Russian culture of the XIV-XVII centuries. Russian culture of the XIV–XVII centuries

Culture of Moscow Rus' XIV-XVII centuries

culture Tatar invasion

Along with the decline of Kievan Rus from the middle of the 13th century. In the history of Russian culture, the process of formation and development of the Great Russian nationality and its spiritual characteristics began. As a result of the complex and contradictory interaction of ethnic, historical, political and cultural factors, a new ethnocultural complex emerged, the center of which was North-Eastern Rus' and Moscow. A new ethnocultural community naturally emerged - the Great Russians, i.e. a new nation with specific features of spirituality and mentality. After the Mongol invasion, the policy of the ruling circles of Rus' was aimed at preserving Russian Orthodox identity in the face of external threats and cultural expansions. This did not lead to complete isolation of the country; it continued to be influenced by both the East and the West, while maintaining spiritual ties with Orthodox peoples. In such conditions, the formation of the Russian cultural archetype itself took place, which was called Muscovite Rus'.

The Mongol-Tatar conquerors caused enormous damage to Russian culture, but could not destroy it; there was not even a synthesis of Russian and Mongolian cultures. Russian culture retained pockets of its originality and its subsequent development took place on an internal basis. Already at the end of the 13th century. The first signs of the beginning revival of Russian culture are being observed, but at the same time the geography of cultural centers has changed. In the history of this period, a special place belongs to Novgorod and Pskov, which survived the Mongol-Tatar pogrom. In these cities, the traditions of ancient Russian writing, painting and architecture have been preserved; they became the largest centers of Russian culture of their time.

In the middle of the 14th century. began a period of rise and intensive formation of Russian culture as a national one. The Mongol-Tatar invasion, which lasted about two and a half centuries (1237-1480), easily destroyed Kievan Rus, weakened by princely strife and discord. The invasion had the most detrimental effect on the artistic culture of Rus', as it led to the destruction of many cities and the destruction of the most valuable objects of art. Crafts suffered the most significantly, and such as the production of jewelry, products made of precious metals, and cloisonné enamel techniques disappeared completely. For a whole century - from the middle of the 13th century. until the middle of the 14th century. - stone construction stopped. This circumstance, in turn, had a negative impact on the development of painting, especially fresco painting.

Almost no architectural monuments of this period have survived. Construction was concentrated mainly in two areas - in the north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) and in the Vladimir region (Moscow and Tver). Mostly small, four-pillar, single-domed churches without vestibules were built. They show a noticeable departure from the cruciform composition of the pre-Mongol model and an attraction to classic cubic forms. These buildings are very harmonious, giving the impression of a balanced pyramid. White stone (limestone) became the favorite building material - a legacy of the Vladimir-Suzdal tradition.

The flourishing of architecture at the end of the 15th century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among whom Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model. Fioravanti drew up a project for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and walls were built of red brick (they still exist today). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were erected later, in the 17th century. The internal layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the burial vault of Moscow princes and tsars), the house church for sovereigns - the Annunciation Cathedral and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings in the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was erected on the site of the ancient church of Ivan the Climacus, and therefore received the name Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. Bell tower for a long time was the tallest building in Rus'. They laid it in early XVI V. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.

The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In painting of the 14th century. The emotional and at the same time picturesque beginning gradually intensified. This style cannot yet be called expressive, but development took place precisely in this direction. At the same time, Novgorod-Pskov painting tended towards greater external freedom of style, and Moscow - towards restraint. Both the temple architecture and the interior pushed for this. In Novgorod and Pskov these were cramped, cozy spaces with dim lighting, while in Moscow they were soaring, well-lit walls.

After for long years rivalry with Novgorod and Tver, Moscow becomes the political and cultural center of Rus', where common Russian art and Russian culture are gradually being formed. The Metropolitan's move to Moscow elevated her even more, as it turned the city into an all-Russian religious center. From the second half of the 14th century. Moscow is the generally recognized capital of the emerging Russian state. The growing potential of the city was evidenced by the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), the victory in which made it possible to talk about the formation of the modern Russian ethnic group and the beginning of a new period in the history of our country. This time becomes a milestone in the development of Russian culture, dividing the periods of national humiliation and new rise.

In Moscow, as the political and religious center of Rus', all types of artistic creativity developed, among which Russian painting, primarily icon painting and fresco, experienced especially many changes. Innovations were manifested in the spatial design of the background and the artist’s close interest in the individual. So, on the icon of the beginning and middle of the 14th century. One can still feel the timidity of the people, who are afraid to believe in themselves and do not trust the independent powers of their creativity. It seems that the icon painter does not yet dare to be Russian. The faces on the icons are oblong, Greek, the beards are short, non-Russian. The architecture of the churches that form an inextricable whole with the icon is either Greek, or bears the stamp of a transitional stage from Greek to Russian. The church domes are still slightly pointed and have an almost round shape of a Greek dome, while the Russian onion is still in the process of formation. Inside the temples there are Greek upper galleries.

In icons of the 15th and 16th centuries. a complete revolution strikes. Everything about them has become decidedly Russified. The Russian icon painter experienced a deep national upsurge, like the rest of society. Rus' no longer needed foreign teachers; its path was determined. In icon painting, this was expressed in the change from a Greek face to a broad Russian one, often with a thick beard. Moreover, not only Russian saints are written this way, but also prophets, apostles, even Christ. The same transformation is visible in the temple architecture that is depicted on the icons. The feat of national revival exalted Russian churches, the Russian folk type, and even Russian folk life. Previously, the Russian people knew Rus' as a place of suffering and humiliation, but now they perceived it in the aura of divine glory. Icons became an expression of the soul of the people, their spiritual image; they revealed deep philosophical ideas that clearly showed the essence of the idea of ​​conciliarity, which is key to Russian culture.

Painting reached its peak in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. Here at this time the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the Russian artist Andrei Rublev.

The religious concept underlying the work of Andrei Rublev is different from that adopted by Theophanes the Greek. It is devoid of the idea of ​​gloomy hopelessness and tragedy. This is a philosophy of goodness and beauty, harmony of spiritual and material principles. In the Christian teaching, Rublev, unlike Feofan, saw not the idea of ​​merciless punishment of a sinful person, but the idea of ​​love, forgiveness, mercy, and his Savior is not a formidable almighty and merciless judge, but a compassionate, loving and all-forgiving God, just and benevolent, who alone can reconcile the opposition of spirit and flesh, heavenly and earthly. His gaze does not frighten, like the gaze of Feofanov’s Pantocrator, but comforts. Byzantine art did not know such a Christ.

The main monument of Andrei Rublev's creativity in the field of monumental painting are the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, painted together with Daniil Cherny. Outwardly, their depiction of the scene of the Last Judgment seems quite traditional, but in terms of tone it seems to be a new phenomenon in world painting. The victory of the Russian squads on the Kulikovo Field gave hope for liberation from Mongolian dependence. This explains the light color of the Rublev painting. The most important features of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral are Russian-type faces, as opposed to the traditionally elongated Byzantine ones, as well as the artist’s attraction to crowd scenes.

The iconostasis is another special phenomenon of artistic culture that arose during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. This was a purely Russian invention, since until that time the altar in Russian and Byzantine churches was separated from the parishioners only by a low barrier. Andrei Rublev was also one of the creators of the iconostasis.

An important event in the history of Russian culture of the 16th century. was the emergence of printing. Printing met state needs and began on the initiative of state authorities, supported by the church. The first attempts at book printing in Russia date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions were anonymous, i.e. did not contain the names of publishers or imprints. Currently, there are seven such publications in total. A new stage in book printing began in 1563, when a printing house was set up in Moscow using funds from the royal treasury. From that time on, book printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by the deacon of one of the Moscow churches, Ivan Fedorov, and his assistant and comrade-in-arms, Pyotr Mstislavets. On March 1, 1564, the Apostle, the first Russian dated printed book, came out of the Moscow printing house. The Book of Hours was published in the same printing house in 1565. The work of Ivan Fedorov was continued by his students Nikifor Tarasyev, Timofey Nevezha and his son Andronik Timofeev Nevezha. Just until the end of the 16th century. About twenty books were published, all of church and religious content.

In the XIV-XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. Its production took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals, its caliber is 89 cm, and the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.

So, the culture of Moscow Rus' XIV-XVI I centuries. - this is a symbol of prosperity, the beginning of the formation of a unified all-Russian culture.

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From the second half of the 14th century. The rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). This event was an important step towards liberating the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Old centers of economic life and culture are being revived and new ones are developing. The leading role of Moscow is being determined, attracting more and more new residents due to its central location in northeastern Rus' and the presence of convenient river and overland trade routes. Moscow is leading the fight for the unification of Russian lands, and its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing. The Moscow princes accept the title of Grand Dukes of All Rus'.

The struggle of Russian people against foreign invaders is the main theme of literary works of that time. This is the chronicle “The Tale of the Capture of the City of Vladimir by Batu”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”. They tell about the death of Russian cities, the courage and courage of Russian soldiers.

The literary monument of that time was “The Life of Alexander Nevsky.” In poetic form, it tells about the Battle of the Neva (1240), the Battle of the Ice (1242), the relationship of Alexander Nevsky (c. 1220-1263) with the Golden Horde and the death of the prince. His exploits are sung for the glory of the Russian Land.

Most of them are dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo Field. outstanding work this time "Zadonshchina" (from the place of the battle - beyond the Don). It was written in the genre of a historical story by the Ryazan resident Safoniy in the 80s. XVI century The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The victory on the Kulikovo field is like revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian Land. Architecture developed widely, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov - cities that were politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV - XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

The result of new searches and traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Examples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratelates (1360 - 1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration, located in the commercial side of Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple construction, large-scale civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. Novgorod craftsmen, together with German ones, built the Faceted Chamber (1433) for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Gentlemen. The Novgorod boyars built themselves stone chambers with box vaults.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the second quarter of the 14th century. The construction of the white stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin dates back to this time.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome “cubicity” and create a new, upward-facing composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting XIV - XV centuries. just like architecture, it became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongol period. Icon painting is also developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icon painting in the 14th century. Unlike frescoes, it developed slowly. As a rule, the icons depicted a single image of the saint. If several saints were painted on one icon, they were not connected by any action, they were depicted frontally. This achieved the power of influence. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, clear drawing, purity of colors, impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Rus' of this time is attributed to the “golden age”. Along with icon painting, fresco - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water - became widespread. In the XIV century. fresco painting is designed compositionally, spatially, landscape is introduced, and the psychologism of the image is enhanced. These innovations were especially evident in the famous Novgorod frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratilates (1360) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352; destroyed during the Great Patriotic War).

