What are literary devices called? What is the name of a literary device involving a play on words?

Artistic devices in literature and poetry are called tropes. They are present in any work of a poet or prose writer. Without them, the text could not be called artistic. In art, words are an essential element.

Artistic techniques in literature, why are tropes needed?

Fiction is a reflection of reality, passed through the inner world of the author. A poet or prose writer does not simply describe what he sees around him, in himself, in people. He conveys his individual perception. Each writer will describe the same phenomenon, for example, a thunderstorm or tree blossoms in spring, love or grief, in his own way. Artistic techniques help him in this.

Tropes are usually understood as words or phrases that are used figuratively. With their help, the author creates a special atmosphere in his work, vivid images, achieves expressiveness. They stress important details text, helping the reader to pay attention to them. Without this it is impossible to convey ideological meaning works.

Tropes are seemingly ordinary words consisting of letters used in scientific article or just colloquial speech. However, in a work of art they become magical. For example, the word “wooden” becomes not an adjective characterizing the material, but an epithet revealing the image of the character. Otherwise - impenetrable, indifferent, indifferent.

Such a change becomes possible thanks to the author’s ability to select meaningful associations, to find the exact words to convey his thoughts, emotions, and sensations. It takes a special talent to cope with such a task and create a work of art. Just cramming the text with tropes is not enough. It is necessary to be able to use them so that each carries a special meaning and plays a unique and inimitable role in the test.

Artistic techniques in the poem

The use of artistic techniques in poems is especially relevant. After all, a poet, unlike a prose writer, does not have the opportunity to devote, say, entire pages to describing the image of a hero.

Its “spread” is often limited to a few stanzas. At the same time, it is necessary to convey the immensity. In the poem, literally every word is worth its weight in gold. It shouldn't be redundant. The most common poetic devices:

1. Epithets - they can be parts of speech such as adjectives, participles and sometimes phrases consisting of nouns used in a figurative meaning. Examples of such artistic techniques are “golden autumn”, “extinguished feelings”, “king without retinue”, etc. Epithets do not express an objective, but rather an author’s characteristic of something: an object, a character, an action or a phenomenon. Some of them become persistent over time. They are most often found in folklore works. For example, “clear sun”, “red spring”, “good fellow”.

2. A metaphor is a word or phrase whose figurative meaning allows two objects to be compared to each other based on a common feature. Reception is considered a complex trope. Examples include the following constructions: “a mop of hair” (a hidden comparison of a hairstyle with a mop of hay), “a lake of the soul” (a comparison of a person’s soul with a lake based on a common feature - depth).

3. Personification is an artistic technique that allows you to “revive” inanimate objects. In poetry it is used mainly in relation to nature. For example, “the wind speaks with a cloud,” “the sun gives its warmth,” “winter looked at me harshly with its white eyes.”

4. Comparison has much in common with metaphor, but is not stable and hidden. The phrase usually contains the words “as”, “as if”, “like”. For example - “And like the Lord God, I love everyone in the world,” “Her hair is like a cloud.”

5. Hyperbole – artistic exaggeration. Allows you to draw attention to certain features that the author wants to highlight and considers them characteristic of something. And therefore he deliberately exaggerates. For example, “a man of giant stature”, “she cried an ocean of tears.”

6. Litotes is the antonym of hyperbole. Its purpose is to downplay, soften something. For example, “an elephant is the size of a dog,” “our life is just a moment.”

7. Metonymy is a trope that is used to create an image based on one of its characteristics or elements. For example, “hundreds of legs ran along the pavement, and hooves hurried nearby,” “the city smokes under the autumn sky.” Metonymy is considered one of the varieties of metaphor, and, in turn, has its own subtype - synecdoche.

Genres (types) of literature

Ballad

A lyric-epic poetic work with a clearly expressed plot of a historical or everyday nature.

Comedy

Type of dramatic work. Displays everything ugly and absurd, funny and absurd, ridicules the vices of society.

Lyric poem

A type of fiction that emotionally and poetically expresses the author's feelings.

Peculiarities: poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size.

Melodrama

A type of drama in which the characters are sharply divided into positive and negative.

Novella

A narrative prose genre characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, lack of psychologism, and an unexpected ending. Sometimes used as a synonym for story, sometimes called a type of story.

A poetic or musical-poetic work characterized by solemnity and sublimity. Famous odes:

Lomonosov: “Ode on the capture of Khotin, “Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.”

Derzhavin: “Felitsa”, “To Rulers and Judges”, “Nobleman”, “God”, “Vision of Murza”, “On the Death of Prince Meshchersky”, “Waterfall”.

Feature article

The most reliable type of narrative, epic literature, displaying facts from real life.

Song or chant

The most ancient type of lyric poetry. A poem consisting of several verses and a chorus. Songs are divided into folk, heroic, historical, lyrical, etc.

