov's skill was compared with icon painting and ancient architecture, the writer was called an "isographer" - and for good reason. Gorky called the gallery of original folk types painted by Leskov "the iconostasis of the righteous and saints" of Russia. Leskov introduced into the sphere of artistic representation such layers folk life, which before him were hardly touched upon in Russian literature (the life of the clergy, the bourgeoisie, the Old Believers and other strata of the Russian provinces). In the depiction of various social strata, Leskov masterfully used the forms of a tale, whimsically mixing the author's and folk points of view.

IN early XIX centuries in Russian literature, works appear, central problem which is the conflict between the hero and society, man and the environment that brought him up. And as a result, it creates new image- the image of a "superfluous" person, a stranger among his own, rejected by the environment. The heroes of these works are people of an inquisitive mind, gifted, talented, who had the opportunity to become real "heroes of their time" - writers, artists, scientists - and who became, in the words of Belinsky, "intelligent useless things", "suffering egoists", "egoists involuntarily" . The image of the “superfluous person” changed as society developed, acquired new qualities, until, finally, it reached full expression in the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov".
The first in the gallery of "superfluous" people are Onegin and Pechorin - heroes who are characterized by cold prose, independent character, "sharp, chilled mind", where irony borders on sarcasm. These are extraordinary people, and therefore rarely satisfied with themselves, dissatisfied with an easy, carefree existence. They are not satisfied monotonous life"golden youth". It is easy for heroes to answer with all certainty what does not suit them, and it is much more difficult what they need from life. Onegin and Pechorin are unhappy, "cooled off to life"; they move in a vicious circle, where each action implies further disappointment. Dreamy romantics in their youth, they turned into cold cynics, cruel egoists, as soon as they saw the “light”. Who or what is the reason that smart, educated people have turned into "superfluous" people who have not found their place in life? It would seem that everything was in their hands, so this is the heroes' own fault? We can say that they themselves are to blame for how their fate turned out, but I still tend to believe that no one and nothing can change a person like society, the social environment, the conditions in which this or that person found himself. It was the "light" that turned Onegin and Pechorin into "moral cripples." Pechorin admits in his diary: "... My soul is spoiled by light, my imagination is restless, my heart is insatiable..." meaning of life, about his role in society, the Onegin nature of the 1920s is characterized to some extent by spiritual apathy, indifference to the outside world. The main difference between Pushkin's Onegin and Lermontov Pechorin - in the end result, to which both heroes come: if Pechorin managed to defend his convictions, denied secular conventions, did not exchange himself for petty aspirations, that is, he completely retained his moral integrity, despite internal contradictions, then Onegin squandered his spiritual strength stimulating to action. He lost the ability to actively fight and, "having lived without a goal, without labor, until the age of twenty-six ... did not know how to do anything." Lermontov depicts us more a strong character than Pushkin, but together they show how the surrounding reality, secular society, destroys a gifted person.
In Goncharov's novel we have before us the story of a man who does not have the makings of a decisive fighter, but has all the qualifications to be a good, decent person. "Oblomov" is a kind of "book of results" of the interaction of the individual and society, moral convictions and social conditions in which a person is placed. And if, according to the works of Lermontov and Pushkin, we can study the anatomy of one human soul, with all its contradictions, then in Goncharov's novel, a whole phenomenon of social life can be traced - Oblomovism, which has collected the vices of one of the types of noble youth of the 50s of the XIX century. In his work, Goncharov “wanted to ensure that the random image that flashed before us was raised to a type, to give it a generic and permanent meaning,” wrote N.A. Dobrolyubov. Oblomov is not a new face in Russian literature, "but before it was not exhibited before us so simply and naturally, as in Goncharov's novel."
Unlike Onegin and Pechorin, Ilya Ilyich Oblomov is a weak-willed, sluggish nature, divorced from real life. "Lying... was his normal state." Oblomov's life is a pink nirvana on a soft sofa: slippers and a bathrobe are indispensable companions of Oblomov's existence. Living in a narrow world created by him, fenced off from the real ebullient life by dusty curtains, the hero liked to make unrealizable plans. He never brought anything to an end, any of his undertakings suffered the fate of a book that Oblomov had been reading for several years on one page. However, Oblomov’s inaction was not elevated to such an extreme degree as, for example, Manilov from Dead Souls, and Dobrolyubov was right when he wrote that “... Oblomov is not a dull, apathetic nature, without aspirations and feelings, but a person who is looking for something in his life, thinking about something ... ”Like Onegin and Pechorin, Goncharov’s hero in his youth was a romantic, longing for an ideal, burned out from the desire for activity, but, like previous heroes,“ the color of life blossomed and gave no fruit. Oblomov became disillusioned with life, lost interest in knowledge, realized the worthlessness of his existence and lay down on the sofa, believing that in this way he could maintain his moral integrity. So he “lay” his life, “slept through” love and, as his friend Stolz said, “his troubles began with the inability to put on stockings and ended with the inability to live.” So the main difference
I see Oblomov from Onegin and Pechorin in the fact that if the last two heroes denied social vices in the struggle, in action, then the first "protested" on the couch, believing that this best image life. Therefore, it can be argued that the "smart useless" Onegin and Pechorin and the "extra" man Oblomov are completely different people. The first two heroes are "moral cripples" through the fault of society, and the third - through the fault of their own nature, their own inaction.
Based on the peculiarities of the life of Russia in the 19th century, we can say that if “superfluous” people were found everywhere, regardless of the country and political system, then Oblomovism is a purely Russian phenomenon, generated by the Russian reality of that time. It is no coincidence that Pushkin uses the expression "Russian melancholy" in his novel, and Dobrolyubov sees in Oblomov "our indigenous folk type."
Many critics of that time, and even the author of the novel himself, saw in the image of Oblomov a “sign of the times”, arguing that the image of an “extra” person was typical only for serf-owning Russia in the 19th century. They saw the root of all evil in the state structure of the country. But I cannot agree that the “suffering egoist” Pechorin, the “smart uselessness” Onegin, the apathetic dreamer Oblomov are the offspring of the autocratic-feudal system. Our time, the 20th century, can serve as proof of this. And now a large detachment of "superfluous" people, and in the 90s of the XX century, very many find themselves in the wrong place, do not find the meaning of life. Some at the same time turn into mocking cynics, like Onegin or Pechorin, others, like Oblomov, kill the best years of their lives, lying on the couch. So Pechorin is a “hero” of our time, and Oblomovism is a phenomenon not only of the 19th century, but also of the 20th century. The evolution of the image of the “superfluous” person continues, and more than one will bitterly say: “My soul is corrupted by the light ...” Therefore, I believe that it is not the fault of the tragedy of the “unnecessary” serfdom, but that society in which true values ​​are distorted, and vices often wear a mask of virtue, where a person can be trampled underfoot by a gray, silent crowd.