A special place among artists of the XIV - XV centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). Originally from Byzantium, he traveled around Byzantium, Crimea, and then Rus' in his wanderings. In Rus' his talent manifested itself with greatest force. The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free painting style.

In the work of Theophanes the Greek in Rus', two periods are distinguished: Novgorod and Moscow. In the first, he acts as a bold innovator, a rebel, creating works of rare spirituality. During the Moscow period, the work of Theophanes the Greek already characterizes him as an artist who acquired calmness and balance.

In Novgorod, Theophanes the Greek painted the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1378). These paintings have survived in fragments. The characteristics of the depicted saints are marked by strict individuality; each figure lives a separate life, filled with internal movement. Theophanes the Greek embodied in his characters the spirituality of man, his inner strength.

In Moscow, Theophanes the Greek, together with Simeon the Black, painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395 - 1396) with the chapel of Lazarus. He also painted the Archangel Cathedral in the Kremlin (1399), together with Elder Prokhor of Gorodets and Andrei Rublev - the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405). For the iconostasis of this cathedral, he used boards more than two meters high. The art of Theophanes the Greek determined the development of Moscow painting in these years.

Famous master of the 15th century. there was a great Russian artist Adrei Rublev - a monk of the Andronikov Monastery, in which he died and was buried. His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting reached its peak. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity and sublime spirituality of images, the idea of ​​concord and harmony, and the perfection of artistic form.

Andrei Rublev participated in the creation of paintings and icons in the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin (1405), the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408), the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1425 - 1427), the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420s. ).

The art of Andrei Rublev is imbued with a sublimely bright mood, a state of spiritual harmony, it reflects a joyful attitude towards the world, calmness, and serenity. A characteristic feature of his style is lyrical tranquility; his characters are softer, more humane than those of Theophanes the Greek.

His most famous work, perfect in execution, is the icon "Trinity" (kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery). It was painted for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in Sergievsky Posad. The icon expresses with rare artistic power the humanistic idea of ​​harmony and philanthropy, and gives a generalized ideal of moral perfection and purity. The image of God in three persons is represented in the image of three angels, all three figures form a circular composition around the bowl. Mental purity, clarity, expressiveness, golden color, and a single rhythm of lines embody the idea of ​​harmony with great force.

Among the surviving works of Andrei Rublev are frescoes on the theme “The Last Judgment” in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Unlike traditional images, Rublev’s images are full of humanity, there is no excessive severity.

The iconostasis in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1424 - 1426), which Andrei Rublev painted with his students, has also been preserved. His brushes belong to the image of Paul and Michael. At the end of his life, Andrei Rublev painted the cathedral in the Andronikov Monastery.

Russian culture of the late XV - XVI centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a unified Russian state continued, the country was finally freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. This had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are strengthening in Russian culture. Works appearing in the literature supporting the new government policy. The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.” It stated that Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus and, therefore, have the right to all Russian lands. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the idea of ​​Moscow as the “third Rome.” Hegumen of the Pskov Elizarov Monastery Fiofey in his messages to Grand Duke Vasily III wrote that before there were two world centers of Christianity - Rome and Byzantium, which fell due to a departure from "true Christianity." The rulers of Byzantium betrayed true Christianity by concluding a union" (1439) with the Catholic Church, which resulted in the fall of Byzantium and its conquest by the Turks (1453). Moscow, without recognizing the Union of Florence, became the world center of Christianity, i.e. the "third Rome." And “there will never be a fourth Rome,” since, according to the church, there can only be “three world kingdoms,” after which the “end of the world” will come. The thesis “Moscow is the third Rome” was intended to serve as a justification for the global significance of the Russian state, as well as the exceptional importance of the church.

The economic and political achievements of Russia at this time had a noticeable impact on increasing the level of literacy and education, which spread primarily among the feudal lords and merchants. There were also literate peasants. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and sextons. In schools they studied the book of hours and psalms, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

The emergence of printing played a major role in the history of Russian culture. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions had no authors and were not dated; to date, the first seven printed monuments are known. A new stage in book printing began in 1563, when a printing house was set up in Moscow using funds from the royal treasury. Book printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by clerk Ivan Fedorov (1510 - 1583) and Pyotr Mstislavets. On March 1, 1564, the first Russian dated printed book, “Apostle,” was printed, and in 1565, “Book of Hours.” Later, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets moved to Ukraine, then to Lithuania, where they continued their activities. In Moscow, printing was continued by their students - Nikifor Tarasyev, Timofey Nevezha and his son Andronik Timofeev Nevezha. Just until the end of the 16th century. About 20 books of church and religious content were published.

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Cheti-Minea" ("Monthly Readings"). These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by month in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing chronicle works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle Code - a unique The World History from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. The "Degree Book", compiled in 1550 - 1563, is also a monument of Russian historical literature. confessor of Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible) Andrey. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. The book is compiled based on materials from chronicles, genealogical books, etc.

Domostroy contains a set of everyday rules and instructions that arose among the Novgorod boyars and merchants. He defended the patriarchal structure of the family and the despotic power of the head of the family over its members. The book gave advice on how to be thrifty, conserve supplies, etc.

Architecture of the late XV - XVI centuries. reflected the increasing international role of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture. Along with Russian craftsmen, craftsmen from Italy, which at that time was an advanced country in Europe, are participating in the construction.

The creation of a Russian centralized state with its capital in Moscow was marked by the construction of a new Kremlin on the site of the old one, the ensemble of which was finally formed at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. At this time, brick and terracotta began to be used in construction. Brick masonry replaced traditional white stone masonry. In 1485 - 1495 The white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479 a new Assumption Cathedral was built - modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The temple amazes with its beauty of proportions and laconicism artistic means. Russian chronicles wrote about the Assumption Cathedral that it was “wonderful in its majesty and height and lightness and ringing and space.” The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489 Pskov craftsmen built the Annunciation Cathedral - the house church of the Grand Dukes.

Italian architect Aleviz Novy in 1505 - 1508. The Archangel Cathedral was built. The secular style of architecture is already clearly expressed in its appearance. The main structure is traditional: a cross-domed five-domed temple with six pillars supporting the vaults. However, in the exterior design, the architect moved away from the ancient Russian tradition and used rich architectural decorations (decor) of the Italian Renaissance. The Archangel Cathedral was a temple-tomb where the tombs of all the Great Dukes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, all the Great Moscow Princes were buried here, and then the tsars until Peter I.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, including the Princely Palace, consisting of separate buildings connected by passages, porches, and vestibules. What remains of this palace is the Chamber of Facets (1487 - 1491), built by Italian architects Antonio Solari and Marco Ruffo.

The Faceted Chamber, so named because the outside is lined with large faceted stones, was intended for ceremonial palace ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors, and served as a throne room. This is a spacious square room with a powerful pillar in the middle, on which four cross vaults rest.

The finished picturesque ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin embodied the ideas of greatness and strength of a unified Russian state.

Another direction in architecture also developed, associated with the construction of small townsman and patrimonial churches. By this time, a new system of brick ceilings was invented - a cross vault, which made it possible to build small pillarless churches. In the architecture of these temples, secular elements stood out more clearly.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century. was the construction of a tent-type temple, in which the national originality of Russian traditions based on wooden architecture was most clearly expressed. The Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (1532) became the first new type of building in Rus' both in shape and height. The temple was built in honor of the birth of the heir to the throne, Vasily III - the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The Cathedral of the Savior Andronikov Monastery was also built according to the tent type, dynamically directed upward.

A variant of the tented church was the Pokrovsky (Cathedral of the Intercession “on the moat”), which received the name St. Basil’s Cathedral - after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried under one of its chapels.

In the 16th century The construction of fortresses, the so-called “fortress construction,” gained enormous scope. Kremlins were built in Nizhny Novgorod (1508 - 151), Tula (1514), Kolomna (1525 - 1531), Zaraysk (1534), Serpukhov (1566) and other Russian cities.

In Moscow in 1535 - 1538. A second line of fortifications was erected, which encircled the trade and craft part of the capital - Kitay-Gorod. In 1585 - 1593 The third line of stone fortifications of Moscow was erected - the White City. Supervised these works famous master Fedor Kon. In 1595 - 1596 he built the Smolensk Kremlin, the architecture of which combined technical excellence and elegance of design.

Painting of the late XV - XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian master Dionysius (c. 1440 - 1502/03). He possessed enormous artistic power and inexhaustible creative imagination. In the 70s XV century Dionysius created paintings and icons in the cathedral of the Pafnutevo-Borovsky monastery near Moscow. Together with a group of masters, he painted the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. These paintings have survived in fragments. Their subjects - images of martyrs who died for their faith, reflect the idea of ​​defending the Fatherland. Later, Dionysius worked at the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, and in the last years of his life, together with his sons Vladimir and Theodosius, he painted the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky Territory (1500 - 1503). His works - icons and frescoes - are marked by refined designs, exquisite colors, lush decorativeness, and are distinguished by their festivity and elegance, and bright joy.

The range of painting themes is gradually expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait has developed, although the depiction of real persons is still of a conventional nature. Interesting in this regard is the painting of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral (1563 - 1564). Along with traditional images of saints and Moscow princes, portraits of Byzantine emperors and “ancient sages” appear: Homer in Russian dress, Virgil in a robe and wide-brimmed hat, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc.

Painting of the late XV - XVI centuries. characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events. These same motives are beginning to penetrate other types of culture.

Russian culture of the 17th century.

In the history of Russia in the 17th century. The Middle Ages period ends. The advanced countries of Europe had already embarked on the path of bourgeois development, but Russia continued to remain a feudal country. Serfdom finally took shape (1649), which led to a sharp intensification of the class struggle and peasant unrest. No wonder the 17th century. called "rebellious". At the beginning of the century, Russia also experienced the years of “Great Troubles,” which began with the campaign of False Dmitry against Moscow. The capture of Moscow by the Poles, and then its liberation by the people's militia under the leadership of Minin and Prince Pozharsky, the election of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as Russian Tsar and the restoration of state power in the form of an estate-representative monarchy led to a restructuring of social relations.

The beginning of a new period in Russian history was also a new stage in the history of Russian culture. In the 17th century Russian culture retained all the characteristic features of the feudal culture of the Middle Ages, but new elements were also emerging. However, new trends clearly emerged only towards the end of the century. In many ways, they were associated with the name of Peter I and the reforms he carried out.

The formation of the Russian nation begins. Folk traditions are being generalized and the interconnection of local customs is being strengthened. The growth of connections between individual regions of Russia through trade, waste fishing, resettlement, participation in wars, etc. contribute to the interpenetration of different dialects, and a single Russian language is formed. The Russian national language is based on the dialect of Moscow and the lands adjacent to it from the south. The creation of a single Russian language further contributed to the growth of people's self-awareness as a single Russian nation.