Tale

Between a short story and a novel epic genre, which presents a number of episodes from the life of the hero (heroes). By volume of the story more story and depicts reality more broadly, drawing a chain of episodes that make up a certain period in the life of the main character. It contains more events and characters than a short story. But unlike a novel, a story usually has one storyline.

Poem

A type of lyric epic work, a poetic plot narrative.

Play

The general name for dramatic works (tragedy, comedy, drama, vaudeville). Written by the author for performance on stage.

Story

Small epic genre: a prose work of small volume, which, as a rule, depicts one or more events in the hero’s life. The circle of characters in the story is limited, the action described is short in time. Sometimes a work of this genre may have a narrator. The masters of the story were A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Nabokov, A.P. Platonov, K.G. Paustovsky, O.P. Kazakov, V.M. Shukshin.

Novel

A large epic work that comprehensively depicts the lives of people during a certain period of time or during an entire human life.

Characteristic properties of the novel:

Multilinearity of the plot, covering the fates of a number of characters;

The presence of a system of equivalent characters;

Coverage great circle life phenomena, staging social significant problems;

Significant duration of action.

Examples of novels: “The Idiot” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev.

Tragedy

A type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the main character, often doomed to death.

Epic

The largest genre of epic literature, an extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.

There are:

1. ancient folklore epics of different peoples - works on mythological or historical subjects, telling about the heroic struggle of the people with the forces of nature, foreign invaders, witchcraft forces, etc.

2. a novel (or a series of novels) depicting a large period of historical time or a significant, fateful event in the life of a nation (war, revolution, etc.).

The epic is characterized by:
- wide geographical coverage,
- a reflection of the life and everyday life of all layers of society,
- nationality of content.

Examples of epics: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “The Living and the Dead” by K.M. Simonov, “Doctor Zhivago” by B.L. Pasternak.

Literary movements Classicism Art style and the direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary. Features: 1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. 2. Rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. 3. Classicism is interested only in the eternal, the unchangeable. He discards individual characteristics and traits. 4. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. 5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” and “low” (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The leading genre is tragedy. 6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance, the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions . Classicism originated and received its name in France (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, etc.). After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism went into decline, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art. Romanticism One of the largest movements in European and American literature late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything factual, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic. Main features: 1. Romanticism is the most bright shape protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaicness of bourgeois life. Social and ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great french revolution and the fruits of civilization in general. 2. General pessimistic orientation - ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow”. 3. Absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. At the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality opposed to society, its laws and moral standards. 4. “Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. To the romantic hero subject to spiritual insight and inspiration, thanks to which he penetrates into this ideal world. 5. "Local color." A person who opposes society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature as a setting. Sentimentalism A movement in European and American literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Based on Enlightenment rationalism, he declared that the dominant of “human nature” is not reason, but feeling. He sought the path to an ideal-normative personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. Hence the great democracy of sentimentalism and its discovery of the rich spiritual world of ordinary people. Close to pre-romanticism. Main features: 1. True to the ideal of a normative personality. 2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, he declared feeling, not reason, to be the main thing in human nature. 3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.” 4. Sentimentalism opened up the rich spiritual world of the common people. This is one of his conquests. 5. Unlike romanticism, the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation. Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism: a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed; b) Strong moralizing attitude; c) Educational trends; d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced colloquialisms. The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (a novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motifs predominate. Naturalism Literary direction, which developed in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the USA. Characteristics: 1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate portrayal of reality and human character. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a scientist studies nature. Artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge. 2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the act of cognition carried out in it. 3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that there were no unsuitable subjects or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists. Realism True image real reality. A literary movement that emerged in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and remains one of the main trends in modern world literature. The main features of realism: 1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. 2. Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him. 3. Cognition of reality occurs with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality. Character typification in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” of the specific conditions of the characters’ existence. 4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. Unlike romanticism, the philosophical basis of realism is Gnosticism, the belief in the knowability of the surrounding world. 5. Realistic art there is an inherent desire to consider reality in development. It is capable of detecting and capturing the emergence and development of new social phenomena and relationships, new psychological and social types. Symbolism Literary and artistic movement of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The foundations of the aesthetics of symbolism were formed in the late 70s. gg. 19th century in the works of French poets P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé and others. Symbolism arose at the junction of eras as an expression of the general crisis of Western-type civilization. Provided big influence for all subsequent development of literature and art. Main features: 1. Continuity with romanticism. The theoretical roots of symbolism go back to the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann, to the work of R. Wagner and some ideas of F. Nietzsche. 2. Symbolism was primarily aimed at the artistic symbolization of “things in themselves” and ideas that are beyond sensory perceptions. A poetic symbol was considered as a more effective artistic tool than an image. The symbolists proclaimed an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols and the symbolic discovery of correspondences and analogies. 3. The musical element was declared by the Symbolists to be the basis of life and art. Hence the dominance of the lyrical-poetic principle, the belief in the suprareal or irrational-magical power of poetic speech. 4. Symbolists turn to the ancient and medieval art in search of genealogical relationships. Acmeism A movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, which was formed as the antithesis of symbolism. The Acmeists contrasted the mystical aspirations of symbolism towards the “unknowable” with the “element of nature”, declared a concrete sensory perception of the “material world”, and returned the word to its original, non-symbolic meaning. This literary movement established in theoretical works and the artistic practice of N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatova, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov and other writers and poets. All of them united into the group "Workshop of Poets" (operated from 1911 - 1914, resumed in 1920 - 22). In 1912 - 13 published the magazine "Hyperborea" (editor M.L. Lozinsky). Futurism (Derived from the Latin futurum - future). One of the main avant-garde movements in European art beginning of the 20th century. The greatest development has occurred in Italy and Russia. The general basis of the movement is a spontaneous feeling of the “inevitability of the collapse of old things” (Mayakovsky) and the desire to anticipate and realize through art the coming “world revolution” and the birth of a “new humanity.” Main signs: 1. Gap from traditional culture, an affirmation of the aesthetics of modern urban civilization with its dynamics, impersonality and immorality. 2. The desire to convey the chaotic pulse of a technicalized “intensive life”, an instantaneous change of events and experiences, recorded by the consciousness of the “man of the crowd”. 3. Italian futurists were characterized not only by aesthetic aggression and shocking conservative taste, but also by a general cult of power, an apology for war as “hygiene of the world,” which later led some of them to Mussolini’s camp. Russian Futurism arose independently of Italian and, as an original artistic phenomenon, had little in common with it. The history of Russian futurism consisted of a complex interaction and struggle of four main groups: a) “Gilea” (cubo-futurists) - V.V. Khlebnikov, D.D. and N.D. Burlyuki, V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Mayakovsky, B.K. Lifshits; b) “Association of Ego-Futurists” - I. Severyanin, I. V. Ignatiev, K. K. Olimpov, V. I. Gnedov and others; c) “Mezzanine of Poetry” - Khrisanf, V.G. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev and others; d) “Centrifuge” - S.P. Bobrov, B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev, K.A. Bolshakov and others. Imagism A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the goal of creativity is creating an image. The main expressive means of imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creative practice of Imagists is characterized by shocking and anarchic motives. On style and general behavior Imagism was influenced by Russian futurism. Imagism as a poetic movement arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, who came from Penza, former futurist Vadim Shershenevich, and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets. Imagism virtually collapsed in 1925. In 1924, Sergei Yesenin and Ivan Gruzinov announced the dissolution of the “Order”; other imagists were forced to move away from poetry, turning to prose, drama, and cinema, largely for the sake of making money. Imagism was criticized in the Soviet press. Yesenin, according to the generally accepted version, committed suicide, Nikolai Erdman was repressed