To some extent, this theme is opposite to the depiction of the "little man": if there is a justification for the fate of everyone, then here - on the contrary, the categorical impulse "one of us is superfluous", which can both relate to the assessment of the hero, and come from the hero himself , and usually these two "directions" not only do not exclude each other, but also characterize one person: the accuser of his neighbors himself turns out to be "superfluous".

"An extra person" is also a certain literary type. Literary types (types of heroes) are a collection of characters who are close in their occupation, worldview and spiritual appearance. The spread of this or that literary type may be dictated by the very need of society to depict people with some kind of stable set of qualities. The interest and benevolent attitude towards them on the part of critics, the success of books in which such people are portrayed, stimulates writers to "repeat" or "variate" any literary types. Quite often, a new literary type arouses the interest of critics, who give it a name ("noble robber", "Turgenev's woman", "superfluous person", "little man", "nihilist", "tramp", "humiliated and insulted").

The main thematic signs of "superfluous people". This is, first of all, a person potentially capable of any social action. It does not accept the "rules of the game" proposed by society, and is characterized by disbelief in the possibility of changing anything. The "superfluous person" is a contradictory personality, often in conflict with society and its way of life. This is also a hero, of course, unsuccessful in relations with his parents, and unhappy in love. His position in society is unstable, contains contradictions: he is always at least somehow connected with the nobility, but - already in a period of decline, fame and fortune - rather a memory. He is placed in an environment that is somehow alien to him: a higher or lower environment, there is always a certain motive of alienation, which does not always immediately lie on the surface. The hero is moderately educated, but this education is rather incomplete, unsystematic; in a word, this is not a deep thinker, not a scientist, but a person with a "power of judgment" to make quick but immature conclusions. The crisis of religiosity is very important, often a struggle with churchness, but often internal emptiness, hidden uncertainty, habit to the name of God. Often - the gift of eloquence, skill in writing, keeping records or even writing poetry. There is always some pretension to be the judge of one's neighbors; a shade of hatred is required. In a word, the hero is a victim of the canons of life.