The cultural and historical process of this period is characterized by the beginning of the destruction of the medieval religious worldview. The so-called “secularization” of culture is taking place, i.e. the departure of culture from church traditions and giving it a secular, civil character (secularization)." This process affected the development of education and book printing.

The growth of literacy was facilitated by the appearance of textbooks - handwritten and printed. In 1634, the first Primer of Vasily Burtsev was published. This Primer was then reprinted several times and sold at affordable prices. In 1648, M. Smotritsky’s Grammar was published, and in 1687, “Convenient Calculation” - a multiplication table. Handwritten alphabet books, copybooks, and arithmetic manuals also became widespread.

The spread of literacy increased the demand for books. In the 17th century The printing house in Moscow printed 483 books, including secular ones.

Schools began to be established, mainly at monasteries. In 1680, a school with two classes was opened in Moscow at the Printing Yard on Nikolskaya Street: in one they studied Slavic languages, in the other - Greek. At first, 30 teachers taught at the school, and five years later - more than 200. In 1687, the first higher school, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was also opened on Nikolskaya Street. Senior students were transferred to it from the school at the Printing Yard, which became the preparatory department of the Academy. Those who graduated from the Academy received official ranks.

IN literature XVII V. “secularization” also occurred; realistic everyday and historical stories appeared, in which church elements were gradually lost. It is not the saints who become heroes, but ordinary people, real events are described.

Many works told about the “time of troubles”: “The Legend” of Abraham Palitsin, “ New story about the glorious Russian state" and others. They discussed the causes of the "great devastation" and at the same time showed the greatness of the Russian people, their patriotism.

In works of literature of the second half of the 17th century. a new attitude towards the human personality appears - interest in the inner world of a person, recognition of his value, regardless of his position in society.

By the 17th century include the first records of folklore and works of oral folk art. This has had an impact on written literature; there is a mutual convergence of literary and folk languages. The main literary genres remain, as before, chronicles, legends, lives, but they are filled with new content. Historical stories appeared about the conquest of Siberia by Ermak, about the Azov siege of the Cossacks, etc.

The genre of “life” takes on the character of autobiography. The most talented of them is “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself,” which can be called the first memoir work in Russian literature. Archpriest Avvakum (1620 - 1682), one of the major figures of the period of the schism of the Russian church, was also an outstanding writer, wrote more than 80 works. The language of his works is a combination of Church Slavonic and living spoken language. Most of his works were written in the last 15 years of his life, when he was sitting in prison awaiting death (burned in 1682).

New literary genres also appeared, especially in the second half of the 17th century. - satirical works, poetic genre.

The genre of democratic satire has become new in Russian literature. The satirical works expose the order of the feudal court with its chicanery, red tape, and corruption of judges. These are satirical stories “About Shemyakin’s Court” and “About Ersha Ershovich - Shchetinnikov’s son”, written in simple folk language. The last of them was widespread and passed down from century to century, either in the form of a fairy tale or in rhymed form.

The architecture of the 17th century, especially in the second half of the century, also reflects the transitional nature of the era. There is a "secularization" of architecture. rejection of strict church canons, transition from rigor and simplicity to external elegance and decorativeness. The essence of the new quest is “wonderful patterning,” as contemporaries themselves defined this style. This term reflects a predilection for the abundance of decorative motifs, even to the point of borrowing Eastern and, later, Western forms.

Russian churches of the 17th century. They are distinguished by their rich appearance and interior decoration. Secular motives are gradually strengthening, and the differences between temple and civil construction are decreasing. Churches became similar to secular mansions: chapels and galleries were added to the main building, and all this was connected by passages, making up an ensemble.

Along with old, traditional forms, new ones also appear in Russian architecture. Architecture of the second half of the 17th century. It is more decorative; various decorations, bright colors, figured bricks, and colored tiles are used both outside and inside buildings. This lush architecture was called Moscow Baroque. The characteristic features of this style are clarity and symmetry of the composition, multi-tiered structure, careful elaboration of details, decorative carvings on white stone, painted facades, colored tiles and an emphasized upward direction of the building. An example of Moscow baroque was the Church of the Intercession in Fili (1690 - 1693), built by the queen’s brother, L.K. Naryshkin, as well as the refectory of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the multi-tiered bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent. The features of this style appeared in the building of the Printing House (1679) and in the Sukharev Tower (1692 - 1701).

An example of secular construction was the construction of the Terem Palace in the Moscow Kremlin (1637), completed by an artel of Russian craftsmen led by Bazhen Ogurtsov. The palace was a multi-tiered stepped pyramidal structure, personifying the greatness of royal power. The decoration of the palace was new - its carved frames and multi-colored tiled belts both outside and inside the building.

Painting in the 17th century. developed unusually rapidly, it, like other forms of art, was also affected by the process of “secularization.” The formation and development of a realistic orientation takes place, and interest in the human personality appears. The everyday genre of portraiture - parsun (depiction of persons) painting - is developing.

The new direction was headed by Simon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626 - 1686), a Russian painter and engraver. Simon Ushakov's works - parsuns, miniatures - combine traditional painting techniques and innovative quests. They mark the transition from religious to secular art. Ushakov moves from a conventional image to a more accurate one, trying to give his iconographic images the character of living faces. His icons feature realistic landscapes and other images that are not directly related to the subject of the icon.

Most famous piece of art Simona Ushakova - “The Savior Not Made by Hands,” in which the artist, using chiaroscuro, conveys three-dimensionality, depicts not an abstract saint, but a real person. In 1617, he created the “Trinity” icon, in which, unlike the icon of the same name by A. Rublev, he conveys not spiritual beauty, but earthly beauty, depicting the angels blooming and full of health.

In the first half of the 17th century. Parsuns were painted in the old icon-painting manner - on boards, using egg paints. Thus, the parsuns of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich and the governor of Prince M.V. were written. Skopin-Shuisky. The parsuns are painted on linden boards; the image shows the typical three-quarter turn of the icon, large heads, and wide-open eyes. At the same time, artists strive to depict the real features of the originals as accurately as possible.

In the 80s - 90s. XVII century Russian artists create the most significant parsuns: a full-length portrait of Uncle Peter I, L.K. Naryshkin and a half-length portrait of the mother of Peter I - N.K. Naryshkina. They are characterized by close attention to the inner world of a person and a subtle color scheme.

IN painting XVI I century There is a noticeable desire for realism and increased interest in the human personality.

Until the 17th century There was no theater in Rus'. For centuries, the theater was replaced by folk rituals - weddings, holidays, such as seeing off Maslenitsa, caroling with the participation of mummers. At these festivals, buffoons performed - dancers, acrobats, musicians, tightrope walkers, puppeteers, etc. Later, folk theaters of buffoons appeared with their own repertoire.

The theater really appeared in the 17th century. - court and school theater. The emergence of the court theater was caused by the interest of the court nobility in Western culture. This theater appeared in Moscow under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The first performance of the play “Artak-Serksov action” (the story of the biblical Esther) took place on October 17, 1672. The king liked the performance so much that he watched it for ten hours straight. Other plays based on biblical subjects were also staged.

At first, the court theater did not have its own premises; scenery and costumes were moved from place to place. The first performances were staged by Pastor Gregory from the German Settlement; the actors were also foreigners. Later they began to forcibly recruit and train Russian “youths”. In 1673, 26 residents of the Novomeshchanskaya Sloboda were assigned to the “comedy case”, then their number increased. They were paid irregularly, but they did not skimp on decorations and costumes. The performances were distinguished by great pomp, sometimes accompanied by playing musical instruments and dancing. After the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the court theater was closed, and performances resumed only under Peter I.

In addition to the courtier, in Russia in the 17th century. A school theater also developed at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The plays were written by teachers and performed by students on holidays. The plays used both gospel stories and everyday legends. They were written in verse based on monologues. In addition to real persons, allegorical characters were also introduced.

The emergence of court and school theaters expanded the sphere of spiritual life of Russian society.

Summing up the development of Russian XVII culture century, first of all, it should be noted its “secularization,” a gradual departure from religious traditions to secular, civic motives. This was expressed in an increased interest in the human personality, a desire for realism in all types of art - in literature, painting, etc. In the 17th century, Russian literature took a big step in its development, new directions appeared. But the final turning point occurred in early XVII I century

Russian culture of the 18th century.

Late feudalism is characterized in Rus' in the 18th century. Attempts are being made to overcome Russia's lag behind Western European countries, and significant changes are taking place in all areas of life. Their beginning is associated with the reforms of Peter I (1672 - 1725). In Russia, autocratic power is being established - an absolute monarchy.

In the 18th century External economic and cultural ties between Russia and Western countries are developing, facilitating its entry into the world historical and cultural process. In the second half of the 18th century. In the depths of the feudal economy, a capitalist structure is formed.

IN late XVIII V. The process of formation of the Russian nation is completed. The formation of the Russian nation is taking place on the basis of the already established Russian nationality with a high level of culture and a sense of national unity. The main content of the historical and cultural process during this period was the formation and development of national Russian culture. New spheres of culture are emerging - science, fiction, secular painting, theater, etc.

Petrine reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Education is making great progress, which has a great influence on the further development of culture. A sharp change occurred in cultural life, which had a great influence on its further development.

For the first time under Peter I, education became a state policy, since to implement Peter’s reforms it was necessary educated people. Under Peter I, general and special schools were opened, conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences, and the first printed newspaper, “Chimes,” began to be published.” Young people began to be sent abroad to study, mainly in shipbuilding and maritime engineering.

In 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow - the Navigation School - the first secular state educational institution. School students studied arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, and astronomy. Under the Ambassadorial Prikaz, a school for training was created foreign languages, and later - a school for clerical workers. A number of professional schools were created in Moscow and other cities - Artillery, Engineering, Medical; at the Ural factories - mining schools. All vocational schools had preparatory departments where they studied writing, reading, and arithmetic. The sciences were studied there sequentially: each science constituted a separate class. Students moved from class to class without exams. At first, the schools accepted children of nobles and commoners along with children, but gradually the schools began to turn into closed educational institutions only for noble children.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. So-called digital schools began to be created to educate all children of nobles and clerks. Those who did not have a certificate of graduation from a digital school were not even allowed to get married. However, gradually the number of these schools decreased, and then they ceased to exist. At that time there were also parochial schools, which accepted children of people of all classes. There were also theological seminaries and schools. In 1786, the Charter of Public Schools was published - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced.

By the middle of the 18th century. The level of education in Russia was still low, but it became fashionable among the nobles. Noble children were often educated in families; their teachers were mostly foreigners and practitioners, school graduates. Closed class educational institutions for children of nobles began to be created: in the late 50s. - Corps of Pages, where children of the nobility were prepared for court service; in 1764 - the Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg; Noble Corps.