Literary and poetic devices

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.

Examples of allegory:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech area is of great importance.

However, if entire words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary device.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repeating sounds are not concentrated at the beginning and end of the line, but are absolutely derivative, albeit with high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonant sounds are alliterated. The main functions of the literary device of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in humans.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighs, guns neigh."

"About a hundred years
grow
we don't need old age.
Year to year
grow
our vigor.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
land of youth."

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Anaphora

Repeating words, phrases, or combinations of sounds at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

« Not intentionally the winds were blowing,

Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm"

(S. Yesenin).

Black ogling the girl

Black maned horse!

(M. Lermontov)

Quite often anaphora, like literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, increasing the emotional character of words in the text.

For example:

“Cattle die, a friend dies, a man himself dies.”

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

Antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of concepts of opposite meanings used in the text of the poem. Also, opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear first on the day of creation, I swear by it last in the afternoon (M. Lermontov).

Who was nothing, he will become everyone.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when used, the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun to figuratively reveal the character of the character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He is very jealous")

A stingy person is often called Plyushkin, an empty dreamer - Manilov, a man with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary device that consists of repeating vowel sounds in a particular statement. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonant sounds are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives an artistic text, especially poetic text, a special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads,
A little morning the guns lit up
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhyme. For example, “hammer city”, “incomparable princess”.

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I won’t turn into Tolstoy, but into a fat man -
I eat, I write, I’m a fool from the heat.
Who hasn't philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a work of poetry, but, as a rule, authors use it, emphasizing it intonationally. emotional moments in verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader’s attention on the moment that particularly excited him, telling him his experiences and feelings.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, or significance of an object or phenomenon.

Example of a hyperbole:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon; baobabs to the skies (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonation highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different structure: A lonely sail is white in the blue fog of the sea. But this will no longer be Lermontov or his great creation.

Another great Russian poet, Pushkin, considered inversion one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “The old man obedient to Perun alone...”.