However, with all the seemingly apparent certainty and clarity of the above criteria for evaluating the "extra person", the framework that allows one to speak with absolute certainty about the belonging of a particular character to a given thematic line is very blurred. It follows from this that the "superfluous person" cannot be "superfluous" entirely, but it can be considered both in line with other topics, and merge with other characters belonging to other literary types. The material of the works does not allow assessing Onegin, Pechorin and others only from the point of view of their social "benefit", and the very type of "extra person" is rather the result of understanding the named characters from certain social and ideological positions.

This literary type, as it developed, acquired more and more new features and forms of display. This phenomenon is quite natural, since every writer saw the "superfluous person" as he was in his mind. All the masters of the artistic word who have ever touched on the topic of "extra man", not only added a certain "breath" of their era to this type, but also tried to combine all social phenomena contemporary to them, and most importantly the structure of life, in one image - the image of the hero of the time . All this makes the type of "superfluous person" universal in its own way. This is precisely what allows us to consider the images of Chatsky and Bazarov as heroes who had a direct impact on this type. These images, undoubtedly, do not belong to the type of "extra person", but at the same time they perform one important function: Griboedov's hero, in his confrontation with Famus's society, makes it impossible to peacefully resolve the conflict between an outstanding personality and an inert way of life, thereby pushing other writers to the coverage of this problem, and the image of Bazarov, completing (from my point of view) the type of "superfluous person", was no longer so much a "carrier" of time as its "side" phenomenon.

But before the hero himself could certify himself as a "superfluous person", a more hidden appearance of this type had to occur. The first signs of this type were embodied in the image of Chatsky, the main character immortal comedy A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit". "Griboyedov is a 'man of one book,'" VF Khodasevich once remarked. "If it weren't for Woe from Wit, Griboedov would have absolutely no place in Russian literature." And, indeed, although the history of dramaturgy speaks of Griboyedov as the author of several wonderful and funny comedies and vaudevilles in his own way, written in collaboration with the leading playwrights of those years (N.I. Khmelnitsky, A.A. Shakhovsky, P.A. Vyazemsky), but it was "Woe from Wit" that turned out to be a one-of-a-kind work. This comedy for the first time broadly and freely depicted modern life and thus opened a new, realistic era in Russian literature. The creative history of this play is exceptionally complex. Her idea dates back to 1818. It was completed in the autumn of 1824, the censorship did not allow this comedy to be printed or staged. Conservatives accused Griboedov of exaggerating satirical colors, which, in their opinion, was the result of the author's "squabbling patriotism", and in Chatsky they saw a clever "crazy man", the embodiment of "Figaro-Griboedov's" philosophy of life.

The above examples of critical interpretations of the play only confirm all the complexity and depth of its social and philosophical problems, indicated in the very title of the comedy: "Woe from Wit". The problems of mind and stupidity, insanity and insanity, tomfoolery and buffoonery, pretense and hypocrisy are posed and solved by Griboedov on a variety of everyday, social and psychological material. Essentially, all characters, including secondary, episodic and off-stage ones, are drawn into the discussion of questions about attitudes towards the mind and various forms stupidity and madness. The main figure, around which all the diversity of opinions about comedy immediately concentrated, was the smart "madman" Chatsky. From the interpretation of his character and behavior, relationships with other characters depended overall score author's intention, problems and artistic features of comedy. The main feature of the comedy is the interaction of two plot-forming conflicts: a love conflict, the main participants of which are Chatsky and Sophia, and a socio-ideological conflict, in which Chatsky faces conservatives who have gathered in Famusov's house. I want to note that for the hero himself, not a socio-ideological, but a love conflict is of paramount importance. After all, Chatsky came to Moscow with the sole purpose of seeing Sophia, finding confirmation of his former love and, possibly, getting married. It is interesting to trace how the hero's love experiences exacerbate Chatsky's ideological opposition to the Famus society. At first, the protagonist does not even notice the usual vices of the environment where he got, but sees only the comic side in it: "I'm a weirdo to another miracle / Once I laugh, then I'll forget ...".