The organization of secondary and higher education was closely connected with the creation of the Academy of Sciences (officially since 1724). It included the Academy, University and Gymnasium. The academy was divided into three classes. At first, there was not a single Russian among the academicians. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) became the first Russian academician, a scientist of world significance. He is also the greatest Russian poet, who laid the foundations of the modern Russian literary language. Lomonosov did a lot for the development of Russian science and the organization of education.

In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow University was created, which became a major cultural center. It had faculties - philosophical, legal, medical. The newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti” was published in the printing house organized under him (until 1917). Vocational and artistic educational institutions appeared. In Petersburg - Dance school(now the A.Ya. Vaganova School), in Moscow - the Ballet School and the Academy of Arts.

At the end of the 18th century. in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students.

Book publishing has increased significantly. In 1708 - 1710 a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. The civil (as opposed to the church) alphabet and the civil seal were introduced. This contributed to an increase in the publication of secular, civil books, including textbooks. For public schools, the “ABC”, the book of Feofan Prokopovich (1681 - 1736) “The First Teaching to the Youths”, “Arithmetic” by L. Magnitsky and “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky, a book of hours and a psalter were published. From 1708 to 1725, about 300 civil books were printed, but their circulation was still small.

Book publishing activity intensified from the second half of the 18th century. Much credit for this belongs to the Russian educator, writer, journalist N.I. Novikov (17"47 - 1818). About one third of the books published in the last quarter of the 18th century (approximately a thousand titles) were printed in his printing houses. He published books in all branches of knowledge, as well as satirical magazines "Drone", "Painter", "Purse", in which he criticized serfdom. He was the organizer of libraries and schools in Moscow and bookstores in 16 cities of Russia. He published Novikov and textbooks. In 1757, "Russian Grammar" by M.V. Lomonosov was published, which as the main textbook replaced the outdated "Grammar" by M. Smotritsky.

Previously, in Russia, the court published a handwritten newspaper, "Courants", (preserved from 1600), which informed the government about foreign news. Its successor was the printed Vedomosti (since 1703), which published a chronicle of domestic and foreign life.

Widespread book publishing activity greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil script contributed to the strengthening of the secular language, although the Church Slavonic language was still widely spoken.

At this time, satires, odes, fables, and epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemir (1708 - 1744) were popular. The poet Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky (1703 - 1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification. This gave a powerful impetus to the further development of literature in Russia. The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717 - 1777), poet, author of the first Russian comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables. Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744/45 - 1792) expressed Russian morals and customs in his social comedies "The Brigadier" and "The Minor". He denounced ignorance and tyranny. His comedies marked the beginning of the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature.

Last quarter of the 18th century. became the heyday of the work of the great poet of that time, Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin (1743 - 1816), who asserted the principles of realism in literature. The main genre of his works was ode. In them he gave a broad picture of his contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, satire on nobles. His famous ode “Felitsa” (1782) is imbued with the idea of ​​strong state power. In it he shows the image of an ideal monarch. The author calls on “speaking the truth to kings with a smile.” In his poems, Derzhavin boldly combined “high” and “low” styles and introduced elements of living speech into the Russian language.

Writers of the 18th century in Russia were representatives classic style, which was further developed.

In the Peter the Great era, innovations were introduced into both architecture and construction, determined by the requirements of the government: to express strength, power and grandeur in architectural structures Russian Empire. The government financed large buildings.

With the political and economic development of the country, new demands are placed on civil engineering. The emergence of industrial manufactories, the establishment of the Senate and collegiums required a new type of buildings. Construction in Moscow was distinguished by the diversity of urban buildings. Noble estates, located spaciously and far from each other, were also common.

The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were Khamovny Dvor, Cloth Dvor, and Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge. The Arsenal in the Kremlin, as well as the three-story building of the Main Pharmacy, which initially housed the first Russian university.

A talented Russian architect was Vasily Petrovich Bazhenov (1737/38 - 1799). He built the palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, the Pashkov House (1784 - 1786) in Moscow, and the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797 - 1800) in St. Petersburg. His creations are distinguished by the boldness of their composition, the variety of ideas, and the combination of Western and Russian styles.

The name of Mikhail Fedorovich Kazakov (1738 - 1812) is also glorified. According to his designs, the Senate of the Moscow Kremlin (1776 - 1786), Moscow University (1786 - 1793), the Golitsyn Hospital (now the First City Hospital, 1796 - 1801), the Petrovsky Palace, built in a pseudo-Gothic style (now the Air Force Academy; 1775 - 1782) were built ), the Assembly of the Nobility with the magnificent Hall of Columns (House of Unions). Kazakov supervised the drawing up of a master plan for Moscow and organized an architectural school.

The Peter the Great era is characterized primarily by the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg, for which foreign architects Trezzini and Rastrelli were invited. At the first stage, construction was led by Domenico Trezzini (c. 1670 - 1734), a Swiss who came to Russia in 1703. The new capital was conceived as a regular (planned) city, with long radial avenues, with urban ensembles of blocks and streets, squares, stone houses of uniform height. Trezzini was the author of “standard projects” of residential buildings of three categories: for “eminent” citizens, for “prosperous” and “mean” (i.e. ordinary) people.

Trezzini's public buildings were distinguished by their simplicity of style - the early Admiralty, the building of the Twelve Colleges (now the university, 1722 - 1774). Trezzini's most significant building was the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress (1712 - 1733); it was distinguished by a bell tower with a high, narrow spire.

At the same time as St. Petersburg, country palaces with famous park ensembles were built, as well as Kronstadt and Yekaterinburg. Peterhof was conceived as a country residence of Peter I, which he wanted to liken to Versailles, especially its center with cascading fountains and the sculptural figure of Samson.

The activities of father and son Rastrelli were decisive for the flourishing of the Russian Baroque style. Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli (1675 - 1744), Italian sculptor, from 1716. worked in St. Petersburg. Rastrelli Sr. took part in the decorative design of Peterhof, made a sculptural portrait - a bronze bust of Peter I and the statue "Empress Anna Ioannovna with a Little Arab" (1733 - 1741).

His son Bartolomeo Rastrelli Jr. (1700 - 1771), in Russia his name was Bartholomew Varfolomeevich, was already a Russian architect. The style of its architecture is Russian Baroque, which incorporates both Western and Russian traditions. He is the author of the Smolny Monastery (1748 - 1754) and Winter Palace(1754 - 1762) in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof (1747 - 1752), the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (1752 - 1757) and others. Rastrelli loved scope, splendor, bright colors, used rich sculptural decoration, intricate ornamentation.

In the 60s XVIII century, the style of Russian Baroque was replaced by Russian classicism, which reached its peak in early XIX V. It was especially evident in estate construction, which consisted of cozy and elegant houses with columns that fit well into the Russian landscape.

The main value of classicism is the ensemble, the organization of space - strict symmetry, straight lines, straight rows of columns. A striking example - Palace Square architect K.I. Rossi (1775 - 1849) in St. Petersburg, which is a smooth arc with the closing double arch of the General Staff Building, with a high Alexander Column in the middle of the square and the baroque facade of the Winter Palace.

Architecture and construction of the 18th century. in Russia are experiencing a real heyday, the surviving buildings today are not only an adornment of Russian cities, but masterpieces of world significance.

In the 18th century Fine arts are also undergoing changes - painting, sculpture, etc. This is the heyday portrait painting. The artistic line of Russian portraiture has retained its originality, but at the same time absorbed Western traditions. Most famous artists Peter's time - A. Matveev and I. Nikitin - the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting abroad. Portraits of Andrei Matveev (1701 - 1739) are marked by ease of poses and truthfulness of characteristics. He owns the first in Russian art, “Self-portrait with his wife” (1729). Ivan Nikitin (c. 1690 - 1742) sought in his portraits to convey the characteristic individual features of the model and the expressiveness of the depicted objects. In the portraits “Hetman of the Floor” (1720s) and “Peter I on his Deathbed” (1725), the artist was far ahead of his contemporaries in the depth and form of artistic expression.

The appearance of the portrait in the Peter the Great era was, according to academician I.E. Grabar, “one of the main factors that decided the fate of Russian painting.”

By the end of the 20s. there was a turning point towards the “court” direction in painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century. - A.P. Antropov, F.S. Rokotov, D.T. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, sculptor F.I. Shubin. It was a time of intense personality development, which was reflected in the portrait images of their contemporaries.

Portraits of A.P. Antropov (1716 - 1795) still retained contact with Parsuna. At the same time, they are marked by the truthfulness of the characterization of the human personality. This is the portrait of Peter III (1762).

Subtle in painting and deeply poetic portraits of Fyodor Rokotov (1735 - 1808) are imbued with an awareness of the spiritual and physical beauty of man - “Unknown Woman in a Pink Dress” (1770), portrait of V.E. Novosiltseva (1780).

The largest portrait painter of that time was Dmitry Levitsky (1735 - 1822). He created a magnificent series of ceremonial portraits - from the portrait of Catherine II (1783) to portraits of Moscow merchants. His works combine solemnity with colorful richness. His portraits of women are filled with vitality, especially the “Smolyans” - students of the Smolny Institute.

The work of Vasily Borovikovsky (1757 - 1825) is distinguished by a combination of decorative subtlety and grace with a faithful portrayal of character. He paints a portrait against the backdrop of a soft landscape. His lyrical portrait of the charming young woman M.I. is wonderful. Lopukhina (1797).

Famous sculptor Fyodor Shubin (1740 - 1805), fellow countryman M.V. Lomonosov, Kholmogory peasant. At the age of 19, the talented young man went to St. Petersburg. At first he was a stoker, and then a student at the Academy of Arts, improving his skills abroad. He created a gallery of psychologically expressive sculptural portraits- busts of A.M. Golitsyn (1775), M.R. Panina (1770s), I.G. Orlova (1778), M.V. Lomonosov (1792).

At the end of the 18th century. one of the richest art collections in the world is being created - the Hermitage. It is based on private collections of paintings by Western European masters acquired by Catherine II (since 1764). The Hermitage also hosted performances and musical evenings.

Fine art of the 18th century. made a significant step forward in the development of the secular direction.

In the 18th century The development of the theater continued. By order of Peter! in 1702 the Public Theater was created, designed for a mass audience. A building was built especially for him on Red Square in Moscow - the “Comedial Temple”. The German troupe I.H. gave performances there. Kunsta. Then “Russian guys” were sent to him for training. The repertoire included foreign plays that were not successful with the public, and the theater ceased to exist in 1706, as subsidies from Peter I ceased.

At the beginning of the 18th century. The school theater at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy continued its activities. Performances were staged glorifying the deeds of Peter I.