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express author's attitude to the characters and to convey their emotional state.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a hint of mockery, sometimes slight mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with opposite meanings so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

A play on words. A witty expression or joke based on the use of words that sound similar but have different meanings or different meanings of one word.

Examples of puns in literature:

A year for three clicks for you on the forehead,
Give me some boiled food spelt.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And previously served me poem,
Broken string, poem.
(D.D.Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that got under way.
(E. Meek)

Litotes

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, or significance of any object or phenomenon.

Example of litotes:

The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in big boots, a short sheepskin coat, and large mittens... and he himself from marigold! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. Metaphor is based on similarity or resemblance.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

Sea problems.

Eyes are burning.

Boiling desire.

Noon was burning.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

All flags will be visiting us.

(here flags replace countries).

I'm three dishes ate.

(here the plate replaces the food).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

A deliberate combination of contradictory concepts.

Look, she it's fun to be sad

Such elegantly naked

(A. Akhmatova)

Personification

Personification is transference human feelings, thoughts and speech on inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a certain living being or is endowed with qualities inherent in living beings.

Impersonation examples:

What, a dense forest,

Got thoughtful,
Sadness dark
Foggy?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Be careful of the wind
From the gate came out,

Knocked through the window,
Ran on the roof...

(M.V.Isakovsky)

Parcellation

Parcellation is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcelation example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes” (Shukshin).

Periphrase

A paraphrase is an expression that conveys the meaning of another expression or word in a descriptive form.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts(instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers(instead of Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically unnecessary words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In May month(suffice it to say: in May).

Local aborigine (suffice it to say: aborigine).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally(suffice it to say: I was there).

In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expression.

For example:

Sadness and melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth depiction of the hero’s mental and emotional experiences.

Refrain

A repeated verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain extends to an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A sentence in the form of a question to which no answer is expected.

Example:

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person or object.

Example:

Rus! where are you going?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties that are most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. In this case, such an analogy is drawn so that the object whose properties are used in comparison is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

then my life sang - howled -

Buzzed - like the autumn surf –

And she cried to herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Symbol

Symbol- an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this way it is close to a metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows one to only guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics; they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - the inner world lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoche:

Native hearth (instead of “home”).

Floats sail (instead of “a sailboat is sailing”).

“...and it was heard until dawn,
how he rejoiced Frenchman..." (Lermontov)

(here “French” instead of “French soldiers”).

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means it does not contain new information.

Examples:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have united as one.

Trope

A trope is an expression or word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a more acute emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of a thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, and the speech that has begun is interrupted in anticipation of the reader’s guess; the speaker seems to announce that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Often the stylistic effect of silence is that unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or amplification) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, reduce the semantic or emotional significance of the conveyed feelings, expressed thoughts or described events.

Example of ascending gradation:

Not I'm sorry Not I'm calling Not I'm crying...

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly misty care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will leave.

(E. Baratynsky)

Example of descending gradation:

He promises him half the world, and France only for himself.

Euphemism

A neutral word or expression that is used in conversation to replace other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in a given case.

Examples:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead, He was kicked out).

Epithet

A figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. An epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

velvet leather, crystal ringing

Epiphora

Repeating the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

Example:

“Scallops, all scallops: a cape from scallops, on the sleeves scallops, Epaulettes from scallops..." (N.V.Gogol).