But Chatsky is not "an extra person." He is only the forerunner of "superfluous people". First of all, this is confirmed by the optimistic sound of the comedy finale, where Chatsky remains with the right of historical choice given to him by the author. Consequently, Griboedov's hero can find (in the future) his place in life. Chatsky could have been among those who went to Senate Square on December 14, 1825, and then his life would have been sealed for 30 years ahead: those who took part in the uprising returned from exile only after the death of Nicholas I in 1856. But something else could have happened. An irresistible disgust for the "abominations" of Russian life would make Chatsky an eternal wanderer in a foreign land, a man without a homeland. And then - longing, despair, alienation, acrimony, and, what is most terrible for such a hero-fighter - forced idleness and inactivity. But this is just the guesswork of the readers.

Chatsky, rejected by society, has the potential to find a use for himself. Onegin will no longer have such an opportunity. He is an "extra person" who has not been able to realize himself, who "deafly suffers from a striking resemblance to the children of the present century." But before answering why, let's turn to the work itself. The novel "Eugene Onegin" is a product of an amazing creative destiny. It was created for more than seven years - from May 1823 to September 1830. The novel was not written "in one breath", but took shape - from stanzas and chapters created in different time, in different circumstances, different periods creativity. The work was interrupted not only by the turns of Pushkin's fate (exile to Mikhailovskoye, the Decembrist uprising), but also by new ideas, for the sake of which he more than once abandoned the text of "Eugene Onegin". It seemed that history itself was not very favorable to Pushkin's work: from a novel about a contemporary and modern life, how Pushkin conceived "Eugene Onegin", after 1825 he became a novel about a completely different historical era. And, if we take into account the fragmentation and discontinuity of Pushkin's work, then we can say the following: the novel was for the writer something like a huge "notebook" or a poetic "album". Over the course of more than seven years, these records were replenished with sad "notes" of the heart, "observations" of a cold mind. superfluous person image literature

But "Eugene Onegin" is not only "a poetic album of live impressions of a talent playing with its wealth", but also a "novel of life", which has absorbed a huge historical, literary, social and everyday material. This is the first innovation of this work. Secondly, it was fundamentally innovative that Pushkin, largely relying on the work of A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit", found new type problematic hero - the "hero of time". Eugene Onegin became such a hero. His fate, character, relationships with people are determined by the totality of the circumstances of modern reality, outstanding personal qualities and the range of "eternal", universal problems that he faces. It is necessary to make a reservation right away: Pushkin, in the process of working on the novel, set himself the task of demonstrating in the image of Onegin "that premature old age of the soul, which became the main feature of younger generation". And already in the first chapter, the writer notes the social factors that determined the character of the protagonist. The only thing in which Onegin "was a true genius", that he "knew more firmly than all sciences", as the Author notes, not without irony, was "the science of tender passion" , that is, the ability to love without loving, to imitate feelings, remaining cold and prudent.However, Onegin is interesting to Pushkin still not as a representative of a common social type, the whole essence of which is exhausted by a positive characteristic issued by secular rumor: "N.N. wonderful person". It was important for the writer to show this image in motion, development, so that later each reader would draw the proper conclusions, give a fair assessment of this hero.

The first chapter is a turning point in the fate of the protagonist, who managed to abandon the stereotypes of secular behavior, from the noisy, but internally empty "ritual of life". Thus, Pushkin showed how a bright, outstanding personality suddenly appeared from a faceless, but demanding unconditional obedience crowd, capable of overthrowing the "burden" of secular conventions, "behind the hustle and bustle."