Petrovsky official theater split into several theaters. Theater troupes continued their activities in capitals and provinces. Since the beginning of the 30s. XVIII century An official theater appeared in St. Petersburg again. In the 40s A school theater arose at the Gentry Cadet Corps. The actors in it were students of the corps. The soul of this theater was A. Sumarokov, who also staged Russian plays there, including his first tragedy “Khorev”.

In the middle of the 18th century. Foreign acting troupes - French, German and others - performed in many cities of the Russian Empire. But among the public there was growing interest in Russian theater, associated with a general rise in national self-awareness. In 1750, performances of the first provincial public theater with Russian actors, artists, and musicians began in Yaroslavl. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fyodor Volkov (1729 - 1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna sent Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to the court, and in 1752 the theater moved to St. Petersburg. On the basis of this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the queen, a theater was created “for the presentation of tragedies and comedies.” Sumarokov became its director, and Fyodor Volkov became its first court actor. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater was created under the name Russian Theater (since 1832 - Alexandrinsky Theater).

In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened in Moscow, where dramatic, opera and ballet performances were staged. There was also a serf theater - noble theaters with a troupe of serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (theatres of the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs, etc.). They arose at the end of the 18th century. The history of Russian theatrical art includes the names of serf actors Praskovya Zhemchugova (1768 - 1803), T.V. Shlykova-Granatova. At first, the famous Russian dramatic actor Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin (1788 - 1863) was also a serf. Serf theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

Theater in Russia in the 18th century. gained enormous popularity, became the property of the broad masses, another publicly accessible sphere of people’s spiritual activity.

In the 18th century The art of music begins to spread widely - amateur music-making, home and public concerts with the participation of Russian and foreign performers. In 1802, the Philharmonic Society was created in St. Petersburg, in which ancient and classical music was performed. In the last third of the 18th century. a Russian school of composition is being formed, the first Russian composers appear - authors of opera, choral, instrumental, chamber music. A major achievement of the Russian musical culture of that time was the musical melodrama “Orpheus” by composer E.I. Fomina (1761 - 1800). He was also the creator of the song opera based on the national Russian plot “Coachmen on a Stand” (1787), the opera “The Americans” (1788) and other works. Opera becomes the leading musical genre.

At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. The genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - Russian romance based on texts from Russian poetry. One of the creators of the Russian romance was O A Kozlovsky (1754 - 1831), who wrote " Russian songs", heroic-patriotic polonaises. One of them, based on the words of G.R. Derzhavin - “Roll the thunder of victory” has long been the Russian national anthem.

Results of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the 18th century. very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all types of art continued, while at the same time strengthening ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence into Russian culture. The strengthening of the power of the Russian state, which became one of the largest states in the world, contributed to the formation of the Russian nation and a single Russian language, which became the greatest cultural wealth of the Russian people. All areas of culture were developed - education, printing, architecture, fine arts. There was a “secularization”, a diversification of culture, which contributed to the emergence of new types of culture - fiction, public theater, secular music. The sphere of spiritual activity of Russian people has expanded significantly.

Development of culture Russia XVIII V. prepared the brilliant flowering of Russian culture in the 19th century, which became an integral part of world culture.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion, the struggle with Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused significant damage to ancient Russian culture. Many monuments of ancient architecture were destroyed, and craft culture practically disappeared. Craftsmen forgot how to make precious jewelry and products from precious metals; the technique of making septum enamel was forgotten. WITH beginning of XIII and until the middle of the 14th century not a single significant stone structure was built. To the detriment of quality, the technology of stone construction has become significantly simplified. Lack of stone buildings in a negative way influenced the development of fresco painting.

Mongolian period in culture (XIV-XV centuries)

Architecture is developing. Its centers become Moscow, Tver, Pskov and Novgorod. They mainly build temples and churches. A special Novgorod style is being formed, based on picturesqueness, festivity and nationality. The best buildings created in this style are the Church of Fyodor Stratelates on Ruchee and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin in Novgorod. The Moscow architectural style began to take shape only in the second quarter of the 15th century, finally taking shape only after liberation from the yoke.

Painting is developing. Icons write. The iconography has a Byzantine style. Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow, Tver, Vologda and Rostov schools of painting were created. In the second half of the 14th century, the icon painter Theophanes the Greek, the author of the fresco painting in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin, came from Byzantium. Outstanding Moscow painters of this time are Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny, who painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in Trinity-Sergievsky Posad and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronnikov Kremlin in Moscow. Andrey Rublev is the author of the Trinity icon. For his work he used biblical motifs, in particular, the myth of the trinity of God. The creation of the “Trinity” had a tremendous impact on the further development of iconography. New icon painters appeared, among them Dionysius. The main theme of Russian iconography of this period is the creation of the image of the Mother of God. There are more than 800 types of icons related to this topic.

Towards the end of the 15th century, new genres appeared in literature, and social thought developed. The Mongol yoke stirred up a rise in patriotic sentiment. Poetic stories are filled with patriotism - “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”. An outstanding thinker of this period is Sergius of Radonezh.

The heyday of the culture of Muscovite Rus' (XVI-XVII centuries)

The formation of Russian national identity occurs during the heyday of the Muscovite kingdom. Liberation from the yoke became the impetus for the formation of an all-Russian culture. At the beginning of the 16th century, printed books appeared. The first printed book “Apostle” was printed by Ivan Fedorov in 1564. In 1574, the first Russian primer was published. During the first century of operation of the book printing press in Russia, up to 20 books, mostly church books, were printed.

The literature of this period raises one of the fundamental questions of the existence of the state - the question of origin, place and role in the world. The famous “Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” tries to explain the origin of the Russian princes from the Roman Emperor Augustus and the receipt by Vladimir Monomakh of the royal regalia from the hands of Emperor Constantine himself. The Pskov elder Philotheus puts forward the idea of ​​Moscow as the third Rome. Philotheus believed that Rome, once the center of the Christian world, had lost its position; Constantinople became the new center, the fall of which allowed Moscow to become the center of all Orthodox Christianity.

In the 16th century, social thought received a new development. Disputes arise over the structure of the state, the status of the church, and the position of individual social strata. A new genre in literature is emerging - journalism. Of particular interest is the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky. Confident in the divine origin of royal power, Ivan the Terrible tries to convince his opponent of the right to judge not only for deeds, but also for thoughts.
The general cultural boom also affected the field of architecture. The most beautiful architectural ensemble This period is the Moscow Kremlin, consisting of three magnificent churches: the five-domed Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479), the three-domed Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489), and the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509).

The architect of the Assumption Cathedral was Aristotle Fioravanti. The building was distinguished by its pomp, severity and restraint of style. The Annunciation Cathedral was distinguished by grace and sophistication, included the Church of the Deposition of the Robe, and was connected to the palace complex, which included the Chamber of Facets, built between 1487 and 1492 by architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario. When creating the Archangel Cathedral, secular elements were used. The building was used as a tomb for the great princes.

The Kremlin was surrounded by brick walls over 2 kilometers long. 18 towers were also built, representing not only defensive fortifications, but also real works of architectural architecture. The tent style is becoming a new trend in architecture, continuing the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. The Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1530-1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral (1555-1561) were built in the tent style.

Western European culture influences Russian painting; artists are giving increasing preference to secular subjects. At the beginning of the 17th century, two schools of painting operated in Russia: Godunov and Stroganov. Representatives of the Godunov school adhered to the traditions of the past, focusing on the Ruble-Dionysian style of painting.

The Stroganov school focused on the creation of icon miniatures with careful fine writing, intricate designs and polychrome coloring, including painting in silver and gold. A prominent representative of the school is Simon Ushakov, one of the painters who took part in the painting of the Armory Chamber.

During this period, fresco painting continued to develop and even the first treatises on painting appeared. Freed from external influence, the culture of the Moscow state entered a new direction. Painters, architects and writers have greater freedom to express creative ideas than ever before.

Basic concepts: military story, “Kulikov cycle”, travel literature, hagiography, Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius, Russian printing, “Apostle”, book miniature, Chetyi-Minea, Domostroy, Stoglav, tent style, “Naryshkin baroque”, secularization, secularization , “Moscow is the third Rome”, parsuna, schismaticism, Old Believers, Josephites, non-acquisitors, rhymed poetry, partes singing, songs of the “Razin cycle”

Russian culture XIV – XV centuries. The culture of Muscovite Rus' corresponds to a historical period from approximately the 14th to the 17th centuries. It is multifaceted and reflects all the complex events that took place at that time on Russian soil.

Under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars, regions of cultural activity are changing. The south (Kyiv and the Dnieper region) gives way to the northeast (North-Eastern Rus' and Moscow), thanks to which Russian culture manages to preserve its originality and fundamental features. The first signs of the beginning of stabilization are found already at the end of the 13th century. A special place here belongs to Novgorod and Pskov, which survived the harsh hard times of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and managed not only to preserve, but also to increase the artistic traditions of Rus'.

By the beginning of the 14th century, Novgorod appeared as a major center of trade and a city of high culture. Novgorod originality is manifested in architecture, works visual arts, epics (tales about the merchant and singer Sadko and the hero Vasily Buslaev), poetic creativity.

I.E. Grabar, emphasizing the originality of Novgorod art, writes: “One glance at the strong, stocky monuments of Veliky Novgorod is enough to understand the ideal of a Novgorodian - a good warrior, not very polished... but on his own mind... In his architecture, people are the same as himself, simple but strong walls, devoid of annoying patterns, which from his point of view are “no use”, powerful silhouettes, energetic masses. The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength. It’s not always neat, but it’s always magnificent, because it’s strong, majestic, and captivating.”

Here were born the epic short story, which, compared to the Kyiv one, contained more everyday touches, as well as Skomoroshina - an epic of a socially accusatory nature with a stamp of rude humor. The creators and performers of epics, as a rule, were buffoons, whose art is associated with the appearance in the city puppet theater. The Petrushka People's Theater, which was popular among the people for several centuries, was founded in Novgorod. Notable is the theatricalization of church rites, which demonstrates the reverse influence of secular art on church art. Performances on religious subjects, staged with scenery, costumes, and rich musical accompaniment, were a vivid spectacle and enjoyed success. According to N.A. Berdyaev, such pagan elements constantly played a significant role in the Russian worldview. He emphasized that “in the Russian element the Dionysian, ecstatic element has always been preserved and continues to this day... The enormous power of Russian choral song and dance is connected with this.”

Znamenny singing (a rich tradition of chanting was formed) and the art of bell ringing, which later became an essential feature of Russian culture, reached the highest perfection in Novgorod. music of the XIX and 20th centuries (the bells were reproduced in the operas “Boris Godunov” by Mussorgsky, “The Woman of Pskov” and “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh” by Rimsky-Korsakov, in the music of Rachmaninov, Shostakovich).