Poetic meter Poetic meter is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in a foot. A foot is a unit of verse length; repeated combination of stressed and unstressed syllables; a group of syllables, one of which is stressed. Example: A storm covers the sky with darkness 1) Here, after a stressed syllable, one unstressed syllable follows - a total of two syllables. That is, it is a two-syllable meter. A stressed syllable can be followed by two unstressed syllables - then this is a three-syllable meter. 2) There are four groups of stressed-unstressed syllables in the line. That is, it has four feet. MONOSYLLABLE METER Brachycolon is a monocotyledonous poetic meter. In other words, a verse consisting of only stressed syllables. Example of brachycolon: Forehead – Chalk. Bel Coffin. Pop sang. Sheaf of Arrows – Holy Day! Crypt Blind. Shadow - To hell! (V. Khodasevich) BISYLLABLE MEASURES Trochaic A two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. That is, the first, third, fifth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. Main sizes: - 4-foot - 6-foot - 5-foot An example of a tetrameter trochee: A storm covers the sky with darkness ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ /∩́ __ / ∩́ __ Whirling snow whirlwinds; ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩ __ / ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) Iambic A two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. That is, the second, fourth, sixth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. A stressed syllable can be replaced by a pseudo-stressed one (with secondary stress in the word). Then the stressed syllables are separated not by one, but by three unstressed syllables. Main sizes: - 4-foot (lyrics, epic), - 6-foot (poems and dramas of the 18th century), - 5-foot (lyrics and dramas of the 19-20th centuries), - free multi-foot (fable of the 18th-19th centuries ., comedy 19th century) Example of iambic tetrameter: My uncle has the most honest rules, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ When he is seriously ill, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / He Respect forced myself __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ And I couldn’t think of anything better. __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / (A.S. Pushkin) An example of iambic pentameter (with pseudo-stressed syllables, they are highlighted in capital letters): We are the result of the interference of the state of the Gorod, __ ∩ / __ ∩ / __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ But, sowing, we are to look at ... __ __ ∩ / __ ∩ / __ __ __ __ / __ ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) THREE-SYLLABLE METERS Dactyl Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. Main sizes: - 2-foot (in the 18th century) - 4-foot (from the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the 19th century) Example: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers! ∩́ __ __ /∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / The azure steppe, the pearl chain... ∩́ __ __ /∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / (M.Yu .Lermontov) Amphibrachium A three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. Main dimensions: - 4-foot ( early XIX c.) - 3-foot (with mid-19th V.) Example: It is not the wind that rages over the forest, __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / It is not the streams that run from the mountains - __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / Frost-voivode on patrol __ ∩́__ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Walks around his possessions. __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / (N.A.Nekrasov) Anapest A three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the last syllable. Main sizes: - 4-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example of a 3-foot anapest: Oh, spring without end and without edge - __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ Without end and without edge dream! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / I recognize you, life! I accept! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ And I greet you with the ringing of the shield! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / (A. Blok) How to remember the features of two- and three-syllable meters? You can remember using this phrase: Dombai is walking! Lady, lock the gate in the evening! (Dombay is not only a mountain; translated from some Caucasian languages it means “lion”).

Now let's move on to three-syllable feet.

The word LADY is formed from the first letters of the names of three-syllable feet:

D– dactyl

AM– amphibrachium

A– anapest

And in the same order, the following words of the sentence belong to these letters:

You can also imagine it this way:

Plot. Plot elements

Plot A literary work is a logical sequence of actions of the characters.

Plot elements:

exposition, beginning, climax, resolution.

Exposition- introductory, initial part of the plot, preceding the plot. Unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work, but outlines the initial situation (time and place of action, composition, relationships of characters) and prepares the reader’s perception.

The beginning- the event from which the development of action in the work begins. Most often, conflict is outlined in the beginning.

Climax- moment highest voltage plot action in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development. The culmination can be a decisive clash between the heroes, a turning point in their fate, or a situation that reveals their characters as fully as possible and especially clearly reveals a conflict situation.

Denouement – final scene; the position of the characters that has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it.

Elements of Drama

Remarque

An explanation given by the author in a dramatic work, describing how he imagines the appearance, age, behavior, feelings, gestures, intonations of the characters, and the situation on stage. Directions are instructions for the performers and the director staging the play, an explanation for readers.

Replica

An utterance is a phrase a character says in response to the words of another character.

Dialogue

Communication, conversation, statements of two or more characters, whose remarks follow in turn and have the meaning of actions.

Monologue

The speech of the actor, addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, does not depend on their remarks. A way to reveal the character’s state of mind, show his character, and acquaint the viewer with the circumstances of the action that were not embodied on stage.

Related information.

Poetic devices are an important part of a beautiful, rich poem. Poetic techniques significantly help to make the poem interesting and varied. It is very useful to know what poetic techniques the author uses.

Poetic devices

Epithet

An epithet in poetry is usually used to emphasize one of the properties of the described object, process or action.

The term is of Greek origin and literally means “applied.” At its core, an epithet is a definition of an object, action, process, event, etc., expressed in artistic form. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective, but other parts of speech, such as numerals, nouns, and even verbs, can also be used as an adjective. Depending on their location, epithets are divided into prepositional, postpositional and dislocational.

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties that are most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process.

Trails

Literally, the word “trope” means “turnover” translated from Greek language. However, the translation, although it reflects the essence of this term, cannot reveal its meaning even approximately. A trope is an expression or word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a more acute emotional reaction.

Tropes are usually divided into several types depending on the specific semantic connotation on which the word or expression was used in a figurative sense: metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Metaphor

Metaphor is an expressive means, one of the most common tropes, when, based on the similarity of one or another characteristic of two different objects, a property inherent in one object is assigned to another. Most often, when using metaphor, authors, to highlight one or another property of an inanimate object, use words whose direct meaning serves to describe the features of animate objects, and vice versa, revealing the properties of an animate object, they use words whose use is typical for describing inanimate objects.

Personification

Personification is an expressive technique in which the author consistently transfers several signs of animate objects onto an inanimate object. These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a certain living being or is endowed with qualities inherent in living beings.

Metonymy

When using metonymy, the author replaces one concept with another based on the similarity between them. Close in meaning in this case are cause and effect, material and a thing made from it, action and tool. Often the name of its author or the owner's name for ownership is used to identify a work.