For writers who paid attention to the theme of the "extra person" in their work, it is typical to "test" their hero with friendship, love, a duel, death. Pushkin was no exception. The two tests that awaited Onegin in the countryside - the test of love and the test of friendship - showed that external freedom does not automatically entail liberation from false prejudices and opinions. In relations with Tatyana Onegin proved himself to be a noble and spiritually thin man. And you can’t blame the hero for not responding to Tatyana’s love: as you know, you can’t command the heart. Another thing is that Onegin listened not to the voice of his heart, but to the voice of reason. In confirmation of this, I will say that even in the first chapter, Pushkin noted in the main character a "sharp, chilled mind" and an inability to have strong feelings. And it was this spiritual disproportion that became the cause of the failed love of Onegin and Tatyana. Onegin also did not pass the test of friendship. And in this case, the cause of the tragedy was his inability to live a life of feeling. No wonder the author, commenting on the state of the hero before the duel, remarks: "He could show feelings, / And not bristle like a beast." Both at Tatyana's name day and before the duel with Lensky, Onegin showed himself to be a "ball of prejudice", "a hostage of secular canons", deaf to the voice of his own heart and to Lensky's feelings. His behavior at the name day is the usual "social anger", and the duel is a consequence of the indifference and fear of the evil-speaking of the inveterate bully Zaretsky and the landlord neighbors. Onegin himself did not notice how he became a prisoner of his old idol - " public opinion". After the murder of Lensky, Eugene changed dramatically. It is a pity that only tragedy could open to him a previously inaccessible world of feelings.

Thus, Eugene Onegin becomes "an extra person." Belonging to the light, he despises it. As Pisarev noted, the only thing left for him is "to give up on the boredom of secular life as a necessary evil." Onegin does not find his true purpose and place in life, he is burdened by his loneliness, lack of demand. In the words of Herzen, "Onegin ... is an extra person in the environment where he is, but, not possessing the necessary strength of character, he cannot escape from it in any way." But, according to the writer himself, the image of Onegin is not finished. After all, the novel in verse essentially ends with such a statement of the question: "What will Onegin be like in the future?" Pushkin himself leaves the character of his hero open, emphasizing by this the very ability of Onegin to a sharp change in value orientations and, I note, a certain readiness for action, for an act. True, Onegin has practically no opportunities for self-realization. But the novel does not answer the above question, it asks the reader.

So, the theme of the "superfluous person" comes to an end in a completely different capacity, having passed a difficult evolutionary path: from the romantic pathos of the rejection of life and society to the sharp rejection of the "superfluous person" itself. And the fact that this term can be applied to the heroes of the works of the 20th century does not change anything: the meaning of the term will be different and it will be possible to call it “superfluous” for completely different reasons. There will also be returns to this theme (for example, the image of the "superfluous person" Levushka Odoevtsev from A. Bitov's novel "Pushkin's House"), and proposals that there are no "extra" people, but only various variations of this theme. But the return is no longer a discovery: the 19th century discovered and exhausted the theme of the "superfluous man."

Bibliography:

• 1. Babaev E.G. Creativity of A.S. Pushkin. - M., 1988
• 2. Batyuto A.I. Turgenev the novelist. - L., 1972
• 3. Ilyin E.N. Russian literature: recommendations for schoolchildren and entrants, "SCHOOL-PRESS". M., 1994
• 4. Krasovsky V.E. History of Russian literature of the XIX century, "OLMA-PRESS". M., 2001
• 5. Literature. Reference materials. Book for students. M., 1990
• 6. Makogonenko G.P. Lermontov and Pushkin. M., 1987
• 7. Monakhova O.P. Russian literature of the 19th century, "OLMA-PRESS". M., 1999
• 8. Fomichev S.A. Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit": Commentary. - M., 1983
• 9. Shamrey L.V., Rusova N.Yu. From allegory to iambic. Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. - N.Novgorod, 1993

Almost simultaneously with people like Chatsky, a new type was maturing in Russian society, a new hero of the time, which became dominant in the post-Decembrist era. This type of person with the light hand of Belinsky is usually called the type of "extra person". In Russian literature, a long line of such heroes is built: Onegin, Pechorin, Beltov, Rudin, Oblomov and some others. The named characters have common features, and differences. The general properties of the type include, first of all, the origin: all the named heroes are nobles, and they are wealthy enough not to have to earn a living. Secondly, these are outstanding people, gifted by nature with intelligence, talent, and soul. They don't fit into ordinary life the nobility of their time, are burdened by an aimless and meaningless life and try to find a business for themselves that would allow them to open up. But thirdly, for various reasons, all the heroes remain “superfluous”, their richly gifted natures do not find application in society. Belinsky believed that society, its social and political organization, is to blame for the appearance of "superfluous people", since an autocratic-feudal state does not need people with feeling, intelligence, initiative. Dobrolyubov noted the other side of the problem - the subjective one: the heroes themselves carry such properties that exclude their fruitful activity for the benefit of society: they, as a rule, are weak-willed, not accustomed to work, spoiled by an idle life and laziness, and therefore prefer to indulge in dreams, rather than be taken energetically to some useful work. Disregarding the social meaning of the type of “superfluous people”, one can notice another important similarity between them: in one way or another they are all looking for their destiny, tormented by their inaction, but they can’t do anything, because they don’t know for sure in the name of what act. For the most part, these are more or less tragic characters, people who have not found their happiness, although the features of the comic are increasingly showing through in their evolution, which is clearly seen, for example, in the image of Oblomov.