From the middle of the 14th century, a period of cultural upsurge began in Rus', called by academician D.S. Likhachev's Pre-Renaissance, which, however, did not result in the Renaissance as in the West. The full influence of church ideology on spiritual life until the 17th century did not allow our country to follow the Western path of developing humanistic principles. However, one cannot deny the progress towards humanity in Russian Orthodoxy of the 14th century. It was he who played a special role in the formation of the spiritual unity of Rus' under the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The founder and abbot of the Holy Trinity Monastery made a huge contribution to the awakening of national self-awareness and the rise of the people against foreigners Venerable Sergius Radonezh, who became the exponent of the Russian ideal of holiness. Compared to pre-Mongol times, Sergius is a different type of saint, who stood at the origins of the new asceticism of the desert dwellers. He managed to transform his personal aspirations for the unity of the Russian land and the end of unrest into the religious, moral and political ideal of his era. The legislator of the thoughts of the entire people blessed Dmitry Ivanovich for a feat of arms (“Go against the atheists boldly, without hesitation, and you will win”), and sanctified the upcoming rise of soldiers against the oppressors of Rus'. The appearance in the ranks of the Russian militia of two warriors in black schemas (Alexander Peresvet and Andrei Oslyabyu, sent by St. Sergius of Radonezh) made an indelible impression on the people and strengthened their will to victory.

Pointing to the significance of the figure of Rev. Sergius of Radonezh in the rise of patriotism, historian V.O. Klyuchevsky writes: “the people, accustomed to tremble at the mere name of a Tatar, finally gathered their courage, stood up to the enslavers and not only found the courage to stand up, but also went to look for the Tatar hordes in the open steppe and there fell on the enemies like an indestructible wall, burying them under their thousands of bones." After the victory on the Kulikovo Field, another hundred long years had to pass before the complete overthrow of Tatar rule, but the increased sense of one’s own strength, achieved as a result of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, could not be erased. Of course, the true flowering of cultural life began after the Battle of Kulikovo.

The spiritual consolidation of the Russian people was greatly facilitated by the educational activities of monasteries, the buildings of which in themselves, as a rule, are architectural monuments. Unique collections of handwritten and later printed books were kept here, and schools of icon painting developed. For example, at the Joseph-Volotsky (Volokolamsk) monastery, founded in 1479 by the preacher Joseph Volotsky, a school was organized. And such monastic educators as the writer Epiphanius the Wise, St. Theophan the Greek, Rev. (since 1989, St.) Andrei Rublev, monk Daniil Cherny, St. Dionysius Glushitsky made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture.

The history of Russian culture is inseparable from the history of the Russian Orthodox Church. Within it there were two ideological directions that were opposite to each other, but essentially oriented towards a common task - opposition to the secularization policy of the state. The final resolution of this long-term confrontation not in favor of the church, realized as a result of the church reform of Peter I, by and large, means the logical and historical completion of the cultural period under consideration. The main stumbling block between Josephiteism (a movement founded by the Volokolamsk abbot, the writer Joseph Volotsky (1439 - 1515) and non-covetousness (centered in the Volga region and led by Elder Nil of Sorsky (1433 - 1508)) became the sphere of state-church relations. This dispute largely determined not only the nature of the political struggle, but also the ideological and philosophical essence of the artistic culture of Moscow Rus'. It also carried within itself the germ of the resonant concept of “Moscow - the third Rome.”

Postulate of Joseph of Volotsky: “sovereign... the common sovereign of all of us, whom the Lord God Almighty placed in his place and seated on the royal throne, to give justice and mercy to him, both church and monastery and all Orthodox Christianity of all Rus', the land handed over to him the power and care” - largely explains why his opponent lost the argument. In the context of the idea of ​​integrity and unity of Rus', the line of the Josephites turned out to be in practice could not be more appropriate and useful. The strengthening of the Moscow autocracy, according to Joseph Volotsky, should be facilitated by a church that is economically powerful (that is, owning lands inhabited by peasants and using their labor), which was assessed by contemporaries as money-grubbing. The non-acquisitives, essentially doomed from the very beginning to have their movement declared a heresy, preached the principles of conservative humanism and sought to create a church independent of secular power. The political loss could not overshadow the cultural and moral significance of non-covetousness, which promoted the ideals of a “pure” spiritual life, free from worldly passions, aimed not at material wealth and accumulation, but at truth, goodness, human dignity and conscience. These covenants became characteristic features Russian culture.

In the 14th – 15th centuries, the courage and courage of Russian soldiers is glorified in a military story filled with the spirit of patriotism - one of the key literary genres (“The Tale of Batu’s capture of the city of Vladimir”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “ The Legend of the exploits and life of Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky"). The “monuments of the Kulikovo cycle” include the famous “Tales of the Massacre of Mamai”, created in the first quarter of the 15th century, giving a detailed description of the victory of Dmitry Donskoy over Mamai, as well as the poem “Zadonshchina”, written, as is commonly believed, by Sophony Ryazan in 80 - 90 's XIV century. The author of the poem took as a model the ancient monument of Kyiv literature “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” What unites two works, between which two centuries lay, is one ideological meaning - a call for the unification of Russian principalities to save the country from enemies. Adjacent to this cycle is the large chronicle “The Tale of Tokhtamysh’s Invasion of Moscow.”

An amazing literary phenomenon was “Walking Beyond Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, testifying to the interest of Russian people in “thirty-ninth kingdoms, thirtieth states.” The traveler described in detail and colorfully his impressions of distant India in the 15th century 30 years before the path to this country was opened by Vasca de Gama.

The genre of hagiography (hagiography) is becoming widespread. At its origins are Metropolitan Cyprian (“The Life of Metropolitan Peter”), Pachomius Logofet (Pachomius the Serb; “The Life of Cyril of Belozersky”), who influenced the development of the Russian literary language and the spread of Christian ideals. But perhaps the most famous author of the hagiographical genre was the writer-monk Epiphanius the Wise (“The Life of Stephen of Perm”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”). It is characterized by an emotionally expressive style of verbal praise, called “weaving words.” It is the hagiographers who most fully reveal such a feature of the literature of this period as “abstract psychologism: if earlier the subject of description was the actions of the characters, now their psychology is revealed to the reader (but not their character, which will be discussed only in the 17th century); writers expressively, although rather schematically and straightforwardly, sought to show the individuality of a person, his emotional response to events in the outside world.

Already by the 90s of the 14th century, Moscow art possessed all the characteristics of the “grand style”, in which student imitation and provincial limitations remained. Moscow, after many years of rivalry with Novgorod and Tver, is turning not only into the political and spiritual, but also the artistic capital of a large Orthodox state. Its authority is recognized both in the Russian lands and in Constantinople. Contacts with Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia are developing. Major spiritual figures, artists, and craftsmen come.

The activity of Theophanes the Greek (1340 – 1410) had a significant impact on the formation of the capital’s style. The identity of this Byzantine icon painter for ancient Russian art has a huge role. Feofan spent about three decades of his life in Rus', painting churches, decorating manuscripts and creating icons. His pictorial manners fully corresponded to the rise of the people's national self-awareness. The artistic perfection and spiritual depth of the images of this author appeared as an inimitable ideal of creativity. People admired Feofan's education, exceptional talent, and extraordinary creative daring, which served as an example for Russian icon painters. Epiphanius the Wise calls him “an illustrious sage, a cunning philosopher,” with his mind pondering the high and wise, and with reasonable eyes seeing reasonable kindness. The master's influence on church art of the 14th – 15th centuries was very fruitful.

The work of Theophanes the Greek embodies two main lines of Byzantine spiritual life: on the one hand, the classical principle, expressed in the contemplation of the beauty of the created world, and on the other, the aspiration to asceticism, which consists in the renunciation of all perishable material things. The master developed his own style of painting in line with the expressive style of Byzantine painting of the 14th century, characterized by some sketchiness, dynamism and free drawing. Theophan's Byzantine works have not survived; the nature of his writing can be judged based on the works created in Rus'. Only a small part of them has reached us: the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (in Novgorod the Great), the icons of the Transfiguration and the Mother of God of the Don, the icon of the Assumption (on the back of the Don; perhaps not by him); from book miniatures - the initials of the “Gospel of the Cat”. Together with Semyon Cherny and his disciples, Theophan the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399) in the Moscow Kremlin, and together with Prokhor of Gorodets and Andrei Rublev, the Annunciation Cathedral (1405). For the latter, the master and his students also performed the Deesis rite (the second row of the high iconostasis of the temple). This is the first iconostasis in Rus' with figures in full height. In addition to the listed works, there are other miniatures and icons that cannot be confidently attributed to the works of this master. For example, a life-size icon of the apostles Peter and Paul, kept in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as a small icon of the Fourth Day. From miniatures - design of the Psalter of Ivan the Terrible. Research into possible works by Theophanes the Greek is still ongoing.

I experienced the life-giving influence of the icon painter Theophanes the Greek. brilliant Andrey Rublev (c. 1360-1370 – 1427), whose art became the pride of our country. The master highly valued the expression, psychologism, and dynamism of the images of his predecessor, but in his own work he affirmed other, deeply national artistic ideals, combined with the value of spiritual power and greatness of a person. It can be assumed that in early period he studied and worked in Byzantium and Bulgaria. Monk Andrey talked with the best people of their time - military leaders, philosophers, publicists, theologians. The icon painter was well acquainted with Epiphanius the Wise. In spirit, Andrei Rublev is a disciple of Sergius of Radonezh, who throughout his life called for an end to strife in Rus'. The creator’s most famous icon, the “Trinity,” was dedicated to him, reflecting the idea of ​​peace, harmonious harmony, and love for one’s neighbor. To understand its greatest humanistic value, one must pay attention to the historical context of the birth of this work. Reflecting on Rublev's Trinity, the famous theologian P.A. Florensky writes: “Among the turbulent circumstances of the time, among strife, internecine strife, general savagery and Tatar raids, amid this deep peacelessness that corrupted Rus', an endless, imperturbable, indestructible world, the “supreme world” of the heavenly world, opened up to the spiritual gaze. The enmity and hatred reigning in the lower world were contrasted with mutual love, flowing in eternal harmony, in eternal silent conversation, in the eternal unity of the heavenly spheres... this inexpressible facies of mutual inclinations, this supreme peace, wordless silence, this endless submission to each other - we consider creative content Trinity".