Synecdoche

A type of trope, the use of which is associated with changes in quantitative relationships between objects or objects. Yes, it is often used plural instead of the only thing or vice versa, a part instead of the whole. In addition, when using synecdoche, the genus can be designated by the name of the species. This expressive means is less common in poetry than, for example, metaphor.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means in which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun, for example, based on the presence of a special strong trait character of the given character.

Irony

Gain or Gradation

When using this expressive means, the author places theses, arguments, thoughts, etc. as their importance or persuasiveness increases. Such a consistent presentation makes it possible to greatly increase the significance of the thought expressed by the poet.

Contrast or antithesis

Contrast is an expressive means that makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of concepts of opposite meaning used in the text of the poem. Also, opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Default

By default, the author intentionally or involuntarily omits some concepts, and sometimes entire phrases and sentences. In this case, the presentation of thoughts in the text turns out to be somewhat confusing and less consistent, which only emphasizes the special emotionality of the text.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a work of poetry, but, as a rule, authors use it to intonationally highlight particularly emotional moments in the verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader’s attention on the moment that particularly excited him, telling him his experiences and feelings.

Inversion

To make the language of a literary work more expressive, special means of poetic syntax, called figures of poetic speech, are used. In addition to repetition, anaphora, epiphora, antithesis, rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal, inversion (Latin inversio - rearrangement) is quite common in prose and especially in versification.

The use of this stylistic device is based on the unusual order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase a more expressive connotation. The traditional construction of a sentence requires the following sequence: subject, predicate and attribute standing before the designated word: “The wind drives the gray clouds.” However this order The use of words is characteristic, to a greater extent, of prose texts, and in poetic works there is often a need for intonational emphasis on a word.

Classic examples of inversion can be found in Lermontov’s poetry: “A lonely sail turns white / In the fog of the blue sea...”. Another great Russian poet, Pushkin, considered inversion one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “The old man obedient to Perun alone...”.

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author’s attitude towards the characters and to convey their emotional state.

Alliteration

Alliteration refers to a special literary device consisting of the repetition of one or a series of sounds. In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech area is of great importance. For example, “Where the grove neighs the guns neigh.” However, if entire words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, there is no question of alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary device. Usually the technique of alliteration is used in poetry, but in some cases alliteration can also be found in prose. So, for example, V. Nabokov very often uses the technique of alliteration in his works.

The main functions of the literary device of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in humans.

Assonance

Assonance is understood as a special literary device consisting in the repetition of vowel sounds in a particular statement. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonant sounds are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance. Firstly, assonance is used as an original tool that gives an artistic text, especially poetic text, a special flavor.

For example,
“Our ears are on top of our heads,
A little morning the guns lit up
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there." (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Secondly, assonance is quite widely used to create imprecise rhyme. For example, “hammer city”, “incomparable princess”.

In the Middle Ages, assonance was one of the most commonly used methods of rhyming poetry. However, both in modern poetry and in the poetry of the past century one can quite easily find many examples of the use of the literary device of assonance. One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

“I won’t turn into Tolstoy, but into the fat one -
I eat, I write, I’m a fool from the heat.
Who hasn't philosophized over the sea?
Water."

Anaphora

Anaphora is traditionally understood as a literary device such as unity of command. In this case, most often we are talking about repetition at the beginning of a sentence, line or paragraph of words and phrases. For example, “The winds did not blow in vain, the storm did not come in vain.” In addition, with the help of anaphora one can express the identity of certain objects or the presence of certain objects and different or identical properties. For example, “I’m going to the hotel, I hear a conversation there.” Thus, we see that anaphora in the Russian language is one of the main literary devices that serve to connect the text. The following types of anaphora are distinguished: sound anaphora, morpheme anaphora, lexical anaphora, syntactic anaphora, strophic anaphora, rhyme anaphora and strophic-syntactic anaphora. Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, increasing the emotional character of words in the text.

For example, “Cattle die, a friend dies, a man himself dies.”

TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially

V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith others artistic means(metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.

LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger”, “a hut on chicken legs”, “a little man as big as a finger”.
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.

N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “ bad character", "heart of stone"...). In metaphor, as opposed to

comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

By you into the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

A. Blok

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“ nerves of steel"), distractions ("field of activity"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, widespread in artistic creativity have metaphorical images or expanded metaphors:

Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;

The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a bountiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...

A. Pushkin

When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...

A. Pushkin

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).

My bells

Steppe flowers!

Why are you looking at me?

Dark blue?

And what are you calling about?

On a merry day in May,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!

3) The singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

A. Blok

5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:

We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON – a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds;

The way the beast will howl,

Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - internal state character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.

A. Pushkin

She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Moroz - commander of the patrol

Walks around his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in cultural traditions tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,

Spewing wild curses on the way.

And I see: half the people are sitting.

Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with your free speech

All those who have their mouths covered.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

An endless and endless dream!

A. Blok

ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

You're miserable too

You are also abundant

You're downtrodden

You are omnipotent

Mother Rus'!…

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.

...When suddenly he came out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth at them...

A.N. Krylov

Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,

Human rumor and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least another quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.

A. Blok

MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure isnon-union

Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...

M. Lermontov

And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualism) - a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped into known order- increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION(Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.

Legends of deep antiquity

A.S. Pushkin

He passes the doorman with an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

The waves splash in the blue sea.

IN blue sky the stars are shining.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art(epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly clouds are eternal wanderers.”

Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.

PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”

N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

They shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the tension of the action:

We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.

What can you wish for a person who wants to engage in literary work? Firstly, inspiration and dreams. Without this, any creativity is unthinkable. This is the only way craft becomes art! However, in order for a person to start writing, he should a priori read a lot. Initial techniques literary reading are still being studied in high school. It is important to understand the actual content of the work, its main ideas, motives and feelings that drive the characters. Based on this, a holistic analysis is carried out. In addition, your own life experience plays a significant role.

The role of literary devices

To the Adept literary activity You should carefully and moderately use standard techniques (epithets, comparisons, metaphors, irony, allusions, puns, etc.). The secret that is somehow rarely shared is that they are secondary. Indeed, mastering the ability to write works of fiction is often interpreted by criticism as the ability to use certain literary techniques.

What will awareness and understanding of their essence give to a composing and writing person? Let us answer figuratively: approximately the same as what fins will give to someone who is trying to swim. If a person does not know how to swim, fins are useless to him. That is, stylistic linguistic tricks cannot serve as an end in themselves for the author. It is not enough to know what literary devices are called. You must be able to captivate people with your thoughts and imagination.

Metaphors

Let's define the main literary devices. Metaphors represent appropriate creative replacement of the properties of one subject or object with the properties of another. This trope achieves an unusual and fresh look at the details and episodes of the work. An example is the well-known metaphors of Pushkin (“fountain of love”, “along the mirror of rivers”) and Lermontov (“the sea of life”, “splashing tears”).

Indeed, poetry is the most creative path for lyrical natures. Perhaps this is why the literary devices in the poem are most noticeable. It is no coincidence that some artistic prose works called prose in verse. This is what Turgenev and Gogol wrote.

Epithets and comparisons

What are literary devices such as epithets? The writer V. Soloukhin called them “clothing of words.” If we talk about the essence of the epithet very briefly, it is the very word that characterizes the essence of an object or phenomenon. Let us give examples: “stately birch”, “golden hands”, “quick thoughts”.

Comparison as an artistic technique allows us to compare social actions with natural phenomena to increase expressiveness. It can be easily noticed in the text by the characteristic words “as”, “as if”, “as if”. Often comparison acts as a deep creative reflection. Let us remember the quote from the famous poet and publicist of the 19th century Pyotr Vyazemsky: “Our life in old age is like a worn-out robe: it’s both a shame to wear it and a pity to leave it.”

Pun

What is the name of the literary device that uses wordplay? It's about on the use of homonyms and polysemantic words in works of art. This is how jokes that are well known to everyone and loved by all people are created. Such words are often used by classics: A.P. Chekhov, Omar Khayyam, V. Mayakovsky. As an example, here is a quote from Andrei Knyshev: “Everything in the house was stolen, and even the air was somehow stale.” Isn't that a witty saying?

However, those who are interested in the name of the literary device with a play on words should not think that a pun is always comical. Let us illustrate this with the well-known thought of N. Glazkov: “Criminals are also attracted to good, but, unfortunately, to someone else’s.”

However, we admit that there are still more anecdotal situations. Another pun immediately comes to mind - the comparison of a criminal with a flower (the first is first grown and then planted, and the second - vice versa).

Be that as it may, the literary device of word play came from common speech. It is no coincidence that the Odessa humor of Mikhail Zhvanetsky is rich in puns. Isn’t it a wonderful phrase from the maestro of humor: “The car was collected... in a bag.”

Able to make puns. Go for it!

If you really have a bright sense of humor, then the literary device of wordplay is your know-how. Work on quality and originality! A master of creating unique puns is always in demand.

In this article we limited ourselves to the interpretation of only some of the tools of writers. In fact, there are many more of them. For example, a technique such as metaphor contains personification, metonymy (“he ate three plates”).

Literary device parabola

Writers and poets often use tools that sometimes have simply paradoxical names. For example, one of the literary devices is called “parabola”. But literature is not Euclidean geometry. The ancient Greek mathematician, the creator of two-dimensional geometry, would probably have been surprised to learn that the name of one of the curves also found literary application! Why does this phenomenon occur? The reason is probably the properties of the parabolic function. The array of its meanings, coming from infinity to the starting point and going to infinity, is similar to the figure of speech of the same name. That's why one of the literary devices is called "parabola".