Despite the similarity, these characters are still different, and the general state of dissatisfaction for all is caused by not quite the same reasons and each has a peculiar coloring. So, Onegin - the most probably tragic figure - experiences cold boredom and "spleen". Fed up with secular life, tired of love adventures, not finding anything good in the village, cut off from national roots, he no longer looks for the meaning of existence, the goal in life, because he is firmly convinced that there is no such goal and cannot be, life is initially meaningless and its essence is boredom and satiety. Onegin, “having killed a friend in a duel, / Having lived without a goal, without labor / Until the age of twenty-six, / Languishing in idleness of leisure / Without service, without a wife, without work, / He did not know how to do anything.” Onegin's "Russian blues" is a heavy "few voluntary cross". He is not, contrary to Tatyana's opinion, a "parody", no, his feeling of disappointment is sincere, deep and hard for himself. He would be glad to wake up to an active life, but he cannot, at twenty-six years old feeling like a deep old man. It can be said that Onegin always balances on the verge of suicide, but this exit was ordered to him by the same laziness, although, no doubt, he would have met death with relief. In the person of Onegin, we have before us the tragedy of a man who can still do everything, but no longer wants anything. And “... he thinks, clouded with sadness: Why am I not wounded by a bullet in the chest? Why am I not a frail old man, Like this poor farmer? Why, as a Tula assessor, I am not paralyzed? Why don't I feel even rheumatism in my shoulder? - ah, creator, I am young, life is strong in me; what should I expect? melancholy, melancholy!..” (“Excerpts from Onegin's Journey”).

Not at all - Lermontov's Pechorin. Like the lyrical hero of Lermontov's poetry, Pechorin passionately wants to live, but it is to live, and not to vegetate. To live is to do something great, but what exactly? And one goal does not seem indisputable to Pechorin, any value raises doubts. Throwing Pechorin is, in fact, a search for something that the hero himself, with a clear conscience, could put above himself, his personality and his freedom. But this “something” turns out to be elusive, forcing Pechorin to doubt the existence of transpersonal values ​​in general and put himself above all else. And yet, Pechorin thinks bitterly that “it’s true, I had a high appointment, because I feel immense strength in my soul ... But I didn’t guess this appointment.” Pechorin's ideological and moral searches are tragic in nature, since the very arrangement of things is doomed to failure, but he himself is far from being tragic inwardly, but, on the contrary, romantic and heroic. If Pechorin got into the appropriate situation, inspired by some great goal, he would undoubtedly have performed a heroic deed. He is not Onegin, who is cold and bored of living everywhere; Pechorin is hot, and it is boring for him to live only that petty and vain life that he is forced to lead, and he is not given another ... Of all the "superfluous people", Pechorin is most endowed with the energy of action, he is, so to speak, the least "superfluous".

In the future, the type of “extra person” degrades, the features of lethargy, apathy, lack of will, and inability to do anything are more and more manifest in it. Turgenevsky Rudin is still looking for a business, speaks of the need for high social activity, although he believes that at the time in which he lives, "a good word is also a Deed." But Goncharovsky Ilya Ilyich Oblomov no longer thinks of any activity, and only love for Olga Ilyinskaya can move him from a cozy sofa, and even then, in fact, not for long. Oblomov, who became a type of great generalizing significance, drew a line, according to Dobrolyubov, under the development of the type of "superfluous person" in Russian literature. In Oblomov, the positive qualities that are so highly valued by Russian writers are still preserved - a subtly feeling soul, an extraordinary mind, tenderness of feeling, etc. - but inertia, "Oblomovism" nullifies these qualities, and talking about Oblomov as a hero of the time, perhaps, do not have to. Moreover, in the middle of the 19th century, a new type appeared on the Russian historical scene, a hero of the new time - a raznochinets-democrat.