The theme of the icon is the Old Testament legend about the hospitality of the forefather Abraham - his reception and treatment of three strangers who came to announce to Abraham and his wife Sarah the birth of their son Isaac. Christians see in this event a meaning drawn back to New Testament history. Wanderers is an indication of the trinity of God, and of the incarnation of God the Son and His atoning sacrifice, and of Christ’s establishment of the Sacrament of Communion. By Rublev’s time, there was a long-standing and completely uniform pictorial tradition of this biblical episode. But Rublev’s icon presented a new image of a familiar plot, which was based on an original iconographic solution - impeccable from the standpoint of theological reading and at the same time, clothed in a perfect artistic form. It does not contain the usual narrative details; the living specifics of the episode give way to the sublime image of the eternal council and the predestination of Christ's sacrifice. The entire field of the middle is occupied by three figures of Angels, calmly sitting around a table with refreshments; their poses, movements, views become the subject of the dramatic action of the icon, the object of contemplation and theological reflection. Never before has the trinity of the Divine, one in nature, but multiple in hypostases, been so convincingly revealed through the means of art. The figures of Angels are equal in scale, but each is perceived as a free person, being in absolute unity with the others. The right hand of the central Angel, traditionally identified with Christ, blesses the cup with the head of a bull standing on the table - an image of the Old Testament sacrifice. The outlines of the bowl are repeated in the form of a seemingly growing space separating the two side Angels: the silhouette of the central Angel is “reflected” in the boundaries of the table, outlined by the lower part of their figures. Subtle drawing, slight flattening of figures, narrowing of spatial plans contribute to the musical rhythm of such relationships. The artist’s brush here is characterized by an antique sense of proportion and proportions. Rublev extremely delicately operates with the categories of space and volume, remaining within the given framework of the iconographic artistic canon. The image of Rublev's Trinity appears as if on the verge of crossing the flow of time human life into eternity and, conversely, timeless existence into historical reality.

The Trinity Icon was recognized as a mandatory model by the decree of the Stoglavy Council in 1551: “An icon painter should paint icons from ancient translations, as Greek icon painters wrote, and as Ondrei Rublev and other notorious icon painters wrote, and sign the Holy Trinity, and do nothing from his own plans.” Today it is kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery, but once a year on Trinity Day it is transferred to the museum’s Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi, where the icon takes part in the festive service and becomes available for worship.

The main works of Andrei Rublev more or less confidently include: the iconostasis and paintings of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the paintings and iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icon “Our Lady of Vladimir” for the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod, the Deesis rite from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery , paintings and iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, paintings of the Spassky Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. Many works were completed jointly with another remarkable artist of the “golden age” of Russian icons, Daniil Cherny (about 1350 – 1428).

The legacy of Andrei Rublev is inseparable from the history of Russian culture. Each of his images turns into an object of philosophical, artistic contemplation; it is a perfect harmony where truth, love and beauty are united. The charm of Rublev’s art is connected, perhaps, not so much with the highest skill, which is beyond doubt, but with the grace and holiness contained in his works.

In the second half of the 15th century, Dionysius (c. 1440 - 1502), the most important artist of this period, became a special successor to the Rublev traditions. Among his grandiose works are frescoes of the Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God in the Ferapontov Monastery, icons for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the icon “Our Lady Hodegetria” for the Ascension Monastery, hagiographic icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexei, paintings of the Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. The spiritual ideals of Dionysius were formed among the scribes and philosophers of that time - Vassian Rylo, Spiridon-Sava, ideological opponents of Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky, which was reflected in his work. The author's works demonstrate an increased interest in the problem of the human personality and its self-construction. If Rublev’s focus was on the innermost life, then Dionysius adds an element of external “improvement” to the idea of ​​a person’s spiritual path through constant improvement, care and education of his soul. His work lacks the sharp drama characteristic of Theophanes the Greek, and there is no philosophical depth of Andrei Rublev here either. A certain deep-seated constraint was set by the desire for ceremonial pomp during the reign of Ivan III, the demand for glorifying the greatness of Moscow statehood. The graceful world of Dionysius is filled with lightness, light, and joyful jubilation. Masters of the talented painter's circle created the icon of the Intercession of the Mother of God from the Suzdal Intercession Monastery, painted the altar barrier and the altar of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, and the Resurrection Cathedral in Volokolamsk. In the next century, his students worthily continued the work of their teacher, however, according to most researchers, the name of Dionysius marks the last era of the heyday of Russian painting.

Ideologeme “Moscow is the third Rome.” At the turn of the 15th – 16th centuries, the process of unification of Russian lands was completed, Muscovite Rus' entered the arena of European political life as a powerful single state. The young autocracy required not only military and political support, but, first of all, spiritual support. Naturally, the country’s culture is entirely subordinated to serving the Russian state. The elder of the Pskov-Pechersk Monastery, Philosophy, managed to clearly and strictly substantiate the idea of ​​autocracy in his “Message to the Astrologers” (around 1524).

However, the first steps towards the birth of his concept, called “Moscow - the third Rome,” so important for understanding the ideology of the Muscovite kingdom, can be detected much earlier. In the 15th century, Moscow chronicles lost their locality and developed the idea of ​​Russian unity. It tended to assign Moscow a central place in history. The formulation of the concept was preceded by the essay of the Moscow Metropolitan Zosima, “Exposition of the Paschal,” in which for the first time Moscow was openly and officially declared the reigning city. In the 10s of the 16th century, the Tver monk Spiridon-Sava compiled the “Message on the Crown of Monomakh,” which affirms the succession of power of the Moscow prince from Augustus Caesar, the Roman emperor. On the basis of the “Message”, in turn, the “Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” was created, containing a number of legends about the origin of the Russian Grand Dukes from Augustus and about the acquisition by Vladimir Monomakh of royal regalia from the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh. It is also known that Philotheus called Moscow the third Rome under the influence of the Bulgarian translation of the Chronicle of Constantine Manasseh, which proclaimed Tarnovo the “new Constantinople”.

It is not unreasonable to consider the cult of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, thanks to which, according to the chronicles, in 1395 Moscow was miraculously saved from the army of the Tatar Khan Tamerlane, as the archetypal source of Philotheus’s doctrine. There is a clear parallel between the cult of the main Constantinople icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria, who guarded the Byzantine capital, and the cult of the Vladimir icon. The latter protects Moscow, and this means that the patronage of the Mother of God has been transferred to the Russian city, thereby it is equal and similar to Constantinople - the second Rome - and has the right to call itself the third Rome.

According to Philotheus, only Moscow retained the true Christian faith; the “first Rome” and the “second Rome” (Constantinople) fell victims to heresies. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) actually coincided with the final overthrow of Tatar rule in Rus' (1480), so both of these events were naturally associated and interpreted as a shift in the center of world holiness. “Two Romes have fallen, a third stands, but a fourth will never happen.”

Researchers Yu.M. Lotman and B.A. Uspensky emphasize the duality of the idea “Moscow is the third Rome”: the symbol of Byzantium splits into two symbolic images– Constantinople was understood as the new Jerusalem (the holy theocratic city) and at the same time as the new Rome, the imperial state capital of the world. Both ideas are embodied in the conceptualization of Moscow as a new Constantinople, on the one hand, and a third Rome, on the other [Ibid]. Thus, Filofey’s concept was intended to form the ideological image of Moscow and justify the government’s actions to create a strong centralized state.

Russian artistic culture of the 16th century. The new political concept was deeply reflected, first of all, in the literature of the 16th century, full of edification and instructiveness. Book culture supporting autocratic power is represented by such works as “Stoglav”, “Great Menaion-Chetii”, “Domostroy”. They contained a program of cultural stabilization that determined order in all areas of life: spiritual, worldly, and domestic.

In each of the twelve volumes of the “Great Menaia-Chetih” (reading by month), written under the leadership of the Novgorod Archbishop Macarius, the lives of saints were collected, whose memory was celebrated in a certain month. The narration is told in the hagiographical genre from the position of the highest spiritual meaning, which instructs the reader to abandon “all worldly concerns” and think “about the eternal.”

Archpriest Sylvester's "Domostroy" contains rules for private life and house construction. This is an ideal model of the Orthodox world in its closest approach to man, his everyday concerns and the little things of life.

"Stoglav" includes the resolutions of the Stoglavy Church Council of 1551 and reflects the clash different views on complex problems church rituals, spiritual life of man and society. The book contains calls from Ivan the Terrible to defend the Christian faith from “godless books”, from “arganists and guselniks”, from “iconists” who write not “from ancient models”, but “with self-reflection”. “Stoglav” consolidates the official ideology and proposes the prohibition of any innovations of a church and cultural nature.

The idea of ​​strong state power is defended by the talented publicist of the first half of the 16th century, I.S. Peresvetov, who wrote “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”, “The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan”, “Predictions of Latin philosophers and doctors about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich”, etc. His formula of royal power is in the expression: “A state without a thunderstorm is like a horse without a bridle.” .

A special paradoxical world is the writings of Ivan the Terrible himself, on the one hand, preaching God’s commandments, and on the other, cursing dissenters to the point of obscenity. Among his literary texts, messages to Prince A.M. stand out. Kurbsky, who fled from Moscow to Livonia. In them, the despot tsar tried to prove the need for unlimited autocratic power for the prosperity of the Moscow state.

Analyzing the cultural mechanism of Ivan the Terrible’s marginal behavior, Yu.M. Lotman shows that main reason The extreme unpredictability of the king is a kind of conscious experiment to implement the theory of permissiveness, the desire to overcome any prohibitions. In the behavior of the king, the scientist points out the following points: a) fulfilling the role of God the Almighty; b) unpredictable transitions of Ivan the Terrible from holiness to sin and vice versa, arising from the limitlessness of his power); c) playing the role of a holy fool, in which the roles of God, the devil and sinful man are combined; d) constant implementation of opposite actions: on the one hand, a limitless ruler, and on the other, a defenseless exile.

In general, according to Yu.M. Lotman, the tsar’s actions were based on tyranny, elevated to a state norm. His behavior was not consistent, but was a series of unpredictable explosions. However, it is precisely the succession of explosions of cruelty and excesses of repentance that allows us to speak of their undoubted orderliness. Perhaps a personality is capable of highlighting significant trends in the development of culture, and in the personality of Ivan the Terrible, different faces of Russian culture, “conscious of itself in the categories of explosion,” are embodied [Ibid., p. 269]. This is the specificity and at the same time the drama of her destinies.

It is almost impossible to prohibit the development of culture in any historical period, however, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral had serious consequences for the art that flourished in the 16th century. As L. Lifshits notes, it turned into regulatory system, where only what is sanctified by tradition and the authority of the church and state is valued. Personal spiritual experience was replaced by a sum of knowledge that accurately determined the meaning of all life phenomena. Problems of the relationship between the individual and God and the world were translated into the relationship between the individual and the state. Even moral norms were now considered from the angle of state benefit. According to the art critic, the poetic intonation of calm contemplation is leaving art.