This genre form is used for the specific organization of the entire narrative. Let's remember Hemingway's famous story. It is written according to laws similar to the geometric figure of the same name. The narrative begins as if from afar - with a description of the difficult life of fishermen, then the author tells us the very essence - the greatness and invincibility of the spirit specific person- the Cuban fisherman Santiago, and then the story again goes into infinity, acquiring the pathos of a legend. In a similar way, Kobo Abe wrote the parable novel “The Woman in the Sand,” and Gabriel García Márquez wrote “One Hundred Years of Solitude.”

It is obvious that the literary device of the parabola is more global than those previously described by us. To notice its use by a writer, it is not enough to read a certain paragraph or chapter. To do this, you should not only read the entire work, but also evaluate it from the point of view of the development of the plot, the images revealed by the author, and general issues. It is these methods of analyzing a literary work that will allow, in particular, to determine the fact of the writer’s use of a parabola.

Creativity and artistic techniques

When is it useless for a person to undertake literary work? The answer is extremely specific: when he does not know how to express a thought in an interesting way. You shouldn’t start writing armed with knowledge if others don’t listen to your stories, if you don’t have inspiration. Even if you use spectacular literary devices, they will not help you.

Let's say an interesting topic is found, there are characters, there is an exciting (in the subjective opinion of the author) plot... Even in such a situation, we recommend taking a simple test. You must arrange it for yourself. See if you can interest a well-known person whose interests you perfectly represent with the idea of your work. After all, types of people repeat themselves. Once you get one person interested, you can get tens of thousands interested...

About creativity and composition

The author, of course, should stop and not continue writing if he subconsciously associates himself in relation to the readers with either a shepherd, or a manipulator, or a political strategist. You cannot humiliate your audience with subconscious superiority. Readers will notice this, and the author will not be forgiven for such “creativity”.

Talk to the audience simply and evenly, as equals to equals. You must interest the reader with every sentence, every paragraph. It is important that the text is exciting, carrying ideas that interest people.

But this is not enough for a person who wants to study literature. It's one thing to tell, another to write. Literary techniques require the author’s ability to build a composition. To do this, he should seriously practice composing a literary text and combining its three main elements: description, dialogue and action. The dynamics of the plot depend on their relationship. And this is very important.

Description

The description carries the function of linking the plot to a specific place, time, season, or set of characters. It is functionally similar to a theater set. Of course, the author initially, even at the conception stage, presents the circumstances of the story in sufficient detail, but they should be presented to the reader gradually, artistically, optimizing the literary techniques used. For example, artistic characterization The author usually gives the character of the work in separate strokes, strokes, presented in various episodes. In this case, epithets, metaphors, and comparisons are used in doses.

After all, in life, too, attention is first paid to striking features (height, build), and only then are eye color, nose shape, etc. considered.

Dialogue

Dialogue is a good way to display the psychotype of the characters in a work. The reader often sees in them a secondary description of personality, character, social status, an assessment of the actions of one character, reflected by the consciousness of another hero of the same work. Thus, the reader gets the opportunity to both in-depth perception of the character (in the narrow sense) and understanding the peculiarities of society in the work created by the writer (in the broad sense). The author's literary techniques in dialogues are top notch. It is in them (an example of this is the work of Viktor Pelevin) that the most striking artistic discoveries and generalizations are obtained.

However, dialogue should be used with double caution. After all, if you overdo it, the work becomes unnatural and the plot becomes rough. Do not forget that the main function of dialogues is communication between the characters in the work.

Action

Action is an essential element for literary narratives. It acts as a powerful authorial element of the plot. In this case, action is not only the physical movement of objects and characters, but also any dynamics of the conflict, for example, when describing a trial.

A warning for beginners: without a clear idea of how to present the action to the reader, you should not start creating a work.

What literary devices are used to describe action? It's best when there are none at all. The action scene in a work, even a fantastic one, is the most consistent, logical, and tangible. It is thanks to this that the reader gets the impression of the documentary nature of the artistically described events. Only real masters of the pen can allow the use of literary techniques in describing the action (let us recall from Sholokhov’s “Quiet Flows the Flow” the scene of the appearance of a dazzling black sun before the eyes of Grigory Melekhov, shocked by the death of his beloved).

Literary reception of the classics

As the author’s skill increases, his own image appears behind the lines more and more voluminously and prominently, and literary artistic techniques become more and more refined. Even if the author does not write about himself directly, the reader feels him and unmistakably says: “This is Pasternak!” or “This is Dostoevsky!” What's the secret here?

When starting to create, the writer places his image into the work gradually, carefully, in the background. Over time, his pen becomes more skillful. And the author inevitably goes through a creative path in his works from his imagined self to his real self. They are beginning to recognize him by his style. It is this metamorphosis that is the main literary device in the work of every writer and poet.