A major event in the cultural life of the country in the 16th century was the acquaintance of our compatriots with the achievement of European technical thought - book printing, which became a state monopoly. In 1553, the first printing house opened in Moscow. The outstanding educator Ivan Fedorov organized the Printing House 10 years later. High technology The first Russian dated book, “The Apostle,” printed in 1564, differed in design. For unknown reasons, Ivan Fedorov left the Moscow state, but the work was continued by his students (Nikifor Tarasyev, Timofey Nevezha, Andronik Timofeev Nevezha).

The development of metropolitan architecture at the end of the 15th–16th centuries was determined by the close cultural ties of Moscow, the rise of which put an end to the isolation of the principalities. On this basis, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal and Pskov-Novgorod architecture are borrowed. The monumental construction was of national importance for the capital. The Kremlin, the walls of which were re-erected during the reign of Ivan III, became a symbol of its power. Italian engineers Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo and others were invited to rebuild the Kremlin, who managed to preserve the old layout of the walls, making them even more majestic. Under their leadership, the Tainitskaya, Vodovzvodnaya, Spasskaya, and Borovitskaya towers were erected. After the completion of the walls and towers, the Kremlin became one of the best fortresses in all of Europe.

The construction of a new Assumption Cathedral, designed to surpass the Novgorod Sophia in its grandeur and become the main temple of Rus', also corresponded to the idea of ​​statehood of that period. The talented architect Fiorovanti managed to combine in it the beauty of ancient Russian architecture with his Renaissance views. Such features of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral such as the five-domed roof, the roof covering, the arcature belt on the facades, and the perspective portals were repeated in the Moscow one, which nevertheless surpassed its original model in majesty.

After the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, new buildings were built in the Kremlin: the Archangel Cathedral, located on the central square, intended to be a tomb for the Moscow kings (Italian architect Aleviz the New); The Annunciation Cathedral, which serves as the home church of the royal family and grand dukes, is the only one of the main churches of the Moscow Kremlin created by Russian craftsmen.

In the 16th century, the modification of the Pre-Renaissance (as the art critic G.K. Wagner called the monological and edifying artistic culture of Rus' of this period) was expressed in the emergence of new types of temples - tented and pillar-shaped. In architecture, the modification was due to the fact that the language of the Renaissance had to convey rather abstract symbolism coming from Christian antiquity. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye became the first and, perhaps, the most perfect monument of hipped-roof architecture (pillar-shaped structures with a tent-shaped top structure). In the Kolomna temple there is a noticeable break with the Byzantine tradition, an original architectural idea is embodied. It became the emblem of the sacred power of the sovereign, a monumental symbol of the power of the Moscow state. The birth of a new architectural form, different from the usual five-domed structure, was enthusiastically received by contemporaries. Temples appear that imitate the Kolomna Church (for example, the Church of the Resurrection in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna).

Another remarkable architectural monument that reflected the main trends of architecture of the 16th century was the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on the Moat, better known as St. Basil's Cathedral, erected to commemorate the victory over Kazan. Barma and Postnik, the masters who supervised the construction, managed to achieve the unity of elements that were different in style and origin: Russian, Renaissance and Gothic. Its space-plan design combines the forms of the tented Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, the Church of the Resurrection in the Kremlin, built by Petrok Maly, and multi-altar churches such as the Cathedral of the Avraamiev Monastery; in constructive solutions and decor - forms borrowed from structures created by Italians who worked in Moscow, and from the Gothic architecture of their western neighbors.

The erected building became an icon temple, in the appearance of which the ideas of the inseparability of Sacred history and the political history of “Moscow - the Third World” that was being created at that time were reflected. The powerful correlation of the architecture of St. Basil's Cathedral with abstract concepts demonstrates the strengthening of allegorism characteristic of that time. A close analogy of this grandiose temple is the wonderful tented Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Ostrov near Moscow, built around the same time.

The negative aspects of the resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral could not but affect architecture. The requirement for didactic clarity, forcing architects to resort to analogies, leads to a certain weighting of forms and complication compositional principles. The features of aristocracy and grace inherent in the churches of the reign of Vasily III and preserved in the architecture of the thirties of the 16th century are being lost.

Stoglav also prevented the organic development of the Russian school of icon painting. Starting from the middle of the 16th century, the official art of Muscovite Rus' gradually lost its merits. According to M.V. Alpatov, the pattern begins to dominate in it, craftsmanship intensifies. It is not surprising that between the icons of the 15th century and the icons of the 16th century there is as significant a difference as between Greek originals and Roman copies. In the icon painting of the 16th century, the symbolic-allegorical genre with its edification and moralizing was widespread. The compositions of icons could combine abstract religious ideas and concrete images taken from life, which was unacceptable for 15th-century icon painting. The range of scenes depicted includes everyday life with its details. This was especially true for icons painted in honor of new Russian saints. So, the life of St. Sergius of Radonezh was often depicted not according to the canon, but according to the artist’s “self-reflection” (life-size hagiographic icon of Sergius of Radonezh). The icon “Church Militant” (“Blessed is the army of the heavenly king”), exalting the apotheosis of the Moscow army under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible, clearly demonstrates ideological and political motives in 16th-century painting.

Russian culture XIV – XVIIcenturies

Cultural development Ancient Rus', which had accumulated extensive experience in the construction and improvement of cities, creating wonderful architectural monuments, frescoes, mosaics, and icon painting, was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led the state to economic and cultural decline. The revival of Russian culture became possible only at the end XIII - beginning XIV centuries Moscow became the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which gradually turned into the political and cultural center of the Russian lands.

Shaping towards the end XV century, the centralized Russian state put forward the task of widely expanding the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital, Moscow, to build temples and palaces that corresponded to its significance (previously, the Mongols prohibited stone construction, fearing the construction of defensive structures). For this purpose, architects from other Russian cities, as well as Italian architects and engineers were invited to the capital (one of the outstanding Italian architects who worked in Rus' was Aristotle Fioravanti, who built the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin). The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half XV V. expanded to its current size. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, and it itself was surrounded by a wall of white stone (later the white brick was replaced with red).

The new tasks of state building were directly reflected in the literature. Old Russian writing fully recorded the change in popular consciousness, embodied in the desire for national unification. Numerous editions of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo (“The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, “The Tale of Zadonshchina”, etc.) present it as a national feat. In many subsequent literary sources, Prince Dmitry Donskoy appears as national hero, and his heirs, the Moscow princes, as national sovereigns. Ideology did not stand aside either. Its task was to search for new ideological forms of state building.

The definition of the vector of spiritual development became more concrete with the fall of the Byzantine Empire under the onslaught of the Turks. Rus', the most powerful country in the Orthodox world, began to strive for a dominant position among other Orthodox states, turning into an outpost of the true (Orthodox) Church. While the Turks destroyed all the Orthodox monarchies of the East and captured all the patriarchates, Moscow took upon itself the responsibility of preserving and supporting Orthodoxy both at home and throughout the East. The Moscow prince now became the head of the entire Orthodox world (especially after the marriage of Ivan III on the heiress of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus). The Pskov monk (“elder”) Philotheus developed a theoretical justification for such aspirations, expressed in the formula “Moscow is the third Rome”: “as two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, but there will not be a fourth.” This attitude led the Moscow authorities to the decision to make the Moscow principality a “kingdom” through the official adoption by the Grand Duke of the title of “Caesar” - in our interpretation of “tsar”, to accept the coat of arms of the Roman and Byzantine empires (double-headed eagle).

Already in the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. The centers of its new development are Novgorod, Rostov, and Tver. The Novgorod and Pskov schools paid special attention to fresco painting. One of the brightest representatives of this trend was Theophanes the Greek. His images, embodying ascetic religious ideals, are distinguished by psychological tension, his writing technique is characterized by dynamics and originality of techniques, and his coloring is characterized by extreme restraint.

By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries intensifies artistic role Moscow. Feofan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Daniil Cherny worked here. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local craftsmen, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan’s. In 1408, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny completed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened, benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft, harmonious colors of the painting are imbued with a feeling of peace. Rublev had a rare gift for embodying in art the bright sides of a person’s life and mental state. In his works, the internal turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Feofan’s images is replaced by the beauty of mental balance and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, national nature. In the wonderful icon “Trinity”, painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrew the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. In the last third XV V. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, a certain uniformity of techniques increases, the attention of the masters to artistic form, features of festivity and decorativeness. The works of Dionysius are solemn and graceful, but psychologically inferior to Rublev.

The revival of decorative and applied arts proceeded more slowly. This was explained by the fact that many craftsmen were captured and a number of craft skills were lost. But gradually Russian jewelry art is also reviving. Embossing, enamel, painting on ground enamel, casting and other techniques were mainly focused on plant and animal ornaments performed in a patterned oriental style. Excessive enthusiasm for the pomp of ornament, to XVII V. led to a loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns were composed that were previously made of gold. Even in iron products there is a fascination with patterned forms (for example, Andrei Chokhov’s Tsar Cannon). In the monuments of bone and wood carving that have come down to us, plant and animal motifs also predominated. In addition, carvings were often colorfully painted. Sewing also had much in common with painting. IN XVII V. In Rus', golden lace with geometric mesh motifs or with floral elements is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, and colored drilled stones were introduced into the patterns.

The Polish-Swedish intervention began XVII V. delayed the development of art, but by the middle of the century artistic creativity had noticeably revived. During this period, a new genre appeared in Russian art - portraiture. The first portraits were painted in the icon-painting traditions, but gradually Western European painting techniques appeared in them - an accurate depiction of facial features and three-dimensionality of the figure. The expansion of cultural areas associated with the technical achievements of that time was also reflected in such an area as book publishing.

Traditionally, in Rus', books were written by hand. At the same time, the text was decorated with ornaments and covered in a rich (often with gold and precious stones) cover. But beauty did not always compensate for the shortcomings of handwritten books, primarily the length of time it took to write and errors that appeared during repeated rewriting of texts. The Church Council of 1551 was even forced to develop a resolution to prevent the rewriting of books with distorted text. The need to correct and unify church texts not least influenced the opening of the first printing workshop in Moscow. Its founders were Clerk Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. During the 12 years of the printing house’s existence (from 1553 to 1565), it printed 8 large books of not only a religious, but also a secular nature (for example, the Book of Hours, which became the first alphabet).

However, book printing did not receive proper development at that time, like many other areas of art and science characteristic of European culture. The reason for this lies in the desire for a peculiar isolation of Russian culture, especially manifested in XVI century. An explanation for these conservative tendencies should be sought primarily in the history of the formation of the Moscow state, which was continuously subjected to external aggression from both the West and the East. Cultural identity during critical periods of Russian history became almost the only saving and unifying factor. Over time, cultivating your own traditional culture took on exaggerated forms and rather hindered its development, closing the possibility of the achievements of art and science from other countries penetrating into Russia. The obvious lag (primarily in the scientific and technical sphere) was overcome only by Peter I , and in a decisive and ambiguous way.